The Earliest Vinaya And The Beginnings Of Buddhist Literature

• The Skandhaka sections of the Vinayas from six major schools (Sarvāstivādin, Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, Pāli, Mūlasarvāstivādin, and Mahāsāṃghika) all derive from a single literary work created in the first half of the 4th century BCE.

• This foundational text, which predates the Aśokan missions, was a comprehensive narrative that embedded monastic rules within a biography of the Buddha.

• The promulgation of rules was framed as the Buddha’s response to specific events throughout his life.

• The author drew upon earlier traditions, including existing rules, Prātimokṣa commentaries, and Sūtra texts, adapting them into the biographical structure.

• Accounts of the first councils and a list of teachers were added to give the text Vedic-style authority.

• This implies that many later biographies of the Buddha and early church histories are not direct historical records but are based on this 4th-century BCE literary creation, making much of the accepted tradition a later, legendary construction.

• This work by E. Frauwallner is the outcome of a study of Buddhist Vinaya texts and outlines more problems than it solves.

• The author believes the results provide a basis for addressing central problems of the earliest Buddhist literature.

• A key finding is the determination of a Vinaya text belonging to the first half of the 4th century B.C.

• The study also clarifies an essential point in the development of the Buddha’s biography and provides a starting point for a critique of Buddhist church history.

• The book is dedicated to the memory of Sylvain Lévi, whose work was a major inspiration to the author.

1. - The schools of Buddhism and the missions of Aśoka.

• The Vinaya (monastic rules) texts are crucial for studying early Buddhism, with the Vinayas of six schools being preserved: Sarvāstivādin, Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, Pāli, Mūlasarvāstivādin, and Mahāsāṃghika.
• A close relationship exists in the Skandhaka (a section of the Vinaya) of four of these schools: Sarvāstivādin, Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, and the Pāli school, suggesting they derive from a common original text.
• The text argues that the spread of the Vinaya is linked to the founding of new monastic communities, particularly through missions, rather than to the formation of dogmatic schools.
• The schools with the closely related Vinayas (Sarvāstivādin, Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, Pāli, plus Haimavata and Kāśyapīya) form a distinct group of well-individualised schools, unlike the Mahāsāṃghika and Vātsīputrīya groups.
• The origin of these distinct communities is traced back to the great missionary enterprise during the reign of Emperor Aśoka (c. 250 B.C.).
• Evidence for these missions comes from Singhalese chronicles, Aśoka’s own rock edicts, and archaeological discoveries of missionaries’ relics near Vidiśā, which was likely the starting point for the missions.
• The text connects specific schools to Aśoka’s missions:
  • Sarvāstivādin: Mission to Gandhāra and Kaśmīra.
  • Haimavata & Kāśyapīya: Mission to the Himālaya region.
  • Dharmaguptaka: Mission to Aparantaka (Western India).
  • Mahīśāsaka: Mission to the Mahisa country.
  • Pāli school: Mission to Ceylon (Laṅkā).
• The conclusion is that the shared Vinaya of these schools is the one that was current in Vidiśā around 250 B.C. and was carried by Aśoka’s missionaries to the new communities they founded.

2. - Sarvāstivādin and Mūlasarvāstivādin.

• The Vinaya of the Mūlasarvāstivādin, despite being filled with extensive legends and Jātaka tales, shares the same fundamental structure and rules as the Vinayas of the Sarvāstivādin, Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, and Pāli schools.
• The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa describes two Vinayas: the “Vinaya of Mathurā,” which includes fables, and the “Vinaya of Kaśmīr,” which omits them. This corresponds to the Mūlasarvāstivādin and Sarvāstivādin Vinayas, respectively.
• Passages in the Mūlasarvāstivādin Vinaya that connect it to Kaśmīr, such as the conversion of Kaśmīr by Madhyāntika and the Buddha’s journey to the North-West, are argued to be late interpolations.
• When these interpolations are removed, the core of the Mūlasarvāstivādin Vinaya points to Mathurā as its origin, focusing on local saints like Śānavāsa and Upagupta.
• The Sarvāstivādin are identified as the community of Kaśmīr and Gandhāra, originating from Aśoka’s missions, while the Mūlasarvāstivādin are the older, independent community of Mathurā.
• These two originally separate communities later adopted the same philosophical-dogmatic Sarvāstivāda school, which developed primarily in Kaśmīr.
• The deep structural similarities between the Vinayas of these distinct communities suggest they both derive from a common, widely diffused Vinaya that predates the time of Aśoka.

3. - The origin of the Skandhaka.

• The account of the Buddha’s death (Mahāparinirvānasūtra) and the accounts of the first two Buddhist councils originally formed a single, continuous narrative.
• Evidence from various Vinaya traditions shows that this narrative was a fixed component of the early Vinaya, typically placed at the end of the Skandhaka section.
• Similarly, a portion of the Buddha’s biography, from his birth to the beginning of his teaching, originally stood at the beginning of the Skandhaka.
• Over time, these biographical sections at the beginning and end of the Skandhaka “crumbled away” from the Vinaya in some schools, becoming independent texts like the Mahāvastu or separate Sūtras in the Sūtrapiṭaka.
• The original Skandhaka was a consciously created, unified work framed by the Buddha’s life story, presenting monastic rules within a historical narrative of when and why the Buddha established them.
• The inclusion of a list of teachers or patriarchs after the account of the first council was likely influenced by Vedic literary models, aiming to establish an authoritative line of transmission for the teachings.
• The legend of the first council was likely invented to create a single, authoritative collection of the Buddha’s words, which could then be authenticated by this list of teachers.
• The account of the second council of Vaiśālī, however, is likely based on a real historical event and was added as an appendix to address an important dispute over monastic rules.
• The presence of the Vaiśālī council account in all versions helps date the composition of the original Skandhaka work to around 100 years after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa, in the first half of the 4th century B.C.

4. - Structure and contents of the old Skandhaka text.

• The old Skandhaka text is identified as Buddhist literature from the first half of the 4th century B.C.
• This analysis provides an outline of the work’s contents in its hypothetical original sequence.
• The sequence of the first half of the work is considered certain, with more variation towards the end.
• Inserted legends are mostly consistent across different versions of the text.

The old Skandhaka text. - Introduction: The life career of the Buddha.

• Covers the Buddha’s genealogy (Rājavaṃśa).
• Details the Buddha’s birth and life up to his Illumination.
• Describes events from the Illumination to the conversion of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana.

1. - Pravrajyāvastu.

• This chapter covers the fundamental institutions of the Buddhist order: admission, monthly confession, the rainy season retreat, and the Pravāraṇā ceremony.
• It details rules for admission (pravrajyā) and ordination (upasampadā), including the subordination of young monks to a master (upādhyāya) or teacher (ācārya).
• It establishes the minimum age for ordination as 20 years and for novices as 15 (or 12) years.
• Admission to the order is forbidden for numerous groups, including the sick, servants of the king, slaves, debtors, robbers, murderers, non-human beings, eunuchs, and cripples.
• The procedure for ordination is regulated, requiring at least ten monks and a formal proposal and interrogation (jñapticaturtham karma).

2. - Poṣadhavastu.

• This chapter details the introduction and rules for the monthly confession ceremonies (Poṣadha).
• The Buddha prescribes that the community assemble on the 14th or 15th day of every fortnight to recite the confession formula (prātimokṣa).
• Rules are established for the ceremony’s location, the determination of common dwelling zones, and procedures for monks unable to attend.
• It provides detailed instructions for various scenarios, such as the arrival of other monks during the ceremony or interruptions by laymen or robbers.

3. - Varṣāvastu.

• This chapter contains the rules for the monks’ three-month residence during the rainy season.
• The Buddha orders monks to remain in one place during the rains to avoid harming animal life.
• It provides regulations for choosing a suitable place for the retreat.
• It specifies the conditions under which a monk may temporarily leave the residence (for up to 7 days) or abandon it permanently.

4. - Pravāraṇāvastu.

• This chapter concerns the Pravāraṇā ceremony, which concludes the rainy season retreat.
• The ceremony was established to prevent discord, with each monk inviting others to reproach him for any faults.
• It provides precise rules for conducting the ceremony, including timing, posture, and procedures for sick monks.
• Detailed rules govern how to handle objections raised against a monk, including examining the accuser’s own conduct and the validity of the reasons.

5. - Carmavastu.

• This chapter deals with the daily needs of monks, specifically the use of shoes and leather.
• It contains the legend of Śrona Koṭiviṃśa, which leads to the Buddha permitting monks to wear simple shoes.
• It includes a long series of regulations on the type of footwear allowed, prohibiting ornate or fine leather shoes.
• The legend of Śrona Koṭikarṇa is included, which results in the Buddha granting relaxations of rules (including ordination requirements) for remote regions like Avanti.

6. - Bhaiṣajyavastu.

• This chapter details the rules on food and permitted drugs for monks.
• The Buddha grants permission for medicinal drugs like clarified butter, oil, honey, and molasses, which can be consumed outside of regular meal times.
• It contains numerous stories and rules regarding remedies for various illnesses, the use of meat, and a prohibition on monks cooking their own food.
• Severe food regulations are relaxed during times of need, allowing for the storage and personal cooking of foodstuffs.
• Several legends are included, such as that of the lay devotee Mahāsenā (Suppiyā) and the general Simpha (Siho), which lead to specific rules about accepting meat.

7. - Civaravastu.

• This chapter contains the rules on the clothes of the monks.
• The general rule is that monks should wear robes made from discarded rags, though robes from laymen are permitted following the legend of the physician Jivaka.
• The monastic robe must be cut into pieces and sewn together, resembling the pattern of the fields of Magadha.
• Monks are prescribed to have only three robes.
• It includes detailed rules for the distribution of clothes given to the community and for the division of a deceased monk’s heritage.

8. - Kaṭhinavastu.

• This short chapter deals with the Kaṭhina procedure: the manufacture and distribution of monastic robes at the end of the rainy season.
• The procedure was introduced for monks whose clothes were in poor condition after the retreat.
• During the procedure, monks are granted certain privileges and relaxations of normal rules.
• The text describes the process of announcing, manufacturing, and distributing the robes, and lists cases in which a monk’s claim to a robe is forfeited.

9. - Kośāmbakavastu.

• This chapter describes a dispute that arose among monks in Kauśâmbî following the exclusion of a monk.
• The Buddha’s attempts to mediate fail, and he leaves for Srâvastî, narrating the story of Dîrghila.
• The quarrelling monks follow him, and the Buddha instructs the community on how to behave towards them.
• The dispute is resolved when the excluded monk confesses his fault, his exclusion is withdrawn, and concord is re-established.

10. - Karmavastu.

• This chapter treats the general principles for the community’s various legal proceedings (karma).
• It defines four types of assemblies (consisting of 4, 5, 10, and 20 or more monks) and their specific competencies.
• It distinguishes between valid and invalid proceedings based on whether the community is complete and acts according to the rules.
• The text explains how these proceedings are to be used against monks who are quarrelsome, foolish, or guilty of offences they refuse to acknowledge.

11. - Pāndulohitakavastu.

• This chapter deals with five important disciplinary proceedings of the community.
• The tarjanīya karma (censure) is for quarrelsome monks like Pānduka and Lohitaka.
• The nigarhanīya karma (subordination) is for foolish monks like Sreyaka.
• The pravāsanīya karma (banishment) is for monks with scandalous lives like Aśvaka and Punarvasuka.
• The pratisaṃharanīya karma (reconciliation) compels a monk like Uttara to make amends to a layman he insulted.
• The utksepanīya karma (suspension) is for monks like Chanda who refuse to acknowledge an offence, or Ariṣta who holds heretical views.

12. - Pudgalavastu.

• This chapter discusses the ordinary proceedings for simple offences, specifically the Saṃghāvaśeṣa offence.
• The punishment is a six-day mānāpya (mānatta).
• If the monk concealed the offence, a probation period (parivāsa) of corresponding length must be served beforehand.
• The text considers various complications, such as committing further offences during the punishment period.

13. - Pārivāsikavastu.

• This chapter details the required behaviour for monks during the probation period (parivāsa) and the mānāpya punishment.
• Monks undergoing punishment are excluded from certain community actions and are considered junior to blameless monks.
• They must regularly notify other monks of their status and the duration of their punishment.

14. - Poṣadhasthāpanavastu.

• This chapter deals with objecting to a monk’s participation in the Poṣadha (confession) ceremony.
• It is introduced by a story of the Buddha refusing to recite the Prātimokṣa due to the presence of an unworthy monk.
• The Buddha prescribes that a monk guilty of an offence should not be allowed to participate, and an objection (sthāpana) should be raised if they attempt to.
• It provides detailed rules on when an objection is lawful or unlawful.

15. - Śamathavastu.

• This chapter describes the various procedures for conciliating disputes between monks.
• It details the introduction of seven conciliation procedures, including decision in the presence of the accused (sammukhâvinayo), decision by majority (yebhuyyasikā), and the “covering with grass” procedure (tinavatthārako).
• It discusses the four root causes of disputes: discussions, reproaches, offences, and community life.

16. - Samghabhedavastu.

• This chapter concerns splits in the community and is introduced by the detailed legend of Devadatta.
• Devadatta gains miraculous powers, attempts to take over the community, and plots against the Buddha.
• He eventually causes a split by proposing five stricter rules and founding a separate community with 500 monks.
• Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana lead the 500 monks back, and Devadatta dies.
• The chapter concludes with a general discussion on the nature of a community split and its consequences.

17. - Śayanāsanavastu.

• This chapter contains rules concerning dwelling huts and furniture for the community.
• It includes the legend of the merchant Anāthapiṇḍada donating the Jetavana monastery to the community.
• It establishes rules of seniority for assigning rooms and prescribes the appointment of monks to offices such as allocator of dwellings and superintendent of building (navakarmika).

18. - Ācāravastu.

• This chapter contains miscellaneous rules on the behaviour of monks not covered elsewhere.
• Topics include proper conduct on the alms-begging tour, at meals in the homes of laymen, towards newly arrived monks, and for monks who dwell in the forest.

19. - Kṣudrakavastu.

• This chapter is an addendum of miscellaneous rules on subjects of minor importance.
• It covers topics such as the nature of begging bowls, the use of toothpicks, and the furnishing of washrooms.
• It includes several tales, such as the story of Piodola Bharadvāja and his precious begging bowl, and the community “turning the begging bowl” on a layman who falsely accused a monk.

20. - Bhikṣuṇīvastu.

• This chapter contains rules specifically for the order of nuns.
• It is introduced by the story of how the Buddha, at the request of Mahāprajāpatī and the intercession of Ānanda, established the female order.
• It lays down eight severe rules that subordinate the order of nuns to the order of monks.
• It details rules for admission, confession, and other ceremonies for nuns, always regulating their relationship with the male order.

Conclusion.

• This section describes the concluding parts of the Skandhaka text.
• It covers the death of the Buddha (Mahāparinirvānasūtra).
• It recounts the council of Rājagṛha.
• It includes the history of the patriarchs (series of teachers).
• It describes the council of Vaiśālī.

5. - The sources of the old Skandhaka text and the earliest Buddhist tradition.

• The old Skandhaka text, dating from the first half of the 4th century B.C., is a well-structured work that arranges monastic rules within the framework of a biography of the Buddha, demonstrating the author’s artistic rather than systematic approach.
• The author utilised older materials, including an account of the Buddha’s fundamental instructions to his first five disciples, which was broken up and inserted into relevant chapters.
• Stories were drawn from commentaries on the Prātimokṣa (similar to the Vibhanga), such as the tales of Dabbo Mallaputto, Aśvaka and Punarvasuka, and Ariṣṭa.
• The author also incorporated and adapted existing Sutras, as seen in the legend of Śrona Koṭiviṁśa and the sermon on the “8 marvellous qualities of the sea.”
• At the time of its composition, a Buddhist tradition with a canon of sacred scriptures (Dharma and Vinaya) already existed, transmitted through a regulated system of recitation and learning.
• The Skandhaka’s account of the first council, though likely an invention, indicates that this canon included the Sutrapiṭaka and Vinayapiṭaka but not the Abhidharma, which developed later.
• The author compiled this material into a cohesive, grand-scale work, creating what can be considered the first great literary work of Buddhism.

6. - The biography of the Buddha and the beginnings of the Buddhist Church history.

• Much of what is known about the Buddha’s life comes from the biography within the old Skandhaka work, which is the source for later texts like the Mahāparinirvānasūtra.
• An analysis of the sermon on the causes of earthquakes in the Mahāparinirvānasūtra reveals it is a later, legendary modification of an older, more archaic sermon found in the Sutrapiṭaka.
• This modification is attributed to the “author of the Skandhaka work,” who freely manipulated older traditions, created a unified narrative, and lowered the status of the disciple Ānanda.
• The biography of the Buddha in the Skandhaka is therefore not an authentic tradition but a legendary tale created about 100 years after the Nirvāṇa, making primary sources for his life less reliable than previously believed.
• Early Buddhist church histories, such as those of the Sarvāstivādin and Pāli schools, are also considered unhistorical constructions.
• These histories begin with the account of the first council (an invention of the Skandhaka author) and create artificial lineages connecting their school heads back to the Buddha’s direct disciples.
• The Sarvāstivādin history incorrectly presents its patriarchs as pupils of Ānanda, contradicting other sources.
• The Pāli school’s list of patriarchs relies on improbable lifespans and the appointment of very young monks as leaders to bridge a long time gap, indicating it is also a later construction rather than authentic history.

APPENDIX

• Buddhist scriptures were handed down orally for a long time before being written, which deeply influenced the nature of the extant versions.
• Oral tradition involved a period of “free transmission” (rendering from memory) which later evolved into an “established tradition” using fixed formulae.
• This process led to alterations and distortions; “main sections” dealing with important subjects were well preserved, while “bye-sections” with unimportant subjects were often distorted or lost.
• Despite distortions, a sense of piety often led to the preservation of traditional fragments, even if their original context was lost.
• The Vinaya works show clear signs of this long, free oral transmission, with versions agreeing on main sections but differing widely in wording and content of less important parts.

The Vinaya of the Sarvāstivādin.

• Translated into Chinese in 404-405, it consists of the Bhikṣuvibhanga, Skandhaka, Bhikṣunīvibhanga, and Appendixes.
• The Skandhaka is uniquely inserted between the two Vibhangas.
• Its tradition is characterised by the loss of most “bye-sections,” while main sections and legends are well-preserved.
• It shows points of contact with the Mūlasarvāstivādin Vinaya, likely due to secondary adaptation.

The Vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka

• Translated into Chinese in 408, it consists of the Bhikṣuvibhańga, Bhikṣuñ̄vibhańga, Skandhaka, and two Appendixes.
• It is one of the most complete Vinayas, with its “bye-sections” being well preserved.
• Its style is characterised by circumstantial exposition and verbosity.
• It shares remarkable elements of agreement with the Vinaya of the Mahīśāsaka, suggesting a close relationship between the two schools.

The Vinaya of the Mahisāsaka

• Based on a manuscript from Ceylon and translated into Chinese in 423-424, it consists of the Bhikṣuvibhańga, Bhikṣuñ̄vibhańga, and Skandhaka.
• It has the worst tradition of the Vinayas studied, with the text being lacunous (having gaps) and neglected.
• While “bye-sections” are preserved, the wording is short, jerky, and often distorted.
• Despite its poor state, the work preserves valuable early material and confirms a close relationship with the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya.

The Vinaya of the Pāli school

• Preserved in Ceylon, it consists of the Mahāvibhanga, Bhikṣuñ̄vibhanga, Skandhaka, and the Parivāra (addenda).
• It is one of the most complete Vinayas, similar to the Dharmaguptaka version in its preservation of “bye-sections” and verbose style.
• It has undergone the same deep-reaching alterations and distortions from the earliest period of tradition as the works of other schools.
• The text argues that there is no justification for giving the Pāli tradition a priori preference over the works of other schools.

The Vinaya of the Mūlasarvāstivādin

• Translated partially into Chinese and completely into Tibetan, with considerable portions of the Sanskrit original also discovered.
• Its tradition is dominated by a large quantity of tales and legends, which are told in great detail and sometimes almost overwhelm the original Vinaya material.
• The state of preservation is not very good; it has suffered many distortions, and “bye-sections” are often lost.
• This school uniquely joined the accounts of the Buddha’s birth, youth, and demise within the Vinaya to form a complete biography.

The Vinaya of the Mahāsāṃghika

• Based on a manuscript from Pāṭaliputra and translated into Chinese around 416, it consists of the Bhikṣuvibhanga, Skandhaka, and Bhikṣuñ̄vibhanga.
• The Skandhaka has a structure completely different from other versions, resulting from a later, only partially successful, attempt to create a new systematic arrangement.
• This re-arrangement resulted in a loose piecing together of a mass of rules.
• Despite the radical reshaping, the work’s origin from the same common source as the other Vinayas is undeniable.

ADDITIONAL REMARK

• The author notes that valuable works have appeared since the text was finished but states they do not affect the results obtained.
• The author thanks Prof. L. Petech for translating the work from German into English.