Mahāyāna - Reconstructing the Buddha and his teachings

The Mahāyāna movement (the “Great Way” or “vehicle” towards liberation) is currently the dominant form of Buddhism, with hundreds of millions of followers, mainly in East Asia. How did this movement originate, and what made it popular?

Context

We now know from the discovery of Gāndhārī manuscripts, which are the earliest surviving Buddhist texts, that Mahāyānan texts, such as the [S]Prajñāpāramitā sutras, were composed as early as the 1st century BCE. This challenges the notion that Mahāyāna Buddhism is a later development that deviated from the “original” teachings of the Buddha. It suggests that the Mahāyāna tradition has deep roots in the early Buddhist community, and the Pāḷi canon therefore is a redacted version of the Buddha’s teachings.¹²

Some scholars such as Gombrich have argued that the Mahāyāna movement may have originated as a textual rather than oral tradition, Tseng has suggested that its practitioners may have been embedded within existing Buddhist sects. Mahāyāna texts may well have been the earliest Buddhist texts to be written down, perhaps even predating the schism or division into sects, and the Pāḷi Canon may have been compiled later to counter the growing influence of Mahāyāna teachings.³

Challenges

The early Mahāyānans were probably disciples seeking to address the challenges faced by Buddhism at the time. They aimed to reconstruct the Buddha’s teachings and ideals, offering new perspectives and solutions to the problems faced by the Buddhist community post Ashoka.

These challenges seemed to be unsurmountable problems:

Personal liberation, the original goal of the Buddha’s teachings, was increasingly seen as limited in scope, and somewhat selfish. The awakened arhat was supported and sustained by the community, and gave nothing back to society.
Buddhism began to “decline” as a movement in India, due to the rise of Hinduism and Islam. With this decline came the loss of royal patronage, which was a significant source of support for Buddhism. The decline also led to a loss of interest in the teachings of the Buddha, as people sought refuge in other religions and philosophies.
Buddhist texts and traditions were increasingly burdened and “corrupted” with “fake” or “wrong” teachings, analytical excess, and imported concepts from other religions. The texts contained errors, contradictions and inconsistencies, which made it difficult to understand the Buddha’s teachings. Awakening was increasingly becoming rare, and then probably disappeared altogether (by the 1st century CE according to some sources - see The Failure of Buddhism?).
Increasingly, it was becoming harder to integrate the monastic and lay communities. The monastic community was focused on personal liberation and preserving the Buddha’s teachings, the lay community wanted to worship the Buddha and gain favours and merit that will improve current and future lives.
There were cracks between the soteriological and devotional aspects of Buddhism. There was a need to present an idealised Buddha to attract lay followers and patrons. The human Buddha increasingly became a liability, an unsellable commodity, even if he had psychic and magical powers. He was simply too mundane, and it is hard to worship someone who became sick and died. What was needed was a new idealised Buddha, one that could be worshipped and venerated with devotion.
Without the presence of awakened leaders, the monastic community began to fragment and lose its coherence, creating sects. The teachings became increasingly misunderstood, and replaced by rituals and observances rather than true understanding.

Solution

The Mahāyānans came up with an ingenious set of solutions to these problems.

Firstly, they created the Mahāyānan ideal of the Bodhisattva. The Bodhisattva path is defined by the vow (Bodhicitta) to attain Buddhahood not for self-liberation but specifically “to liberate all sentient beings from suffering”. This idealised archetype of the Buddha became a powerful symbol of the highest potential of human beings, and a target for devotion by lay followers and patrons. This altruistic path mandates self-sacrifice for the sake of all, promising to “provide happiness for everybody at any cost”. This universal commitment, or ethical universalism, is the foundational justification for the movement calling itself the “Great Vehicle.” Because the goal is the liberation of all beings, not just the individual, the ethical scope is fundamentally broader and more expansive than the selfish path of the Arhat. The bodhisattva’s reluctance to enter nirvana until all beings have been liberated also explains the lack of awakened ones - clearly it is because they are deliberately delaying their own liberation in order to help others.
Secondly, the Mahāyānans de-emphasised the human Buddha, and instead imagined an idealised Buddha: [S]Amitābha (measureless or limitless light). According to Wikipedia: “Amitābha established a pure land of perfect peace and happiness, called Sukhāvatī (“Blissful”), where beings who mindfully remember him with faith may be reborn and then quickly attain enlightenment. The pure land is the result of a set of vows Amitābha made long ago. As his name means Limitless Light, Amitābha’s light is said to radiate throughout the cosmos and shine on all beings. Because of this, Amitābha is often depicted radiating light, a symbol for his wisdom. As he is also called Amitāyus (“Measureless Life”), this Buddha is also associated with infinite life, since his lifespan is said to be immeasurable. Amitābha’s measureless life is seen as being related to his infinite compassion.”
Lastly, the Mahāyānans created the principle of [S]upāya-kaushalya or upāya-kosalla (skillful means) as a pretext for crafting new sutras that avoided the contradictions and inconsistencies of the earlier teachings. They did not reject or discard the early teachings, but relegated them to the status of “legacy” teachings (āgama, the tradition that has been handed down). It is theorised that the Buddha’s teachings were specific to the needs of the individuals he taught to, and therefore had limited applicability to others. These teachings were referred to as Hīnayāna (Lesser Way or Vehicle) and those that achieved awakening via the early teachings were called [S]Śrāvakabuddha (someone who is liberated by listening) and [S]Pratyekabuddha or Paccekabuddha (someone who is liberated through self-realisation). Hīna has connotations of “little”, “poor”, “inferior”, “abandoned”, “deficient”, “defective” which gave an indication of the Mahāyānans’ opinion regarding the efficacy and usefulness of the texts which have either been corrupted after multiple generations of transmission, or had limited applicability. Upāya-kaushalya is used to indicate the these new sutras may not be historically authentic, but they are expedient and useful for the purpose of attaining liberation.

The Perfection of Wisdom

The new sutras emphasise [S]Prajñāpāramitā (“the Perfection of Wisdom” or “Transcendental Knowledge”). This is a very clever way of reinterpreting the Buddha’s early teachings, whilst being completely consistent with them. By introducing the concept of “emptiness” ([S]śūnyatā) and lack of “inherent substance or existence” ([S]svabhāva), the Mahāyānans can stress the illusory (māyā) nature of things, how all phenomena are characterised by “non-arising” (anutpāda, i.e. unborn) and the Madhyamaka (“middle way”) approach advocated by Nāgārjuna. These are portrayed as logical extensions of dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppādo) and the five collections (pañcupādānakkhandhā).

Because everything is empty of inherent existence, it is okay to imagine an idealised Buddha - it is a “skilful means” to attract disciples and followers, as well as a “target” for the aspiring Bodhisattva. Who is to say such a Buddha does not really exist? This idealised Buddha is as “unreal” or as “real” as the actual, human Buddha (who is also empty of inherent existence). Amitābha is a conceptual construct and a projection of ourselves, therefore he is always there when we need him, and there is no need to worry about historical accuracy. He is always the current Buddha, and the next Buddha. He doesn’t fart, he doesn’t need to eat or sleep, he will never fall sick, grow old, or die. He is perfect in every way, because perfection is emptiness.

As Prajñāpāramitā is a superior way of understanding what the Buddha really “meant”, it can replace the early teachings through the principle of the “Simile of the raft”, contained in 9M/3.2 Alagaddūpamasutta.

790. “Bhikkhave, I will teach you the dhamma that is like a raft: for crossing over, not for holding on. Listen and pay close attention, I will speak.” “Yes, Bhante,” those bhikkhū replied to the Bhagavā. The Bhagavā said this:

791. “Suppose, bhikkhave, a person was traveling along a road. He might see a great expanse of water, with the near shore dangerous and fearful, and the far shore safe and free from fear; but there was no boat for crossing over or bridge to go from this side to the other. It might occur to him: ‘This is a great expanse of water, with the near shore dangerous and fearful, and the far shore safe and free from fear; but there is no boat for crossing over or bridge to go from this side to the other. What if I were to gather grass, sticks, branches, and foliage, bind them into a raft, and relying on that raft, striving with my hands and feet, safely cross over to the far shore?’ Then that person, having gathered grass, sticks, branches, and foliage, binding them into a raft, and relying on that raft, striving with hands and feet, would safely cross over to the far shore. Having crossed over and gone beyond, it might occur to him: ‘This raft has been very helpful to me. Relying on this raft, striving with my hands and feet, I have safely crossed over to the far shore. What if I were to hoist this raft onto my head or lift it onto my shoulder and go wherever I want?’ What do you think, bhikkhave? Would that person be doing what should be done with that raft?”

792. “No, sir.” “And how, bhikkhave, would that person be doing what should be done with that raft? Here, bhikkhave, having crossed over and gone beyond, it might occur to that person: ‘This raft has been very helpful to me. Relying on this raft, striving with my hands and feet, I have safely crossed over to the far shore. What if I were to beach this raft on dry land or set it adrift in the water and go wherever I want?’ By doing so, bhikkhave, that person would be doing what should be done with that raft. In the same way, bhikkhave, I have taught the dhamma using the simile of the raft: for crossing over, not for holding on. By understanding the dhamma as similar to a raft, you should abandon even the teachings, let alone what is against the teachings.”

The Diamond Sutra quotes the simile of the raft to show that one should be prepared to discard everything, even the Buddha’s teachings, in order to understand the emptiness of all phenomena, even the phenomena relating to the Buddha and his teachings.

Prajñāpāramitā is an integrated set of teachings that is suitable for both monastics and lay disciples, and allows endless variations of the teachings with the same core message - thus leading to various forms of Prajñāpāramitā:

Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 300 lines, alternatively known as the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Diamond Sūtra)
Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 500 lines
Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 700 lines
Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 2,500 lines
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 8,000 lines
Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 18,000 lines
Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 25,000 lines.
Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 100,000 lines.

Resolution

The combination of the Bodhisattva path, the idealised Buddha, and Prajñāpāramitā allows the Mahāyānans to resolve the key challenges noted at the beginning of this article:

The Bodhisattva path addresses the “selfish” aspect of personal liberation, as the aspiring Bodhisattva strives for the liberation of all beings. Indeed, this is logical implication of Prajñāpāramitā, because if all phenomena are empty, then there is no inherent difference between self and others. Indeed, if the world is illusory (māyā), then all beings are manifestations of oneself, interconnected and interdependent. Personal liberation is an incomplete achievement, and true liberation is attained when all manifestations (other beings) are also liberated.
The Mahāyāna movement arrested the decline of Buddhism in Northern India, as it was pan-sectarian. It attracted many new followers, particularly merchants and traders, and spread to China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet via trading routes. Mahāyānan doctrine was taught at the great Buddhist “universities” such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla, which became renowned centres of learning attracting students from all over Asia.
Prajñāpāramitā is portrayed as a superior alternative and replacement for traditional Buddhist texts and thus avoid the perceived errors, contradictions and inconsistencies.
Prajñāpāramitā can be taught to both monastics and lay followers. The aspiring Bodhisattva will learn the core concepts such as emptiness, lack of inherent existence of everything, impermanence, the five collections, dependent origination, and thus be able to progress. Lay followers can also appreciate the teachings at a more superficial level, and engage in devotional practices such as worshipping the idealised Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, making offerings, and performing rituals to accumulate merit for better rebirths. The sutras are carefully constructed to include aspects of both soteriological concepts and devotional elements.
The idealised Buddha can be useful for both monastics and lay followers. The monastics understand that Amitābha is a projection of themselves, and useful as part of the awakening process. Lay followers can venerate and worship Amitābha and Bodhisattvas, and seek their blessings and protection.
Mahāyānans can claim the presence of near-awakened Bodhisattvas in their midst, and thus address the absence of awakened leaders (because of course the Bodhisattvas have achieved personal liberation and are helping others towards full liberation). These Bodhisattvas can provide guidance and leadership to the monastic and lay communities, and help preserve the teachings and practices.

Some Theravādins have criticised the Mahāyāna for its use of skilful means and its idealised Buddhas, arguing that these teachings deviate from the original teachings of the historical Buddha. However, Mahāyāna Buddhists maintain that their teachings are a natural evolution of Buddhism, adapting to the needs of different cultures and societies while preserving the core principles of the Buddha’s teachings.

The Mahāyāna movement became the dominant form of Buddhism in East Asia, and its teachings continue to influence Buddhist practice and philosophy around the world.

Translations of `Prajñāpāramitā` Sūtras

For more information, I have translated two popular Mahāyāna texts, the Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra. Over time I hope to translate additional Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras.

`Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya Sūtra` (Heart Sutra) The Heart Sūtra is a popular sutra in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the title `Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya` translates as 'The Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom'.

`Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra` (Diamond Sutra) The Diamond Sūtra is one of the most influential Mahāyāna sutras in East Asia, and it is particularly prominent within the Chan (or Zen) tradition. The title translates to 'Vajra Cutter Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra'.

ALLON, M., SALOMON, R., & GANDHÁRA, E. M. I. T (2010) ORIGIN of the Mahayana - its date, location, motivations, institu. EASTERN BUDDHIST, 4(1), 1. ↩
Tseng, A. A. (2020). Archeological Evidence of Early Mahayana Movement in Gandhara. Exploring the Life and Teachings of Mahayana Buddhists in Asia, 31-134. ↩
Collins, Steven, On The Very Idea Of The Pali Canon, JPTS XV(4) pp. 89-126 ↩