Dependent Origination (`paṭiccasamuppādo`)

paṭiccasamuppādaṃ (dependent origination, or the chain of causes, or causal co-arising) is allegedly the thought process that led to the Buddha’s liberation, ‘awakening’, or ‘enlightenment’. The concept is the central thesis and core of the Buddha’s teachings and basis for the soteriology.

Dependent Origination (`paṭiccasamuppādo`)

3. “And what, bhikkhave, is paṭiccasamuppādo (dependent origination)?

Caused by avijjā (ignorance), bhikkhave, saṅkhārā (mental constructions) arise;
caused by mental constructions, viññāṇaṃ (consciousness);
caused by consciousness, nāmarūpaṃ (phenomenal objects - having physical form and given names);
caused by phenomenal objects, saḷāyatanaṃ (the six sense bases);
caused by the six sense bases, phasso (contact - or interfaces between the six senses and our minds, referring to the sensing and cognitive process);
caused by contact, vedanā (feeling);
caused by feeling, taṇhā (craving, or desire);
caused by craving, upādānaṃ (fuel, representing clinging);
caused by clinging, bhavo (existence);
caused by existence, jāti (birth);
caused by birth, old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair arise.

Thus is the origin of this entire mass of dukkha (suffering). This, bhikkhave, is called dependent origination.

4. But

with the complete fading away and cessation of ignorance, there is the cessation of mental constructions;
with the cessation of mental constructions, the cessation of consciousness;
with the cessation of consciousness, the cessation of phenomenal objects;
with the cessation of phenomenal objects, the cessation of the six sense bases;
with the cessation of the six sense bases, the cessation of contact;
with the cessation of contact, the cessation of feeling;
with the cessation of feeling, the cessation of craving;
with the cessation of craving, the cessation of clinging;
with the cessation of clinging, the cessation of existence;
with the cessation of existence, the cessation of birth;
with the cessation of birth, old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair cease.

Thus is the cessation of this entire mass of suffering.” This is what the Bhagavā said. The bhikkhū were delighted and rejoiced in the Bhagavā’s words.

7D/2.1 Paṭiccasamuppāda:

hetu (root, cause, reason, condition)
nidānaṁ (cause, ground, underlying and determining factor)
samudayo (rise, origin)
paccayo (support, requirement, reason, cause, ground, motive, means, condition)

The phenomenological framework of dependent origination

At it’s heart paṭiccasamuppādaṃ is a phenomenological framework. Our perception of the world around us (and our concept of “reality”) is formed from our experiences and our perception of “phenomena” through our senses (and also imagined by our minds).

Therefore our viññāṇaṁ (consciousness and sense of “identity” or “self”) is “constructed” and ephemeral, and based on the aggregation of saṅkhārā (mental constructions). Furthermore, we are unaware or ignorant of the “constructed” or transient nature of our consciousness, and hence avijjā (ignorance) is the starting point of this chain of dependencies.

Condition	Description
`avijjā`	a lack of clarity regarding the nature of one’s own experience and nature of “reality”
`saṅkhārā`	mental constructs, conditioned patterns of thought and volition, past experiences, mental states, ideas, thoughts, perceptions, biases, prejudices.
`viññāṇa`	moment-to-moment consciousness, that result in our “personality” and sense of identity
`nāmarūpa`	a collection of sensed “forms” that can be “named”, leading to a “subject-object duality” - separation between ourselves and the external world
`saḷāyatana`	our experience of these forms through the six sense bases – the faculties of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and thinking
`phassa`	”contact” or “interface” between sense base, object, and consciousness
`vedanā`	our resultant reaction or feeling to that contact – pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral
`taṇhā`	craving or aversion – a reactive desire for pleasant feelings to continue or unpleasant ones to cease
`upādāna`	our attachment to craving acts as a source or “fuel” to a survival instinct or “will to live”
`bhava`	our “will to live” - the process of perpetuating these patterns and the sense of an ongoing self caught within them
`jāti`	the “birth” or arising of a new cycle of identification and experience
`jarāmaraṇa`	(aging and death), understood here as the decay and cessation inherent in all conditioned phenomena
`dukkha`	the associated emotional and psychological dissatisfaction and suffering: sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair

From the above analysis, our ignorance of the ephemeral and conditioned nature of our consciousness is what ultimately leads to dukkha, which is a general dissatisfaction and unease regarding the nature of our existence. We crave for what we cannot have, permanence, comfort and stability but our sense of “self” is impermanent, perennially uncomfortable and unstable.

Therefore, armed with the knowledge of the above, we can dispell our ignorance, cease production of non-optimal mental formations, the entire phenomenological structure collapses and in this way we will no longer experience dukkha.

This was what the Buddha experienced, which led to “the bliss of liberation” which allowed him to dispell “Mara’s army” (Mara is the personification of all the accumulated sub-optimal factors that have clouded his consciousness and created craving, attachment and ultimately suffering).

Concentric cycles

paṭiccasamuppādaṃ can represent a chain of causes that form a cycle, although it is not explicitly stated as a cycle here. The last component of the chain leads back to the first, and hence the cycle repeats itself ad infinitum.

The concentric set of cycles represent processes. The processes have increased span and duration as we move outwards from the innermost cycle to the outermost cycle. In theory there are an infinite number of these cycles, but in practice we only need to detail the most significant ones, that can be easily analysed.

The innermost cycle is the span of a single thought process, from it’s arising to it’s cessation. The next cycle of importance is the span of a single day, representing the arising and cessation of consciousness. After that is the cycle of a single lifetime, and beyond that is the cycle of multiple lifetimes and ultimately the cycle of the universe itself (in terms of the birth and death of stars and galaxies). In between are many other cycles (months, seasons, years etc.) but for the purposes of understanding we are less concerned with those.

The following table illustrates how paṭiccasamuppādaṃ works across the different cycles:

Cause	Thought	Day	Lifetime	Multiple Lifetimes
`avijjā`	pre thought “blankness”	awake from sleep	our birth, with no recollection of previous lives	ignorance of previous lives
`saṅkhārā`	previous thoughts	reflections from previous days	mental constructions for this lifetime	constructions are per life
`viññāṇaṁ`	”environment” or context of thought	disposition for the day	consciousness for this lifetime	multiple consciousness, no permanent self
`nāmarūpaṁ`	stimuli or trigger to a thought	daily stimuli	lifetime stimuli	each lifetime has unique identities and forms
`saḷāyatanaṁ`	perception of stimuli	perception of stimuli	lifetime perceptions	consciousness in each lifetime shaped by unique stimuli
`phasso`	cognisance of stimuli	recognition of experiences	lifetime experiences	symbolic representations or processing of perceptions
`vedanā`	reaction to perception	reaction to experiences	reaction to experiences	transformation of symbolic representations
`taṇhā`	desire, or intention	our wants and needs for the day	lifetime goals and objectives	each lifetime has unique desires
`upādānaṃ`	willpower to execute desire	attachment to wants and needs	survival instinct	each lifetime has it’s own “fuel”
`bhavo`	plan of execution	action plan for the day	lifetime path	each lifetime is a unique path or existence
`jāti`	action out of thought process	actions during the day	this existence	rebirth of beings
`dukkha`	results of action, termination of thought	results of actions, followed by sleep	dissatisfaction and death	saṃsāra, or the cycle of rebirths

Considerations and Interpretation

Points to note:

It would have made more sense for the Buddha to reference dependent origination in the first discourse to the ascetics, as that was the process that led to his own liberation.
It would seem at this stage that it is possible to gain almost instantaneous understanding upon hearing the Buddha teach, which is exemplified by Koṇḍañña. Yet, presumably it took some time (days and possibly weeks) for the rest of the group of five to be liberated, as the text refers to part of the group seeking alms while the others were taught by the Buddha. Even so, it is clear that liberation is achievable within a short period of time for those who are in the right frame of mind and disposition, and certainly achievable within a single lifetime. Contrast this with later teachings which seem to imply it is almost impossible to gain realisation in one lifetime and multiple stages are required (stream enterer etc.)
More importantly, this discourse predates the development of the “four stages of awakening” (sotāpanna (stream-enterer), sakadāgāmī (once-returner), anāgāmī (non-returner), arahant (worthy one)) that would come to dominate Theravāda thinking.
The expansion of the four realisations into three phases and 12 aspects seem overly pedantic and does not really add much to the context. It would seem this may be yet another late addition to align with the notion of rolling out the Dhamma wheel.

In Bronkhorst **The Buddhist four realisations: Are They True?¹, Bronkhorst questions if the four realisations are true, using recent neuroscience (Mark Solms’ theory) ² and psychology. As the truths are presented as verifiable psychological statements, Bronkhorst uses various tools to evaluate their truth claims as scientific hypotheses. Bronkhorst offers a hypothesis that dukkha can be interpreted as unresolved needs arising from perceived threats to an idealised homeostasis. Individual sensitivity to these unresolved needs varies, and it may be possible meditative or absorptive states can suspend awareness of these needs but don’t solve underlying issues. Bronkhorst proposes a potential solution: memory reconsolidation allows consolidated emotional memories to be updated or erased if reactivated and met with a “prediction error” (mismatch) within a specific time window. Therefore, erasing the emotional charge of memories underlying conflicting needs could lead to suffering cessation. Desire or ‘wanting’ (motivation/desire) may create “mini-addictions” (habits/personality traits). Resolving these traits via memory reconsolidation reduces both suffering and ‘wanting’ (desire/thirst). Bronkhorst theorises that accessing these consolidated, often non-declarative, memories is a key challenge as they may reside in the domain of the sub-conscious. Bronkhorst then speculates that deep absorption might allow focus on normally unconscious memories by suspending competing needs/associations. Other elements of the eightfold path may facilitate deep absorption and the necessary mismatch (e.g., equanimity).

I find Bronkhorst’s theory plausible, but question whether absorption allow access to unconscious memories. To me, the key question is how does one rewire and reduce innermost desires and needs embedded in the subconscious? Here the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in Pessoa - The Entangled Brain: How Perception, Cognition, and Emotion Are Woven Together (2022) [^EntangledBrain] may prove useful, as discussed in The Buddha’s liberation as an case study of Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

However, in Polak’s Language, Conscious Experience and the Self in Early Buddhism; A Cross-cultural Interdisciplinary Study³, Polak explores how language and concepts shape conscious experience and influence human functioning, particularly the arising of the self (attā). It uses a cross-cultural, interdisciplinary approach, drawing parallels with Western philosophy and cognitive science to reconstruct Buddha’s teachings, and examines the relationship between the five collections (khandhas) and the individual, discussing agency and subjectivity. These ideas form a framework for understanding the Buddha’s second discourse.

In subsequent discourses, the Buddha defines the “world” (loko) not just externally, but primarily in terms of the human cognitive apparatus and experience: the six senses, their objects, consciousness, contact, feeling, and the five strands of sensuality. Apperception (saññā) is a complex mental process involving labelling, categorizing, recognizing based on features (nimitta), interpreting sensory input, and conceptualizing abstract ideas. The common answer that a person is merely the five collections (khandhas) is likely a reductionist interpretation, not the original intent. Khandhas represent aspects of phenomenal experience used for contemplation (understanding anicca, dukkha, anattā), not a complete objective analysis of a human being. ⁴, ⁵, ⁶

Khandhas represent subjective, conscious experience. Identifying them as attā reflects the common-sense view that consciousness is the locus of agency and subjectivity. Cognitive science challenges this: most information processing is unconscious, parallel, and modular; consciousness has limited capacity (cf. Global Workspace Theory) ⁷. Thoughts, decisions, and acts of will largely originate non-consciously; conscious awareness often follows the neural readiness potential ⁸, ⁹. Consciousness serves more for global broadcast and integration into a narrative. The Buddha’s critique of attā aligns with this: the “self” as speaker (vado) and feeler (vedeyyo) arises from misinterpreting the nature and content of conscious experience (khandhas), facilitated by language (saññā, papañca). The actual locus of agency and subjectivity may reside more holistically in the sentient body (saviññāṇaka kāya), not reducible to the khandhas. Concepts like citta and practices like kāyānupassana might point towards this.

Self-delusion isn’t just theoretical; identifying with the narrative self maintained by inner speech causes suffering (dukkha). There’s a correlation between self-reflexive consciousness, the subjective experience of psychological time, and suffering ¹⁰, ¹¹. Increased Self-awareness often coincides with time dragging and unhappiness. Moments of happiness or “flow” ¹² often involve reduced Self-awareness and distorted time perception (absorption). Misunderstanding this, people pursue external objects/activities associated with past pleasure, failing to see pleasure often lies in the temporary absence of Self-consciousness. This pursuit is doomed to fail. Absorption states might not leave declarative memory traces because they lack the self-reflexive conscious experience needed for such encoding ¹³. Self-delusion can be seen as a “virus” or harmful “software” running on the “hardware” of the sentient body, possibly an evolutionary adaptation for competitiveness but inherently causing suffering. The Buddha’s soteriology aims to remove this “virus”.

dvādasaṅga

12 link dependent origination

stateDiagram-v2
  [*] --> avijjā
  state fork_state <<fork>>
  state join_state <<join>>
  avijjā --> saṅkhārā
  saṅkhārā --> viññāṇaṁ
  viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
  nāmarūpaṁ --> viññāṇaṁ : SN 12.67
  nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
  saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
  phasso --> vedanā
  vedanā --> taṇhā
  taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
  upādānaṁ --> bhavo
  bhavo --> jāti
  jāti --> fork_state
  fork_state --> jarāmaraṇaṁ
  fork_state --> sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā
  jarāmaraṇaṁ --> join_state
  sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā --> join_state
  state jarāmaraṇaṁ {
    [*] --> jarā
    [*] --> maraṇaṁ
  }
  state sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā {
    [*] --> soko
    [*] --> paridevo
    [*] --> dukkho
    [*] --> domanassaṃ
    [*] --> upāyāso
  }
  join_state --> [*]

Transcendental Dependent Origination

flowchart TB
  subgraph paṭiccasamuppādo
    direction LR
    avijjā --> saṅkhārā
    saṅkhārā --> viññāṇaṁ
    viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
    nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
    saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
    phasso --> vedanā
    vedanā --> taṇhā
    taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
    upādānaṁ --> bhavo
    bhavo --> jāti
  end
  subgraph transcendental
    direction LR
    saddho --> pāmojjaṃ
    pāmojjaṃ --> pīti
    pīti --> passaddhi
    passaddhi --> sukho
    sukho --> samādhi
    samādhi --> yathābhūtañāṇadassanaṃ
    yathābhūtañāṇadassanaṃ --> nibbidā
    nibbidā --> virāgo
    virāgo --> vimutti
    vimutti --> khayeñāṇaṁ
  end
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> transcendental

Wrong vs Right practice

12S2/1.1.3 Paṭipadāsutta

sequenceDiagram
  alt micchāpaṭipadā
    avijjā->>saṅkhārā: paccayā
    saṅkhārā ->> viññāṇaṁ: paccayā
    viññāṇaṁ ->> nāmarūpaṁ: paccayā
    nāmarūpaṁ ->> saḷāyatanaṁ: paccayā
    saḷāyatanaṁ ->> phasso: paccayā
    phasso ->> vedanā: paccayā
    vedanā ->> taṇhā: paccayā
    taṇhā ->> upādānaṁ: paccayā
    upādānaṁ ->> bhavo: paccayā
    bhavo ->> jāti: paccayā
  else sammāpaṭipadā
    avijjā->>saṅkhārā: asesavirāganirodhā
    saṅkhārā ->> viññāṇaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    viññāṇaṁ ->> nāmarūpaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    nāmarūpaṁ ->> saḷāyatanaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    saḷāyatanaṁ ->> phasso: asesavirāganirodhā
    phasso ->> vedanā: asesavirāganirodhā
    vedanā ->> taṇhā: asesavirāganirodhā
    taṇhā ->> upādānaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    upādānaṁ ->> bhavo: asesavirāganirodhā
    bhavo ->> jāti: asesavirāganirodhā
  end

Analysis

12S2/1.1.2 Vibhaṅgasutta

mindmap
  paṭiccasamuppādo
    avijjā
      dukkhe aññāṇaṁ
      dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṁ
      dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṁ
      dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya aññāṇaṁ
    saṅkhārā
      kāyasaṅkhāro
      vacīsaṅkhāro
      cittasaṅkhāro

mindmap
avijjā
  dukkhe aññāṇaṁ
  dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṁ
  dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṁ
  dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya aññāṇaṁ

mindmap
saṅkhārā
  kāyasaṅkhāro
  vacīsaṅkhāro
  cittasaṅkhāro

mindmap
viññāṇaṁ
  cakkhuviññāṇaṁ
  sotaviññāṇaṁ
  ghānaviññāṇaṁ
  jivhāviññāṇaṁ
  kāyaviññāṇaṁ
  manoviññāṇaṁ

mindmap
nāmarūpaṁ
  nāmaṁ
    vedanā
    saññā
    cetanā
    phasso
    manasikāro
  rūpaṁ
    cattāro mahābhūtā
    catunnañ mahābhūtānaṁ upādāyarūpaṁ

mindmap
saḷāyatanaṁ
  cakkhāyatanaṁ
  sotāyatanaṁ
  ghānāyatanaṁ
  jivhāyatanaṁ
  kāyāyatanaṁ
  manāyatanaṁ

mindmap
phasso
  cakkhusamphasso
  sotasamphasso
  ghānasamphasso
  jivhāsamphasso
  kāyasamphasso
  manosamphasso

mindmap
vedanā
  cakkhusamphassajā vedanā
  sotasamphassajā vedanā
  ghānasamphassajā vedanā
  jivhāsamphassajā vedanā
  kāyasamphassajā vedanā
  manosamphassajā vedanā

mindmap
taṇhā
  rūpataṇhā
  saddataṇhā
  gandhataṇhā
  rasataṇhā
  phoṭṭhabbataṇhā
  dhammataṇhā

mindmap
upādānaṁ
  kāmupādānaṁ
  diṭṭhupādānaṁ
  sīlabbatupādānaṁ
  attavādupādānaṁ

mindmap
bhavo
  kāmabhavo
  rūpabhavo
  arūpabhavo

mindmap
jāti
  jāti
  sañjāti
  okkanti
  abhinibbatti
  khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo
  āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho

mindmap
jarāmaraṇaṁ
  jarā
    jarā
    jīraṇatā
    khaṇḍiccaṁ
    pāliccaṁ
    valittacatā
    āyuno saṁhāni
    indriyānaṁ paripāko
  maraṇaṁ
    cuti
    cavanatā bhedo
    antaradhānaṁ
    maccu
    maraṇaṁ
    kālakiriyā
    khandhānaṁ bhedo
    kaḷevarassa nikkhepo

mindmap
āhāro
  kabaḷīkāro āhāro
    oḷāriko
    sukhumo
  phasso
  manosañcetanā
  viññāṇaṁ

mindmap
dasabalasamannāgato
  rūpaṁ
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  vedanā
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  saññā
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  saṅkhārā
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  viññāṇaṁ
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo

mindmap
vesārajjaṃ
  imasmiṁ sati idaṁ hoti
  imassuppādā idaṁ uppajjati
  imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti
  imassa nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati

paṭiccasamuppannā dhammā (Dependent origination characteristics)

12S2/1.2.10 Paccayasutta

This sutta is written in a satirical style (similar to that in AN 3.136) where the Buddha uses the formula for dependent origination to refute core Vedic beliefs, including the Vedic creation myth. The satirical text plays on the Vedic preoccupation with dhamma as regular, invariant natural principles.

The parallels between the Dependent Origination links and core Vedic beliefs are explored by Joanna Jurewicz in Playing with Fire: The pratītyasamutpāda from the perspective of Vedic thought, Journal of the Pali Text Society 26 (2000) pp. 77 – 103.

flowchart LR
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> aniccaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> saṅkhataṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> paṭiccasamuppannaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> khayadhammaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> vayadhammaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> virāgadhammaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> nirodhadhammaṁ

Naḷakalāpīsutta

12S2/1.7.7 Naḷakalāpīsutta

flowchart LR
  c1>na sayaṅkataṁ]
  c2>na paraṅkataṁ]
  c3>na sayaṅkatañca paraṅkatañca]
  c4>nāpi asayaṅkāraṁ aparaṅkāraṁ adhiccasamuppannaṁ]
  subgraph paṭiccasamuppādo
    direction TB
    viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
    nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
    saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
    phasso --> vedanā
    vedanā --> taṇhā
    taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
    upādānaṁ --> bhavo
    bhavo --> jāti
    jāti --> jarāmaraṇaṁ
  end
  c1 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  c2 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  c3 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  c4 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> bhikkhu
  subgraph bhikkhu
    direction LR
    nibbidāya --> dhammaṁ
    nibbidāya --> paṭipanno
    nibbidāya --> vimutto
    virāgāya --> dhammaṁ
    virāgāya --> paṭipanno
    virāgāya --> vimutto
    nirodhāya --> dhammaṁ
    nirodhāya --> paṭipanno
    nirodhāya --> vimutto
  end

Training

12S2/1.9.2 Sikkhāsuttādipeyyālaekādasaka

mindmap
  jarāmaraṇe yathābhūtaṁ ñāṇāya
    sikkhā karaṇīyā
    yogo karaṇīyo
    chando karaṇīyo
    ussoḷhī karaṇīyā
    appaṭivānī karaṇīyā
    ātappaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
    vīriyaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
    sātaccaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
    sati karaṇīyā
    sampajaññaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
    appamādo karaṇīyo

References

Bronkhorst, J. (2023). The Buddhist Noble Truths: Are They True? Religions, 14, 82. https://doi.org/https:// doi.org/10.3390/rel14010082 ↩
Solms, M. (2021). The hidden spring: A journey to the source of consciousness. Profile books. ↩
Polak, G. (2018). Language, Conscious Experience and the Self in Early Buddhism A Cross-cultural Interdisciplinary Study. Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 14, 37–76. ↩
Hamilton, S. (2000). Early Buddhism: A New Approach : the I of the Beholder. Curzon. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=ji9EvkprnPsC ↩
Gethin, R. (1986). The five khandhas: Their theatment in the nikāyas and early abhidhamma. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 14(1), 35–53. ↩
Wynne, A. (2009). Early Evidence for the “no self” doctrine? A note on the second anātman teaching of the Second Sermon. Thai International Journal for Buddhist Studies, 1, 64–84. ↩
Baars, B. J. (2003). The global brainweb: An update on global workspace theory. Science and Consciousness Review, 2, 1–16. ↩
Libet, B. (1999). Do we have free will? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6(8–9), 47–57. http://pacherie.free.fr/COURS/MSC/Libet-JCS1999.pdf ↩
Wegner, D. M. (2017). The illusion of conscious will. MIT press. ↩
Zahavi, D. (2011). The Experiential Self: Objections and Clarifications. In Siderits (Ed.), Self, No Self: Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions. Oxford University Press. ↩
Thompson, E. (2011). Self-No-Self? Memory and Reflexive Awareness. In Siderits (Ed.), Self, No Self: Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions. Oxford University Press. ↩
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper Collins. ↩
Bronkhorst, J. (2012). Absorption: Human Nature and Buddhist Liberation. University Media. ↩

Dependent Origination (`paṭiccasamuppādo`)