Archeological Evidence Of Early Mahayana Movement In Gandhara

in Exploring the Life and Teachings … Editor Ampere A. Tseng, Ampere A. Tseng, Nova Science Publishers (2020)

Abstract

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the usage of archaeological evidence, including scriptures and sculptures discovered in the ancient Gandhara region in order to trace how Mahayana Buddhism developed in its early stages. The recent discoveries of early Gandharan manuscripts and sculptures with Mahayana elements are selected and examined. The possible affiliation of a specific Mahayana sutra or sculpture with one of the Sectarian Buddhist schools is specifically evaluated in order to identify the origin or provenance of the Mahayana movement. The Mahasaṃghika school has the highest number of the affiliated Mahayana sutras or sculptures which suggests that the Mahayana movement should have originated with the Mahasaṃghikas. Later, this movement spread to other Buddhist schools, mainly the Sarvastivadins, Kasyapiyas, Lokottaravadins, and Dharmaguptakas. The associated timeline of the Mahayana movement is also examined. The present study further suggests that the reform-minded Mahayanists did not exist as a separate school or entity in competition with the Nikaya schools in the early stages of the movement. Concluding remarks summarize the life of the early Mahayanists in Gandhara with discussions of the evidence, which sheds light on the formation of their Gandhara manuscripts and sculptures.

1. INTRODUCTION

The origins of Mahayana Buddhism, which represents about two-thirds of the world’s Buddhist population, are not completely understood.
This chapter challenges older theories that Mahayana was a separate, lay-inspired movement and instead uses recent archaeological discoveries from Gandhara to provide a more evidence-based assessment.
The goal is to analyze Mahayana-related manuscripts and sculptures to determine which Sectarian Buddhist schools the movement evolved from.

2. BACKGROUND ON MAHAYANA MOVEMENT

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, and his teachings were compiled into the Sutras and Vinaya.
The religion flourished in India under King Asoka in the 3rd century BCE but declined by the 13th century CE.
Early Buddhist scriptures were passed down orally, as India did not have a widespread writing system until the 3rd century BCE.

2.1. Buddhist Schisms and Chronology of Buddhism

After the second Buddhist council, the Sangha split into two major schools: the Mahasamghika and the Sthaviravada.
Many scholars believe Mahayana Buddhism grew out of the Mahasamghika school, partly due to a dispute over the fallibility of arhats (enlightened beings).
Further schisms resulted in about twenty traditional schools, referred to as Sectarian or Nikaya Buddhism.

2.2. Three Paths of Enlightenment

Buddhism outlines three paths (yanas) to enlightenment: Śrāvakayāna (Path of Listeners), Pratyekabuddhayāna (Path of Lone Buddhas), and Bodhisattvayāna (Path of Bodhisattvas).
The first two paths were primarily for monastics, while the Bodhisattvayāna, pursued by Mahayanists, emphasizes selfless concern for all beings and is accessible to laity.
Mahayanists refer to their path as the “Great Vehicle” and sometimes denigrate the other two as “Lesser Vehicles.”
Some Mahayana sutras, like the Lotus Sutra, teach a single “One Buddha Vehicle” that can lead anyone to final enlightenment.

2.3. Current Status of Mahayana Population

Studies from the Pew Foundation and others indicate that Mahayana is the largest branch of Buddhism.
Estimates suggest Mahayana Buddhists constitute between 53% and 68% of the global Buddhist population.

3. Early Mahayana Manuscripts in Gandhara

In the last three decades, numerous Buddhist manuscripts have been discovered in the Gandhara region, providing crucial information about the early Mahayana movement.
These manuscripts are found in several distinct collections, including the Schøyen, Bajaur, Split, and British Library collections.

3.1. Schøyen Collection I

This collection, found in Bamiyan, contains manuscripts from the 1st to the 7th century CE.
Early studies identified four Mahayana sutras, including the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Perfection of Wisdom), which is a core Mahayana text possibly written by Mahayanists within the Mahasamghika school.
Other identified texts include the Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanādanirdeśa and the Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodanāsutra.

3.2. Schøyen Collection II

Later studies of the collection identified fragments of other major Mahayana sutras.
These include the Saddharmapundarikasutra (Lotus Sutra), the Samadhirajasutra, the Larger Sukhavativyuhasutra, the Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita (Diamond Sutra), and Nāgārjuna’s Madhyamakakārikā.

3.3. Schøyen Collection III

Further research on the Schøyen Collection identified portions of the Bhaiṣajyagurusutra (Medicine Buddha Sutra) and additional fragments of the Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā (Diamond Sutra).
In 2016, fragments of five more Mahayana sutras were identified, including the Bhadrakalpikasūtra and the Bodhisattvapiṭa-kasūtra.

3.4. Bajaur Collection

Discovered in 1999, this collection of birch-bark scrolls dates to the 1st-2nd century CE.
It contains the largest known Mahayana sutra manuscript in the Gandhari language, which shares elements with several important sutras but appears to be a previously unknown text.
The presence of a Sarvastivada Vinaya text in the collection suggests that Mahayanists may have lived and practiced alongside Sarvastivadins.

3.5. Split Collection

This collection of birch-bark scrolls dates from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
It contains a version of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sutra that was carbon-dated to as early as 84 BCE, making it the oldest known Buddhist manuscript.
This finding provides strong evidence that the Mahayana movement began before the Common Era.

3.6. British Library Scrolls

These scrolls, dating to the early 1st century CE, were found in a pot with an inscription dedicating them to the Dharmaguptaka school.
The texts show a close relationship to the Chinese Dirghagama Sutra, suggesting the Dharmaguptaka school influenced the early Mahayana movement.

3.7. Other Gândhârîan Manuscripts Discovered in Bamiyan

Other manuscript fragments discovered in the Bamiyan area have been identified as Gandhari versions of Mahayana sutras.
These include the Bhadrakalpika-sutra, the Bodhisattvapitaka-sūtra, and the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa sutra, dating from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.

4. Early Mahayana Sculptures in Gandhara

Mahayana sculptures are identified by searching for images of bodhisattvas, who are central divine figures for Mahayanists.
Unlike Buddha images, bodhisattva figures have distinct iconographic features that reveal their identity and Mahayana context.

4.1. Human Form of Buddha and Bodhisattva Images

Before the 1st century CE, the Buddha was represented by symbols (aniconic art).
The shift to depicting the Buddha in human form (anthropomorphic art) around the 1st century CE is believed to have been inspired by Mahayana thought, which presents the Buddha as a divine guide in human form.

4.2. Bimaran Casket: Buddha and Bodhisattva Images in Human Forms

The Bimaran Casket, a gold reliquary from the late 1st century CE, contains the earliest known datable representation of the Buddha in human form.
The Buddha is depicted alongside figures identified as bodhisattvas, indicating the presence of Mahayana worship and followers in the region at that time.

4.3. Kanishka Casket: Buddha’s Relics

This casket, dated to 127 CE, contained relics of the Buddha and has an inscription linking it to the Sarvastivada school.
However, the casket is decorated with figures of the Buddha and bodhisattvas, providing evidence that Mahayanists and Sarvastivadins coexisted and shared religious sites and practices.

4.4. Significances of Bodhisattva Sculptures

The cult of bodhisattvas is a key feature of Mahayana Buddhism.
The three most common bodhisattvas in Gandharan art are Maitreya, Avalokitesvara, and Manjusri, figures worshipped almost exclusively by Mahayanists.
The abundance of their images in certain monasteries suggests Mahayana was a significant and active presence.

4.5. Two Bodhisattva Statues

Examples of 3rd-century CE Gandharan sculptures include a seated, pensive Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara and a standing Bodhisattva Maitreya.
These statues display distinct iconographic features, such as Maitreya holding a water flask and both figures wearing sandals, a unique feature of Gandharan art at the time.

5. Mahayana Footprints on Sectarian Buddhist SCHOOLS IN GANDHARA

This section analyzes the archaeological evidence to determine the degree of linkage between early Mahayanists and specific Nikaya schools in Gandhara.
The main schools present in the region were the Kasyapiyas, Dharmaguptakas, Sarvastivadins, and Mahasamghikas (including its sub-schools).

5.1. The Kāśyapīyas

The Kasyapiyas held views similar to the Mahasamghikas, such as the fallibility of arhats, which created a favorable environment for Mahayana ideas.
Epigraphical evidence links the Kasyapiya school to the Takht-i-Bahi monastery, where numerous bodhisattva sculptures were found, suggesting Mahayanists were active in their communities.

5.2. The Dharmaguptakas

Evidence from the British Library Scrolls and other texts confirms a close relationship with Mahayanists.
The Dharmaguptaka school’s monastic rules (vinaya) are still used in East Asian Mahayana Buddhism today.
Two Bodhisattva Maitreya sculptures from the Kushan period have also been linked to the Dharmaguptakas.

5.3. The Sarvastivadins

The Sarvastivadins were a dominant school in Gandhara, and evidence like the Kanishka Casket shows that Mahayanists lived and practiced within their monasteries.
Their doctrines also influenced Mahayana texts, and like the Mahasamghikas, they viewed arhats as fallible.

5.4. The Mahasaṃghikas

This school has the strongest link to the origins of Mahayana, as its doctrines on the transcendental nature of Buddhas and the fallibility of arhats were very close to Mahayana thought.
The large number of Mahayana manuscripts from the Schøyen Collection are believed to have come from a Mahasaṃghika monastery library in Bamiyan, making it a key source for the formation of Mahayana.

5.5. The Lokottaravadins

A sub-school of the Mahasaṃghikas, the Lokottaravadins were doctrinally almost indistinguishable from them.
They accepted Mahayana sutras as the authentic words of the Buddha, and some Gandharan manuscripts could belong to either school.

5.6. The Ekavyavaharikas

This Mahasaṃghika sub-school held doctrines consistent with Mahayana, such as the idea of a fundamentally pure mind.
Historical texts state they accepted Mahayana sutras, but no specific Gandharan archaeological evidence has been linked to them yet.

5.7. The Bahusrutiyas

This school was known for accepting both Mahayana and non-Mahayana teachings.
The Tattvasiddhi Shastra, a text associated with this school, became highly influential in Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, but no specific Gandharan artifacts have been affiliated with them.

6. CONCLUSION

Based on the number of affiliated manuscripts and sculptures, the Mahasamghikas have the strongest connection to the origin of the Mahayana movement, followed by the Sarvastivadins, Kasyapiyas, Lokottaravadins, and Dharmaguptakas.
Evidence suggests early Mahayanists did not form a separate school but lived within existing Nikaya monasteries, sharing facilities and practices.
The discovery of a Mahayana sutra from the 1st century BCE suggests the movement began around that time.
Early Mahayana sutras were likely developed by different small groups without full coordination, leading to variations in terminology and content.
The Gandharan manuscripts are crucial for understanding the original languages and thoughts behind early Mahayana scriptures, many of which only survive in later Chinese translations.