Pāli Literature

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This summary is generated by Google Gemini Pro 2.5 based on the book’s content and may not capture all nuances. For a complete understanding, please refer to the original work.

• It covers the canonical literature in Pāli, Prakrit, and Sanskrit of all Hīnayāna schools of Buddhism.
• The book’s contents are divided into chapters covering the Pāli language and tradition, the Pāli Canon (Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma piṭakas), and early and later post-canonical texts.
• The author focuses on works that have been edited in Roman script or translated into a European language, acknowledging a lack of coverage for South-East Asian Pāli literature.
• The foreword notes that the book does not delve deeply into the chronological stratification of texts due to space constraints and the subjective nature of the topic.
• It references the more detailed works of scholars like Geiger, Winternitz, Law, Malalasekera, and Bode.

CHAPTER I - THE PĀLI LANGUAGE AND THE THERAVĀDIN TRADITION

1. THE NAME “PĀLI”

• The word “Pāli” is not used to name the language within the Theravādin canon itself.
• In commentaries, the word pāli means “canon” or “canonical text,” as opposed to the commentary on it.
• The name “Pāli” for the language likely originated from a misunderstanding of the term pāli-bhāsā (“language of the canon”).
• This usage was noted in Thailand in the late 17th century and was adopted by European scholars in the 19th century from Sinhalese practice.

2. THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PĀLI LANGUAGE

• Commentaries identify the language of the canon as Māgadhī, the Buddha’s native tongue, but linguistic analysis shows Pāli is not pure Māgadhī.
• Pāli is a composite language, showing evidence of transmission through various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects before being standardized.
• The Buddha likely preached in local dialects, which were later collected and redacted into a normalized, ecclesiastical language.
• This language underwent partial Sanskritisation before being committed to writing in the first century B.C.
• Over centuries, Pāli was further influenced by grammarians, scribal traditions, and the native languages of countries where it was studied, such as Sinhalese, Burmese, and Thai.

3. THE HISTORY OF THE THERAVĀDIN TRADITION

• The First Council was held after the Buddha’s death to recite and establish the Dhamma and Vinaya through an oral tradition.
• Specialist reciters (bhānakas) were tasked with memorizing and transmitting different parts of the canon, which sometimes led to variations between texts.
• A Second Council addressed disciplinary issues and resulted in the first major schism, with the Mahāsānghikas splitting from the Theravādins.
• A Third Council was held during the reign of Asoka.
• The Pāli canon was first written down in Ceylon in the first century B.C. during the reign of Vaṭṭagāmaṇī Abhaya, an event some traditions call the Fourth Council.
• Buddhism spread to Burma and Siam (Thailand), leading to a continuous exchange of texts and monastic traditions with Ceylon.
• Later councils were held to purify the texts, including a Fifth Council in Burma (1868-71) and a Sixth Council in Rangoon (1954-56), which produced a modern standardized edition of the Tipiṭaka.

CHAPTER II - THE PĀLI CANON

• The Pāli Canon can be classified in several ways: as two parts (dhamma and vinaya), three baskets (piṭakas), five collections (nikāyas), or nine literary types (angas).
• The nine angas (e.g., sutta, geyya, gāthā) were an early classification describing different types of text rather than specific books.
• The most common modern division is into three piṭakas: the Vinaya-piṭaka, Sutta-piṭaka, and Abhidhamma-piṭaka.
• The Sarvāstivādin school also had a three-piṭaka canon with the same names, indicating this division predates the schism between the schools.

2. THE VINAYA-PIṬAKA

• The Vinaya-piṭaka, or “Basket of Discipline,” is divided into three sections: the Suttavibhanga, the Khandhaka, and the Parivāra.
• Suttavibhanga:
  • Contains the Pātimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks and 311 for nuns.
  • Each rule is typically presented with a story of its origin, the rule itself, a word-by-word analysis called the “Old Commentary,” and stories of deviations.
  • Other early Buddhist schools had similar texts, with minor variations in the rules.
• Khandhaka:
  • Comprises the Mahāvagga and Cullavagga.
  • Contains rules for the Sangha’s conduct, arranged by subject (e.g., medicines, robes) within a biographical framework of the Buddha.
  • It also includes rules for nuns and historical accounts of the first two Buddhist councils.
  • The Mahāvastu of the Mahāsānghika-Lokottaravādin school is a related text but is more biographical and contains fewer monastic rules.
• Parivāra:
  • An appendix or supplement to the Vinaya, possibly composed in Ceylon.
  • It summarizes and analyzes the Vinaya rules in 19 chapters, often using a question-and-answer or numerical format.
  • Its canonical status was not accepted by all schools.

3. THE SUTTA-PIṬAKA

• The Sutta-piṭaka, or “Basket of Discourses,” consists of five collections (nikāyas).
• The first four nikāyas are arranged by the length or content of the discourses (suttas):
  • Dīgha-nikāya: Contains 34 long discourses, including legends, ethical teachings, and accounts of the Buddha’s last days (Mahāparinibbānasutta).
  • Majjhima-nikāya: Contains 152 middle-length discourses, including autobiographical accounts of the Buddha, narrative stories, and doctrinal discussions.
  • Saṃyutta-nikāya: Contains thousands of short suttas grouped or “connected” (saṃyutta) by topic, such as a specific doctrine, person, or class of being.
  • Añguttara-nikāya: Contains suttas arranged in eleven sections based on the number of items discussed, from one to eleven.
• The fifth collection, the Khuddaka-nikāya (“Miscellaneous Collection”), contains fifteen distinct texts of varying age and content:
  • Khuddakapāṭha: A short handbook for novices compiled from other parts of the canon.
  • Dhammapada: A famous collection of 423 ethical verses.
  • Udāna: A collection of 80 solemn utterances made by the Buddha.
  • Itivuttaka: 112 short discourses in a mix of prose and verse.
  • Suttanipāta: A collection of discourses in verse, containing some of the oldest material in the canon.
  • Vimānavatthu and Petavatthu: Stories describing heavenly rewards for good deeds and the suffering of ghosts due to bad deeds.
  • Theragāthā and Therīgāthā: “Verses of the Elder Monks” and “Verses of the Elder Nuns,” containing personal poems about their religious experiences.
  • Jātaka: A collection of over 500 stories of the Buddha’s previous births, where only the verses are considered canonical.
  • Niddesa: A canonical commentary on parts of the Suttanipāta.
  • Paṭisambhidāmagga: A systematic, Abhidhamma-style analysis of key Buddhist doctrines.
  • Apadāna: A collection of verse legends about the past lives of eminent monks and nuns.
  • Buddhavamsa: A “Chronicle of Buddhas” detailing the lives of the 24 Buddhas who preceded Gotama.
  • Cariyāpiṭaka: A collection of Jātaka-style stories illustrating the ten perfections of a Bodhisatta.

4. THE ABHIDHAMMA-PIṬAKA

• The Abhidhamma-piṭaka, or “Basket of Higher Doctrine,” is considered a later addition to the canon and contains systematic analyses of Buddhist doctrine.
• It consists of seven books, which were developed independently from the Abhidharma texts of other schools like the Sarvāstivādins.
• The seven books are:
  • Dhammasangani: An enumeration and definition of all mental and material states (dhammas).
  • Vibhanga: An analysis of 18 major topics (e.g., aggregates, truths) from both a discourse (Sutta) and a technical (Abhidhamma) perspective.
  • Dhātukathā: A detailed examination of the relationships between psychical phenomena, classified under aggregates, bases, and elements.
  • Puggala-paññatti: A classification of different types of individuals, similar in style to the Añguttara-nikāya.
  • Kathāvatthu: A refutation of heretical doctrines, traditionally said to have been compiled by Tissa at the Third Buddhist Council.
  • Yamaka: The “Book of Pairs,” a text on applied logic that examines topics through a thesis and its opposite.
  • Paṭthāna: The longest book, which provides an exhaustive analysis of the 24 types of causal relations between all phenomena.

CHAPTER III - EARLY POST-CANONICAL TEXTS

1. EARLY PROSE TEXTS

• Petakopadesa: An early treatise on hermeneutics (interpreting suttas), ascribed to Kaccāna but not the Buddha’s disciple. It was likely composed in India before the 2nd century B.C. and teaches a method for correctly rephrasing Buddhist teachings using 16 modes (hāras) and five guidelines (nayas).
• Nettippakarana: A guide for writing commentaries, considered a rewritten and improved version of the Petakopadesa. Its use of the Āryā metre suggests a North Indian origin before the Christian era. It greatly influenced later commentators, including Buddhaghosa.
• Milindapañha: A dialogue between the Greek king Milinda (Menander) and the thera Nāgasena, composed between the 2nd century B.C. and the 5th century A.D. It is thought to be a Pāli translation of a North Indian original and is composed of material from different periods.
• Vimuttimagga: An early text by Upatissa that was used by Buddhaghosa when writing the Visuddhimagga. The Pāli original may be lost, but a Chinese translation exists. It is shorter than the Visuddhimagga and organises its content under the three headings of sīla (morality), samādhi (concentration), and paññā (wisdom).

2. THE EARLY CHRONICLES

• Dīpavamsa: The first extant verse chronicle (vamsa) of Ceylon, covering its history from the Buddha’s time to the 4th century A.D. It appears to be a compilation of various, sometimes overlapping, sources and is written in a difficult style of Pāli.
• Bāhiranidāna: An introduction to Buddhaghosa’s Vinaya commentary, the Samantapāsādikā. It is based on the same historical materials as the Dīpavamsa but integrates the different source versions more successfully.
• Mahāvamsa: A chronicle by Mahānāma, written to be a more polished and coherent replacement for earlier works like the Dīpavamsa. It covers the same historical period but is superior in literary style and is considered an epic poem (kāvya). The original work ends in the middle of chapter XXXVII.

3. THE EARLY COMMENTARIES

• According to tradition, the commentaries (* atthakathās*) were brought to Ceylon by Mahinda and translated into the Sinhalese language.
• Some commentarial material is very old, possibly predating the schisms between Buddhist sects.
• The commentators based their work on a mass of disjointed material from various sources, sometimes including contradictory explanations.

3.1. Buddhaghosa

• A prolific commentator from the first half of the 5th century A.D. who translated the Sinhalese commentaries into Pāli.
• Visuddhimagga: His most famous work, an encyclopedic compendium of Buddhist doctrine structured around sīla, samādhi, and paññā. It served as a detailed manual for meditation masters.
• Nikāya and Vinaya Commentaries: He wrote the Samantapāsādikā (Vinaya), Sumañgalavilāsinī (Dīgha-nikāya), Papañcasūdanī (Majjhima-nikāya), Sāratthappakāsinī (Saṃyutta-nikāya), and Manorathapūranī (Añguttara-nikāya).
• Abhidhamma Commentaries: He wrote the Atthasālinī (Dhammasañgani), Sammohavinodanī (Vibhanga), and the Pañcappakaraṇaṭthakathā (for the remaining five books). His commentary on the Kathāvatthu is notable for identifying the schools associated with various heretical views.
• Other Commentaries: The Kaṅkhāvitaranī (Pātimokkha commentary) and commentaries on the Dhammapada, Jātaka, Khuddakapāṭha, and Suttanipāta are also attributed to him, though authorship of the latter group is sometimes debated due to stylistic differences.

3.2. Buddhadatta

• A contemporary of Buddhaghosa who wrote summaries of canonical texts, possibly based on the same Sinhalese commentaries used by Buddhaghosa.
• His works include the Vinayavinicchaya and Uttaravinicchaya (summaries of the Vinaya) and the Abhidhammāvatāra and Rūpārūpavibhāga (summaries of the Abhidhamma).
• He composed his works in South India during the reign of King Acyutavikrama of the Kalamba clan.

3.3. Mahānāma

• Author of the Saddhammappakāsinī, a commentary on the Paṭisambhidāmagga, written in the 6th century A.D.
• As there was likely no existing Sinhalese commentary for this text, he borrowed extensively from Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga.

3.4. Upasena

• Author of the Saddhammappajotikā, a commentary on the Niddesa, written around the middle of the 6th century A.D.
• He borrowed material from Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga and Sammohavinodanī, as well as the commentary on the Suttanipāta.

3.5. Dhammapāla

• A commentator from South India who worked around the middle of the 6th century A.D. and aimed to complete the commentaries on the Khuddaka-nikāya.
• His commentaries are collectively called Paramatthadīpanī and cover the Udāna, Itivuttaka, Petavatthu, Vimānavatthu, Theragāthā, Therīgāthā, and Cariyāpiṭaka.
• He also wrote a commentary on the Nettippakaraṇa.
• He based his work on the Mahāvihāra tradition and often used Buddhaghosa’s works without attribution. His commentaries frequently include introductory stories and word-for-word explanations of verses.

Chapter IV - LATER POST-CANONICAL TEXTS

1. THE LATER CHRONICLES

• The Vamsatthappakāsinī is a commentary (ṭīkā) on the Mahāvaṃsa, written around the 8th or 9th century AD by an unnamed author.
• It used various sources, including the Sīhala atthakathā and even texts from the rival Abhayagirivihāra, indicating some interaction between the sects.
• The Cūlavaṃsa is the continuation of the Mahāvaṃsa, written in several parts over centuries, covering the period from King Mahāsena’s death to the arrival of the English in 1815.
• The Mahābodhivaṃsa, attributed to Upatissa (10th century AD), is a prose work in Sanskritised Pāli about the history of the bodhi tree.
• The Dāṭhāvaṃsa, by Dhammakitti (c. 1211 AD), is a poem of high literary merit detailing the history of the tooth relic.
• The Thūpavaṃsa, by Vācissara (13th century AD), focuses on the building of the Mahāthūpa by Duṭṭhagāmaṇī.
• Other chronicles include the Hatthavanagalla-vihāra-vamsa (13th century), the Burmese Cha-kesa-dhātu-vamsa, and the Thai Jinakālamālī (by Ratanapañña, c. 1516-1527 AD), which chronicles Buddhism in India, Ceylon, and Southeast Asia.
• Later historical texts include the Thai Sangītivaṃsa (18th century), the Sandesakathā (c. 1801 AD), and the Buddhaghosuppatti, a 14th-century historical romance from Burma.

2. THE LATER COMMENTARIES

2.1. Atṭhakathās

• The Madhuratthavilāsinī, a commentary on the Buddhavamsa, is attributed to Buddhadatta but may be by a later author.
• The Visuddhajanavilāsinī is an anonymous commentary on the Apadāna and is later than Dhammapāla. It does not comment on the Therīapādāna section.
• The Mohavicchedanī, by Kassapa (c. 1160-1230 AD), is a commentary on the matrices (mātikās) of the Abhidhamma-piṭaka that expounds the entire Abhidhamma system.

2.2. Tīkās

• A ṭīkā is a secondary commentary, i.e., a commentary upon a commentary.
• Evidence suggests ṭīkās existed much earlier than the 12th century.
• The ṭīkā on the Visuddhimagga, likely by a different Dhammapāla than the one who wrote the * atthakathās*, dates to the late 10th century AD.
• The Milinda-ṭīkā, by Mahātipiṭaka-Cūḷābhayatthera (c. 1474 AD), comments on the Milindapañha and suggests Buddhaghosa composed or revised parts of it.
• Commentaries were classified as early (purāṇa) and later (nava) ṭīkās, with further supplements called anuṭīkās.

3. LATER ABHIDHAMMA TEXTS

• The Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, by Anuruddha (11th-12th century), is a famous and highly condensed manual covering the entire field of Abhidhamma.
• Anuruddha also wrote the Nāmarūpapariccheda and possibly the Paramatthavinicchaya.
• Other manuals include the Saccasaṅkhepa by Culladhammapāla and the Nāmarūpasamāsa by Khema.
• These and other works form a group known in Burma as the “Little-finger Manuals” (Let-than).

4. COLLECTIONS OF EDIFYING TALES

• This genre of literature emphasizes the merit of giving (dāna).
• The Dasavatthuppakaraṇa contains stories illustrating the benefits of ten types of gifts to the Sangha.
• The Sīhalavatthuppakaraṇa is a collection of 77 stories, mostly set in Ceylon, glorifying donors.
• The Sahassavatthuppakaraṇa contains 95 stories from India and Ceylon and appears to be a translation from Sinhalese.
• The Rasavāhinī, by Vedeha (13th-14th century), is a revision of an earlier work, containing 40 stories from India and 63 from Ceylon.

5. KĀVYA WORKS

• This period saw Pāli literature influenced by Sanskrit ornate poetry (kāvya).
• The Telakaṭāhagāthā is a poem of 98 stanzas on Buddhist doctrines, supposedly recited by a thera facing execution.
• The Jinālaṅkāra, by Buddharakkhita (c. 1156 AD), is a highly stylized poem on the Buddha’s life, using literary devices like palindromes.
• The Jinacarita, by Medhankara (13th century), is another poem on the Buddha’s life, based mainly on the Nidānakathā.
• The Pajjamadhu, by Buddhappiya (13th-14th century), is a poem of 104 stanzas praising the Buddha’s physical beauty and wisdom.
• The Samantakūṭavaṇnanā, by Vedeha (13th-14th century), describes the Buddha’s life, culminating in his visit to Ceylon.
• The Saddhammopāyana (13th century) and Pañcagatidīpana (14th century) are poems dealing with Buddhist ethical doctrines and the five realms of rebirth, respectively.

6. PROPHETIC TEXTS

• These texts focus on the future Buddha, Metteyya.
• The Anāgatavaṃsa, a poem ascribed to Kassapa, describes the coming of Metteyya and the decline of Buddhism.
• The Dasabodhisattuppattikathā (late 14th century) tells of ten future Buddhas and shows Mahāyāna influence through its stories of self-sacrifice.
• Other related texts include the Dasabodhisattuddesa and the Samantabhaddikā, a commentary on the Anāgatavaṃsa.

7. MEDICAL TEXTS

• The origins of Pāli medical texts are in the Bhesajjakkhandaka of the Vinaya-piṭaka.
• The only extant Pāli medical text is the Bhesajjamañjūsā, written by Atthadassi around 1267 AD.
• Its stated purpose was to help those in the spiritual life avoid illness.

8. GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICOGRAPHICAL WORKS

• The earliest known Pāli grammar is by Kaccāyana, which was influenced by Sanskrit works like Pāṇini’s grammar.
• The Saddanīti, by Aggavaṃsa of Burma (1154 AD), is considered the greatest extant Pāli grammar.
• Moggallāna founded a new school of grammar around 1165 AD with his more exhaustive Moggallāyanavyākaraṇa.
• The earliest Pāli dictionary is the Abhidhānappadīpikā by Navamoggallāna (late 12th century), a dictionary of synonyms modeled on the Sanskrit Amarakośa.
• The Ekakkharakosa (1465 AD) is a metrical list of monosyllabic words.

9. POETICS AND PROSODY

• The thera Sangharakkhita (late 12th century) composed several works on rhetoric and metre based on Sanskrit models.
• His Subodhālañkāra is a work on poetics, covering composition, ornamentation, and figures of speech.
• His Vuttodaya is the only known original work on Pāli metre.
• He also wrote the Sambandhacintā, a work on the Pāli verb and syntax.

10. BOOKS ON DISCIPLINE

• The Khuddasikkhā and Mūlasikkhā are compendiums of the Vinaya-piṭaka, mostly in verse, designed to make the rules easier to learn.
• The Upāsakajanālañkāra, by Ānanda (12th century), is the only systematic Pāli text on the proper conduct for a layperson, compiling instructions from the canon and commentaries.

11. BOUNDARY TEXTS

• Texts were written to address legalistic issues concerning monastic boundaries (sīmā).
• The Sīmālañkāra by Vācissara and its summary, the Sīmāsaṅgaha, were key texts from the 13th century.
• The continuing importance of the subject is shown by later works like the Sīmāsaṅkarachedanī (15th century) and the Sīmāvivādavinicchayakathā (early 19th century).

12. ANTHOLOGIES

• The Suttasaṅgaha is an early anthology of suttas, considered canonical in Burma, arranged by topics such as giving (dāna) and morality (sīla).
• The Sārasaṅgaha, by Siddhattha (13th-14th century), contains 40 chapters on Buddhist topics, illustrated with stories.
• The Paritta is a collection of protective texts from the Suttapiṭaka chanted as charms. Collections vary, with a longer set of 28 known as the Catubhāṇavāra.

13. COSMOLOGY

• The oldest Pāli text on cosmology is the Lokapaññatti, likely written in Burma in the 11th or 12th century.
• It is a compilation of information and stories about the world, drawing from the Sanskrit Lokaprajñapti, the Mahāvastu, and the Pāli canon.
• A later Thai work on the subject is the Cakkavāladīpanī (1520 AD).

14. WISDOM TEXTS

• Nīti texts, collections of aphorisms on worldly wisdom, were popular in Burma.
• The earliest is likely the Dhammanīti (14th-15th century), followed by the Lokanīti and Mahārahanīti.
• These are compilations of verses from other Pāli texts (like the Jātaka) and adaptations from Sanskrit sources, especially those attributed to Cānakya.

15. JĀTAKA COLLECTIONS

• The Paññāsa-jātaka is a non-canonical collection of 50 Jātaka stories, with Thai, Cambodian, and Burmese versions.
• The stories draw on motifs from the canonical Jātakas, Buddhist Sanskrit texts, and local folk literature.
• The Kosala-bimba-vaṇṇanā (13th-14th century) is a work justifying the practice of making Buddha images, told in the style of a Jātaka story.

16. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL WORKS

• Some later chronicles function as histories of literature.
• The Saddhammasaṅgaha (late 14th century) gives an account of Buddhism and lists principal literary works.
• The Gandhavaṃsa (17th century Burma) provides a brief history of the canon and post-canonical books, listing authors and their works.
• The Sāsanavaṃsa (1861 Burma) chronicles the history of the doctrine and its authors, particularly in Ceylon and Burma.
• The Sāsanavaṃsadīpa (1880) is a similar work in Pāli verse focusing on the history of Buddhism in Ceylon.