What Buddhists Believe

Dhammananda, K. S. (2002). What Buddhists Believe (4th ed.). Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia.

Foreword

Ven. Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda is a renowned Buddhist scholar who has devoted nearly fifty years to spreading Buddhism in Malaysia.
As an initiator of the First World Buddhist Conference in 1998, he advocates for overcoming barriers between denominations by returning to the original teachings of Lord Buddha.
The author suggests that Buddhism can lead the modern world to peace, unlike other religions that have historically engaged in conflict.
The book is a good introduction to Buddhism, written mainly from the Theravada perspective, and is suitable for beginners.
Readers are encouraged to learn about other denominations (Mahayana and Vajirayana) and proceed together toward the common goal of Nirvana.

Preface

Ven. Dr K. Sri Dhammananda arrived in Malaya in 1952 when the practice of Buddhism was not widespread and was often mixed with Taoism, folk religion, and Confucianism.
He became the chief incumbent of the Buddhist Temple in Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur, and began a teaching and writing career spanning half a century.
He advocated returning to the original teachings of the Buddha while supporting all schools of Buddhism (Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana).
He founded the Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia, which publishes and distributes his writings.
His book, “What Buddhists Believe,” first published in 1962, explains how Buddha’s teachings can help with contemporary problems and has been translated into numerous languages.
Ven. Dhammananda emphasized that Buddhism is not about blind belief but about studying, practicing, and experiencing the teachings.
This fourth expanded edition of the book was published to commemorate his 50th anniversary of service in Malaysia.

PART ONE - LIFE AND MESSAGE OF THE BUDDHA

1. LIFE AND NATURE OF THE BUDDHA

Gautama, The Buddha

Born Siddhartha Gautama, a prince in Northern India in the 6th century B.C., he became known as the Buddha, meaning ‘The Enlightened One’, after attaining Enlightenment.
Despite a luxurious upbringing, he was troubled by the suffering he witnessed in the ‘Four Sights’ (an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a recluse).
At age 29, he renounced his princely life, family, and wealth to seek a cure for universal suffering.
After six years of studying with masters and practicing severe self-mortification, which he found futile, he chose a path of moderation.
At age 35, he attained Enlightenment while meditating under the Bodhi tree, realizing the true nature of existence.
For the next 45 years, he taught the Dharma (the universal law he rediscovered), founding an order of monks and nuns and challenging the caste system.
Known for his profound wisdom (pañña) and compassion (karuna), he taught people from all walks of life, from kings to criminals, how to achieve liberation through their own efforts.
He emphasized rational thought and inner understanding over blind faith, dogma, or supernatural powers.
He passed away at the age of eighty, leaving a vast body of teachings and a community of followers.

His Renunciation

At the age of 29, Prince Siddhartha resolved to leave his palace to find a path to deliverance from suffering, believing all earthly things to be temporary.
He left quietly at night, leaving his wife and newborn son, to avoid being stopped by his family who would have implored him to stay.
Though some criticize this act as abandonment, his wife later understood his purpose and adopted a simple life out of respect.
Siddhartha’s renunciation was not for personal gain but for the sake of all humanity, which he saw as one family suffering from physical and mental ailments.
He believed detachment from worldly pleasures and relationships was essential to develop the concentration needed to find the cure for human suffering.

Nature of the Buddha

The Buddha is compared to the sun and moon, whose arising brings a great light that ends the darkness of bewilderment by revealing the Four Noble Truths.
He appeared at a time of global philosophical and religious development, and in an Indian society marked by priestcraft, caste distinctions, and corruption.
His personal magnetism and radiant confidence attracted people from all walks of life, including kings, beggars, courtesans, and criminals, to whom he gave the gift of Truth.
As ‘Lokavidu’ (knower of the world), he understood the futility of trying to remould the external world and instead taught how to conquer one’s inner world by training the mind.
His core teaching was to end evil, do good, and purify the mind.
He encouraged free thinking, self-reliance, and focusing on present duties.
He provided a new explanation of the universe and pointed out the way to Nirvana, the final deliverance from suffering.
More than 2,500 years later, he is still honored globally by religious people, rationalists, scientists, and intellectuals as an enlightened and compassionate teacher.

Was Buddha an Incarnation of God?

The Buddha never claimed to be a god, the son of a god, or a messenger of a god; he was a self-enlightened human being.
Through his own efforts, he perfected ten supreme qualities and opened the doors to all knowledge.
He identified himself not as a divine being or an ordinary human, but as “the Buddha, the Awakened One,” a special class of enlightened beings.
Buddhists believe anyone can become a Buddha, and that different Buddhas appear over time; they are not reincarnations of the same person.
Historically, some religious groups in India tried to absorb Buddhism by claiming the Buddha was a reincarnation of one of their gods, which contributed to Buddhism’s decline in the country.
Some modern groups misrepresent the Buddha’s teachings by claiming a new Buddha has already arrived, sometimes identifying them as figures like Jesus Christ or others.
The Buddha predicted a future Buddha would appear, but only after his own teachings, like the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, are completely forgotten by the world.

The Buddha’s Service

The Buddha’s purpose was to dispel ignorance and show the world how to be free from suffering.
He embodied the virtues he preached, and his moral code is considered the most perfect the world has known.
For over 2,500 years, his teachings have inspired millions and offered a path to peace (Nirvana).
He was one of the first religious leaders to admonish against animal sacrifice and harming any living creature.
He taught that religion was a path to enlightenment, encouraging followers to think freely rather than have blind faith.
He showed unfailing compassion, even towards his worst enemies who tried to harm him.
He worked tirelessly for 45 years, sleeping only two hours a day, to elevate humanity.
His message of love and wisdom is considered pure, timeless, and essential for world peace today.
Instead of destroying wicked people, the Buddha’s aim was to show them the correct path.
He sought to reveal a universal path for all people to find complete freedom from physical and mental suffering.

Historical Evidences of the Buddha

Testimonies from contemporaries were recorded in rock inscriptions, pillars, and pagodas.
Archaeological discoveries of places and building remains match descriptions from narratives of His time.
The Sangha (monastic order) He founded has an unbroken lineage to the present day, preserving His life story and teachings.
Councils were held after His death to verify His teachings, which have been transmitted through generations.
His cremated bodily relics were divided, enshrined in pagodas, and later distributed by Emperor Asoka; some have been discovered with inscriptions proving their authenticity.
Ancient historical texts like ‘The Mahavamsa’ and Indian history provide detailed accounts of His life and influence.
Records from numerous Buddhist countries, though separated by time and geography, independently corroborate the same facts about His life.
The Tripitaka, the extensive record of His 45 years of teaching, serves as proof of His existence.
Buddhist texts offer accurate historical information about the socio-political environment of India in the 5th and 6th centuries B.C.
Many places mentioned in the scriptures, such as Lumbini and Bodhagaya, still exist today.

Salvation Through Arahantahood

The belief that seeking salvation through Arahantahood is selfish has no basis in the Buddha’s original teachings.
The Buddha taught that individuals must make their own effort for salvation, as Buddhas are only teachers.
The idea that everyone must become a Buddha is impractical, similar to suggesting everyone must become a doctor to cure illnesses.
While Buddhahood is the highest ideal, not everyone is capable of achieving it; becoming an Arahant is a valid goal.
Attaining Arahantahood requires eradicating all greed and selfishness, meaning an Arahant acts with compassion and inspires others.
Arahants and other disciples also teach the Dhamma to help others find their own path to salvation.

Who Is A Bodhisatva?

A Bodhisattva is a compassionate being devoted to Enlightenment, destined to become a future Buddha.
They perfect ten transcendental virtues (Parami), such as generosity, morality, and wisdom, for the welfare of all beings.
The term was originally used in Pali scriptures to refer to Prince Siddhartha before his Enlightenment.
In Mahayana Buddhism, a Bodhisattva voluntarily delays their own Nirvana to help others attain it.
Theravada Buddhists respect Bodhisattvas but believe individuals must achieve their own salvation by following the Buddha’s path, not through a saviour.
The concept of Bodhisattvas waiting in a “Pure Land” (Sukhavati) is foreign to Theravada teachings.
A Bodhisattva does not have to be a Buddhist and can be born in any form or family, distinguished by their aspiration to develop virtues over many lives.
They are not divine beings in a separate world but exist as beings, usually human, cultivating virtues on the path to enlightenment.

Attainment of Buddhahood

Anyone has the potential to become a Buddha, but it is the most difficult task a person can achieve.
Attainment requires immense effort over innumerable births, involving self-discipline, sacrifice of worldly pleasures, and purification of the mind.
Buddhahood is achieved through self-purification and insight, not through prayer or supernatural intervention.
The long time needed to practice the ten perfections is why a Supreme Buddha appears very rarely.
For salvation, it is not necessary for everyone to become a Buddha; one can also become a Pacceka Buddha (Silent Buddha) or an Arahant (Perfected One).
Pacceka Buddhas are enlightened but do not preach, while Arahants can experience Nirvanic bliss and guide others but lack the Supreme Enlightenment of a Buddha.

Trikaya - The Three Bodies of the Buddha

In Mahayana philosophy, a Buddha has three bodies or aspects: Dharma-kaya (Truth body), Sambhoga-kaya (Enjoyment body), and Nirmana-kaya (Manifestation body).
Nirmana-kaya is the physical, historical body of a Buddha, such as Siddhartha Gautama, who is born, teaches, and attains Parinirvana.
Dharma-kaya is the ‘Truth-body’, representing the ultimate, universal principle of Enlightenment. It is the essential nature of a Buddha, eternal and the same for all Buddhas.
Sambhoga-kaya is the ‘Enjoyment-body’ or ‘Body of Bliss’, representing the Buddha’s selfless, spiritual joy in the Dharma, in teaching, and in guiding others.
Early Theravada texts distinguish between the Buddha’s physical body and his embodiment of Truth (Dharma-kaya), and later works like the Visuddhi Magga also refer to the Buddha’s beautiful physical form (Rupakaya) and his purified Dharma-kaya.

2 HIS MESSAGE

Message for All

The Buddha’s teachings (Dharma) remain relevant today because they focus on promoting freedom, happiness, and well-being through a middle path, avoiding extremes of self-denial or sensual desire.
Spiritual progress is individual, but every person has the potential to attain Buddhahood.
The teachings have spread for thousands of years through love and compassion, not by force, political power, or fear.
Despite the rise and fall of civilizations over 25 centuries, the Buddha’s message of righteousness endures.
The Buddha taught that the greatest conquest is conquering oneself, not others.
Emperor Asoka is a key example, transforming from a violent conqueror to a compassionate ruler who promoted peace and religious tolerance after embracing the Dharma.
The Buddha’s teachings offer a direct approach to life’s problems, aiming to create a cultured and peaceful society.

Miraculous Power

The Buddha gained psychic powers through intense meditation, which culminated in his Enlightenment and understanding of past lives, Karma, and the nature of suffering.
The Buddha’s greatness lies in his Supreme Enlightenment, not in performing miracles, which have little to do with seeing reality.
He advised his disciples not to use psychic powers to convert people, as it appeals to delusion rather than reason and can be dismissed as tricks.
An anecdote about an ascetic who spent 25 years learning to walk on water illustrates the Buddha’s view that such powers can be an insignificant gain for the effort involved.
In Buddhism, sainthood is a personal attainment through self-purification, and performing miracles can be a hindrance to this process.
The Buddha taught that spiritual power should be developed first, after which psychic powers may follow; developing psychic powers without spiritual maturity is dangerous and can be misused.
The only true miracle, according to the Buddha, is the “miracle of realisation,” where a person understands the Dharma and transforms from a bad, immoral way of life to a good one.

The Buddha’s Silence

The Buddha would remain silent if the questioner was not capable of understanding the answer or if the question itself was wrongly posed.
He was often silent on metaphysical and speculative questions, such as the eternity of the universe or the existence of the soul after death.
His silence was considered more significant than an answer, as human language is too limited to describe Ultimate Truth to someone with only mundane experience.
As a practical teacher, he did not answer meaningless questions that were irrelevant to a person’s spiritual development.

How to Answer Questions

According to the Buddha, there are four ways to approach questions.
The first type requires a definite answer, like ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
The second type requires an analytical answer where the conditions are examined.
The third type is best answered with a counter-question to help the questioner think through the problem.
The fourth type is a speculative question that should be dropped to avoid confusion.
The Buddha sometimes answered these speculative questions later for his more intellectually developed disciples.

The Buddha’s Attitude towards Worldly Knowledge

Worldly knowledge is useful for worldly ends, both beneficial (improving living standards) and harmful (creating weapons).
Despite its expansion, worldly knowledge cannot solve fundamental human problems or eradicate suffering.
Buddhism’s primary focus is on gaining liberation through wisdom and mental purity, not on acquiring worldly knowledge.
The Buddha taught that ignorance of the Dharma traps beings in Samsara, the endless cycle of suffering through birth and death.
He considered speculative questions about the universe futile, as they do not contribute to spiritual wellbeing or overcoming suffering.
Worldly knowledge must be balanced with spiritual and religious values to prevent it from fueling egoism, greed, and destruction.
When harnessed for moral purposes, worldly knowledge can bring maximum benefit and happiness to humanity.

The Last Message of the Buddha

The Buddha instructed his disciples to learn, practice, and teach his sermons, stating that after his death, his Teaching would be their Master.
He urged his followers to be earnest, mindful, and virtuous, as pursuing the Teaching would lead to the end of suffering.
The Buddha clarified that no single person would lead the Order, as it was not dependent on any individual.
He advised his disciples to be a “lamp and refuge unto yourselves,” relying on the Truth and seeking no other refuge.
At the age of eighty, he passed away, demonstrating the impermanent nature of all component things.
His final words were: “Work diligently. Component things are impermanent.”

3 AFTER THE BUDDHA

Does the Buddha Exist after His Death?

The question of whether the Buddha exists after death was posed to him during his lifetime.
The Buddha explained to his disciple Anuradha that form, feeling, perception, formative tendencies, and consciousness are all impermanent, painful, and not a permanent self or soul.
Understanding this leads to disenchantment, freedom from passion, and emancipation from the cycle of birth.
The Buddha demonstrated that a Tathagata (a Buddha) cannot be found within these impermanent components, nor separate from them, even during life.
Since a Tathagata cannot be pinpointed as a fixed entity in life, it is improper to speculate on whether one exists, does not exist, both, or neither after death.
The Buddha stated that his focus is on teaching the truth of Suffering and its cessation.

A Successor to the Buddha

Buddhahood is the highest achievement and cannot be appointed; it must be earned through self-training, discipline, supreme knowledge, and compassion.
An unqualified successor, like an unqualified doctor or lawyer, could misuse their authority or distort the teachings.
The Buddha taught that each individual must develop their own understanding and insight.
Appointing a successor could have led to an organised religion with dogmas and blind faith, which is prone to abuse by spiritually undeveloped people.
Religious authority should be held by those with clear minds and understanding, not by worldly people seeking power or pleasure.

The Future Buddha

The Buddha stated that he was not the first Buddha on Earth, nor would he be the last.
He comforted his weeping disciples by explaining that all things are impermanent, but the Truth (Dharma) would remain and should be their teacher after he was gone.
He prophesied that another Buddha would arise in the future, a Supremely Enlightened One who would teach the same Eternal Truths.
This future Buddha will be known as Maitreya, which means kindness or friendliness.
People performing meritorious deeds now may have the chance to be reborn in Maitreya’s time and attain Nirvana, but anyone can achieve this at any time through diligent effort.

PART TWO - BUDDHISM: ESSENCE AND COMPARATIVE APPROACHES

4 TIMELESS TRUTH OF THE BUDDHA

The Lion’s Roar

Buddhism is a multifaceted religion with methods to help truth-seekers at various levels of understanding.
The Buddha Dharma is the result of a compassionate prince’s long search to find a solution to worldly suffering.
He renounced a life of luxury and, without relying on divine guidance, achieved Enlightenment after six years of intensive searching.
The Buddha compared his teaching (Dharma) to a lion’s roar, which causes fear and trembling among all other animals.
Similarly, when gods and men hear the Buddha’s Dharma, they are shaken from their mistaken beliefs, realizing that what they thought was permanent and stable is actually impermanent and unstable.

What is Buddhism?

Buddhism is difficult to place in a single category like philosophy or religion, as it is a vast and profound “Absolute Noble Truth.”
It originated from the Buddha’s enlightenment, a practical and universal experience, not from theories or dogmatic beliefs.
The Buddha’s intention was to show the futility of worldly life and provide a practical path to salvation.
A distinction exists between the Buddha’s original teaching (Dharma) and the religion that developed from it, which inspired entire civilizations in art, culture, and ethics.

Impact of Buddhism on Civilization

Buddhism is a civilizing force that fosters self-respect, responsibility, tolerance, and spiritual progress by appealing to reason.
It teaches self-reliance, asserting that humanity’s destiny lies in its own hands.
It is practical and rational, offering a realistic view of life without creating fear, guilt, or fanaticism.
It appeals to the modern world because it has no dogmas, satisfies both reason and heart, and embraces scientific discovery.

Buddhist Contribution to Humanity

Buddhism has fostered a way of life focused on peace and contentment and has influenced politics with fair and democratic values.
A paramount aspect of Buddhism throughout its history is its clear Rationalism, balancing reason with emotion.
The Buddha’s message spread because people chose it for its merits, not because they were pressured to convert.

The Ultimate Truth

Buddhism recognizes two truths: the apparent, conventional truth and the real, ultimate Truth, which is realized through meditation, not speculation.
The Buddha’s teaching is a scientific approach to the ultimate nature of existence, discovered without divine help, and its core principles remain timeless and unchanged.
It is important to distinguish between the Buddha’s original teachings and the cultural rites, ceremonies, and rituals that have been added over centuries by followers.
The Buddha did not appoint a successor to prevent the religion from becoming overly formalized with rigid codes of behaviour.
While external practices of Buddhism differ across cultures (e.g., Thai, Chinese, Tibetan), the absolute Truth taught by the Buddha remains constant.
Over time, elements like miracles, mysticism, and charms were incorporated, causing many followers to neglect the core practices of self-discipline, morality, and spiritual development.
To understand the real nature of a religion, one must study the founder’s original teachings, which, in the case of Buddhism, are still available in the original texts.

Two Main Schools of Buddhism

Hundreds of years after the Buddha’s death, eighteen different schools emerged, which eventually merged into the two main schools: Theravada and Mahayana.
The fundamental difference is how Buddhahood is achieved: Theravadins believe it is through individual effort, while Mahayanists believe they can receive help from superior beings called Bodhisattvas.
Despite differences, both schools agree on core doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, Karma, Anatta (no-soul), and Nirvana as the final goal.
Both schools accept the Bodhisattva ideal but interpret it differently; Mahayana has mystical Bodhisattvas, while Theravada sees a Bodhisattva as a dedicated human striving for enlightenment.
The terms Hinayana (Small Vehicle) and Mahayana (Great Vehicle) are later inventions and not found in the original Pali Canon. The term Theravada is preferred over Hinayana.
Theravada Buddhism is common in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand, with services in Pali. Mahayana is common in China, Japan, and Korea, with services in their native languages.
Vajrayana Buddhism, found in Tibet and Mongolia, is another school considered to be inclined towards Mahayana.
Historically, different Buddhist schools have co-existed peacefully without violence or religious wars.

5 BASIC DOCTRINES

Tri-Pitaka (or Tipitaka)

The Tri-Pitaka is the collection of the Buddha’s teachings over 45 years, recorded in the Pali language, and consists of the Sutra (conventional teaching), Vinaya (disciplinary code), and Abhidharma (moral psychology).
The teachings were initially preserved orally by disciples and rehearsed at the First Buddhist Council immediately after the Buddha’s passing.
The Second Council, 100 years later, discussed changes to the Vinaya, which led to the formation of different schools.
The Third Council, in the 3rd Century B.C., addressed differences in both Dharma and Vinaya, established the Theravada tradition, and included the Abhidharma Pitaka.
The Tri-Pitaka was first committed to writing during the Fourth Council in Sri Lanka in 80 B.C., though the oral tradition of recitation remained primary.

Vinaya Pitaka

This section contains the disciplinary code for monks and nuns.
It details the development of the Sasana (Dispensation) and provides accounts of the Buddha’s life and ministry.
The Buddha established these rules gradually as the community of monks grew.
It consists of five books: Parajika Pali (Major Offences), Pacittiya Pali (Minor Offences), Mahavagga Pali (Greater Section), Cullavagga Pali (Smaller Section), and Parivara Pali (Epitome of the Vinaya).

Sutra Pitaka

This collection primarily consists of discourses delivered by the Buddha, with a few by his disciples.
The sermons were tailored to specific occasions and individuals, covering morals, ethics, duties, and responsibilities.
It is divided into five collections (Nikayas): Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, and Khuddaka Nikaya.
The Khuddaka Nikaya is further subdivided into fifteen smaller books, including the Dhammapada and Jataka tales.

Abhidharma Pitaka

This section contains the profound philosophy and psychology of the Buddha’s teaching, considered the “Ultimate Doctrine” (Paramattha Desana).
It uses ultimate terms like “aggregates,” “mind,” and “matter” instead of the conventional terms found in the Sutra Pitaka.
It analyzes the concept of a “being” into its component parts and details the path to the ultimate goal, Nirvana.
The Abhidharma Pitaka is composed of seven works, including Dhamma-Sangani (Enumeration of Phenomena) and Katha Vatthu (Point of Controversy).

What is Abhidharma?

Abhidharma is the analytical doctrine of the Buddha’s teaching, focusing on profound moral psychology and philosophy.
Unlike the Sutra Pitaka which uses conventional language, Abhidharma uses precise, ultimate terms to explain the nature of the mind, mental states, and karmic thoughts.
It deals with four ultimate realities (paramattha dhamma): Citta (mind), Cetasika (mental factors), Rupa (physical form), and Nirvana (the unconditioned state).
It analyzes mind and matter (nama-rupa) in detail, explaining concepts like the “No-soul” (Anatta) doctrine and the process of rebirth without a transmigrating entity.
The analysis of consciousness in Abhidharma is considered more advanced than modern psychology, explaining thought processes in a way that clarifies the stream-like nature of consciousness.
Tradition attributes the nucleus of Abhidharma to the Buddha himself, who taught it to his mother in a celestial plane, after which it was elaborated upon by his disciples.
While not essential for all practitioners, it is highly useful for those who wish to understand the Dharma in greater depth, for teachers, and for developing insight into the nature of existence.

Mind and Matter (Nama-Rupa)

According to Buddhism, life is a combination of mind (nama) and matter (rupa).
Mind consists of sensations, perceptions, volitional activities, and consciousness. Matter is composed of the four elements: solidity, fluidity, motion, and heat.
Life is the co-existence of mind and matter, death is their separation, and rebirth is their recombination.
Mind and matter are interdependent; mind experiences things like pain and hunger, while matter is needed to act upon those experiences.
There is no permanent self or soul, only the compound of mental and material phenomena which is constantly arising and passing away based on causes and conditions.

Four Noble Truths

The Buddha’s teaching is based on the Four Noble Truths, which explain the true nature of existence.
Realising that phenomenal things are impermanent and subject to suffering (Dukkha) leads to the understanding that true happiness comes from mental purity and wisdom, not material possessions.
The Four Noble Truths are: the Truth of Dukkha, the Truth of the Cause of Dukkha, the Truth of the End of Dukkha, and the Truth of the Path leading to the End of Dukkha.
Dukkha means suffering, but also includes deeper concepts like impermanence, imperfection, and disharmony, affecting all aspects of life, including moments of joy.
This view is realistic, not pessimistic, because it identifies the cause of suffering and provides a cure.
The cause of suffering (the Second Noble Truth) is craving or desire (tanha), which is linked to ignorance and attachment to impermanent things.
The end of suffering (the Third Noble Truth) is Nirvana, a state free from craving and rebirth, achieved by eliminating desire.
The path to end suffering (the Fourth Noble Truth) is the Noble Eightfold Path, a code for living a happy life applicable to everyone.

The Danger of Selfish Desire

Craving is a powerful mental force, like a fire, that motivates all beings.
To satisfy desires, humans and animals engage in unwholesome deeds such as fighting, killing, and cheating.
Craving is the primary cause of the ills in life and leads to the cycle of repeated births.

The Noble Eightfold Path - The Middle Way

Also known as the Middle Path, it avoids the extremes of sensual pleasure and self-mortification.
It is a self-imposed discipline for self-purification, not followed out of fear of a supernatural being.
The path is a guide to attaining Nirvana and is comprised of three aspects to be developed: Sila (Morality), Samadhi (Mental Culture), and Pañña (Wisdom).
Development of the three aspects is simultaneous, though the initial focus is on morality, which helps control the mind for concentration, which in turn leads to wisdom.

Gradual Development

The Buddha taught the path for gradual spiritual development, as not all people can achieve perfection in one lifetime.
Sila, Samadhi, and Pañña can be developed over many lifetimes through diligent effort.
The path ultimately leads to the end of all unsatisfactoriness.

Righteous Life

The eight factors are grouped into three categories: Wisdom (Pañña), Morality (Sila), and Mental Culture (Samadhi).
Right Understanding (Wisdom): Understanding the Four Noble Truths, karma, and the Three Characteristics of Life.
Right Thought (Wisdom): Eliminating evil thoughts and developing pure ones, including detachment, loving-kindness, and compassion.
Right Speech (Morality): Avoiding lying, slander, harsh speech, and idle talk; using words that are truthful, harmonious, and kind.
Right Action (Morality): Respecting life (no killing), property (no stealing), and relationships (no sexual misconduct).
Right Livelihood (Morality): Earning a living without violating moral principles, such as trading in weapons, living beings, intoxicants, or poison.
Right Effort (Mental Culture): Preventing and rejecting evil states while developing and maintaining good ones.
Right Mindfulness (Mental Culture): Being constantly aware of one’s body, feelings, mind, and environment.
Right Concentration (Mental Culture): Developing one-pointedness of mind on a single object, leading to tranquility and preparing the mind for wisdom.

Everything is Changeable

Life is a constant state of flux, moving between extremes like success and failure, happiness and sorrow, and praise and blame.
The Buddha described the world as an “unending flux of becoming,” where everything is in a continuous process of transformation from birth to death.
The teaching of impermanence is a central principle of Buddhism, which denies the existence of any eternal or absolute substances.
Modern science aligns with this view, postulating that everything is a vortex of energy, never remaining the same from one moment to the next.
Buddhism teaches that universes, like individual lives, arise and pass away in endless cycles.
The source of suffering is the mind’s desire for permanence while inhabiting an impermanent physical body in a constantly changing world.

What is Karma?

Karma is an impersonal, natural law of cause and effect, operating without a law-giver or external agent.
In simple terms: good actions bring good results, and bad actions bring bad results.
According to the Dhammapada, the mind is the forerunner of all actions; a good mind leads to happiness, and a bad mind leads to unhappiness.
In its ultimate sense, karma is volition (mental action) and is understood as a process, energy, or force.
Karma is not predestination; while we are the result of our past, we have the free will to shape our future.

Misconceptions Regarding Karma

It is incorrect to believe that everything is the result of past actions, the will of a Supreme Creator, or random chance, as this would negate personal responsibility.
Karma affects everyone based on their actions, regardless of their religious beliefs.
It is one of the factors, along with heredity and environment, that explains the inequalities among people.
The workings of karma can be compared to a seed containing the potential for a tree or a bank account where good deeds are deposits.

Our own Experience

We are the architects of our own karma and are responsible for our own happiness and misery.
We are not prisoners of our past actions and have the ability to change our karma through meritorious deeds and purifying the mind.
Karma is defined as volitional activity; unintentional acts are not as potent, but ignorance is not an excuse for intentional harm.
The transformations of figures like Angulimala and Asoka demonstrate the human potential to overcome past karma.

Other Factors which Support Karma

Karma is only one of five operating natural laws (niyamas).
The other laws are seasonal (utu), biological (bija), natural phenomena (dharma), and psychological (citta).

Can Karma be Changed?

The fruition of karma can be influenced by other forces: birth, appearance, time/occasion, and personal effort.
Favourable or unfavourable birth and appearance can help or hinder the effects of karma.
External conditions like famine or war can affect the operation of karma.
Personal effort is the most important factor in overcoming difficulties and allowing good karma to manifest.
Karmic effects can be suppressed but may re-emerge later in the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).

Impartial Energy

Karma is a universal law, not exclusive to any religion.
It is an unbiased energy that affects everyone, regardless of their beliefs.
Like electricity, karma has no discernible beginning and comes into being under certain conditions.
It is not stored anywhere but arises when conditions are right.

Classification of Karma

Karma is classified in four ways: by the time its effects appear, its function, its priority of effect, and the place where its effects transpire.
By time of effect: Immediately, subsequently, or indefinitely effective.
By function: Reproductive (conditions birth), Supportive (assists), Counteractive (weakens), or Destructive (destroys).
By priority of effect: Weighty (serious), death-proximate, habitual, or cumulative.
By place of effect: Ripening in the sentient plane, the realm of form, or the formless realms.

Is Everything Due to Karma?

Buddhism does not claim that everything is due to karma.
If everything were due to karma, there would be no free will, and no point in living a moral life or seeking to cure a disease.

Why Some Wicked People Enjoy While Some Good People Suffer

Good people may suffer due to the effects of past bad karma that has not yet been outweighed by sufficient merit.
Wicked people may prosper temporarily due to strong good karma accumulated in a previous life.
The reactions to one’s actions will definitely be experienced, either in this life or a future one.
Buddhists are encouraged to do good deeds to eradicate selfishness and find present-moment peace, not just to gain a place in heaven.

Rebirth

Unsatisfied desire for existence and sensual pleasures is the cause of rebirth, which Buddhists consider a verifiable fact.
Belief in rebirth is not exclusive to Buddhism and has been held by figures like Pythagoras, Plato, Origen, and Schopenhauer.
Recalling past lives is difficult because the mind is clouded by hindrances like sensual desire, ill-will, and doubt.
The shortness of a single life is insufficient to fulfill all human potential, suggesting the necessity of multiple lives.
Buddhist rebirth differs from transmigration or reincarnation as it does not involve a permanent, unchanging soul.
Death is the cessation of the body’s functions, but the mental current, driven by the craving for existence, continues and finds a new physical body.
To end the cycle of rebirth, one must extinguish all desire by destroying ignorance, which is achieved by realizing the Four Noble Truths.

How Does Rebirth Take Place?

When the physical body dies, its energies, driven by craving and desire, take on another form, resulting in a new life.
This process is called rebirth or re-becoming, not reincarnation, because no permanent soul moves between lives.
A person can be reborn as an animal if their karmic forces are not positively developed.
Evidence for rebirth includes documented cases of people spontaneously remembering past lives and information revealed through hypnotism.
Rebirth is a natural process that continues as long as craving and attachment exist in the mind, regardless of one’s belief.

Is Rebirth Simultaneous?

Whether rebirth is immediate is a controversial topic among Buddhist scholars.
According to Abhidharma, rebirth (conception) occurs immediately after death without an intermediate state.
Others believe the consciousness may exist in a spirit form for a period before taking a new birth.
A person can be reborn as an animal, and an animal can be reborn as a human, depending on the prevailing karmic forces.

Dying Moment

Three types of consciousness function at the moment of death, facilitating the transition from the present life to the next.
The process involves a seamless sequence of consciousness states that disconnect the old life and link to the new one.
Buddhists view death as a normal, natural event rather than a crisis.
After achieving Enlightenment, the Buddha declared he had ended his cycle of rebirth.

Nirvana

Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhism, described as the highest bliss and a state of eternal happiness.
It is achieved by calming the senses, not by indulging them.
Nirvana is not nothingness, extinction, or a paradise; it is a state beyond heavenly realms.
It does not exist in a specific place but arises when a person’s mind is free from defilements like greed, hatred, and delusion.
It is best understood as the opposite of suffering, just as light is the opposite of darkness.
While satisfying desires brings temporary relief, Nirvana is the permanent cure for the suffering caused by cravings.
The path to Nirvana involves practicing moral conduct, meditation, and eliminating selfishness and illusion.

Nirvana and Samsara

While the scholar Nagarjuna stated Samsara and Nirvana are one (in their “voidness”), Pali texts describe Samsara as the continuation of physical and mental processes and Nirvana as their extinction.
Nirvana is attainable in this life. Realizing it while alive is Sopadisesa Nirvana, and after death, it is Anupadisesa Pari Nirvana.
Attaining Nirvana requires complete detachment from all worldly attachments, aversions, likes, and dislikes.
Once attained, all worries, miseries, burdens, and emotional disturbances vanish.
To say Nirvana is nothingness because it cannot be perceived by the five senses is illogical.

Law of Dependent Origination

The Law of Dependent Origination is a core Buddhist teaching, as important as the Four Noble Truths, explaining that all phenomena are relative, conditioned, and interdependent.
Its basic principle is: “When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; When this is not, that is not; This ceasing, that ceases.”
This law is compared to Einstein’s Theory of Relativity and refutes the existence of any permanent, independent entity like an eternal soul.
It explains the continuity of existence and suffering through twelve causal factors that span three lifetimes (past, present, and future).
The twelve factors are: Ignorance, Volitional Actions, Consciousness, Mental/Physical Phenomena, Six Faculties, Contact, Sensation, Desire, Clinging, Becoming, Birth, and finally Decay, Death, and Sorrow.
The cycle begins with Ignorance of the Four Noble Truths, which conditions actions (karma) that lead to rebirth.
The cycle of suffering can be broken by reversing the process, starting with the complete cessation of ignorance through insight, which leads to the cessation of all subsequent factors.
The doctrine explains the cause of rebirth and suffering, not the absolute origin of life or the evolution of the universe.

Eternalism and Nihilism

The Buddha rejected the two extreme views of eternalism (the belief in an eternal soul) and nihilism (the belief there is no life after death).
Eternalism is considered a wrong view because analysis of reality shows that nothing is permanent or exists forever; all things are subject to change based on conditions.
Nihilism is considered a wrong view because it is a materialistic philosophy that ignores mental conditionality and the continuity of a mental continuum after death, as explained by the teaching of karma.
The Buddha discouraged speculative arguments about such topics, emphasizing that the immediate problem facing humans is the present fetters that cause suffering.
To begin the path to Nirvana, one must first have Right View, which means avoiding these two extremes and understanding what one is seeking.

Can the First Cause be Known?

According to the Buddha, it is inconceivable to find a first cause for life or anything else, as cause and effect are a continuous circle.
The cycle of birth and death (Samsara) is described as having no perceivable beginning, being fueled by ignorance and craving.
The question of a first cause is considered a product of limited human comprehension; if a creator can exist without a cause, so can other phenomena.
Buddhism does not focus on theories about the world’s origin, instead advising people to focus on their present suffering and work towards salvation.
While many causes for existence can be found, a single “first cause” is incomprehensible because every cause is also an effect of a previous cause.

Is there an Eternal Soul?

The belief in an eternal soul is considered a misconception of human consciousness.

Soul-Theories

ers regarding the soul: eternalists (eternal soul), materialists (soul annihilated at death), and the Buddha (neither).

The Buddha taught that terms like ego, self, and soul are conventional labels for something that is not a real, independent entity.
Buddhism rejects the idea of an eternal, unchangeable soul, comparing the desire for one to a child trying to grasp a rainbow.
Searching for a soul is a futile exercise, and speculation about it is a waste of time.
When asked directly if a self (Atman) exists, the Buddha remained silent to avoid siding with either the eternalist or annihilationist theories and to prevent further confusion.
The Buddha regarded soul-speculation as an illusion arising from ignorance, delusion, and selfish craving.

Anatta: The Teaching of No-Soul

The Buddha’s response to soul theories is the doctrine of Anatta (No-Soul/No-Self).
Both believing “I have a soul” and “I have no soul” are obstacles to realization, as they arise from the misconception “I AM”.
The “self” is merely a combination of five changing physical and mental aggregates: body, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.
These components are in constant flux, and none of them, including consciousness, can be identified as an independent, eternal soul.
Modern scientific thought, which views a human as a bundle of ever-changing sensations and the universe as a flux of energy, aligns with the Anatta doctrine.
The Mahayana concept of Sunyata (voidness) is an elaboration of the Anatta doctrine.
The rejection of an eternal soul and a creator God is a unique aspect of Buddhism.
A parable compares the belief in a soul to mistaking a rope for a snake; realizing the truth brings peace.

6 BUDDHISM VIS-A-VIS OTHER APPROACHES

Is Buddhism Similar to Other Contemporary Teachings in India?

The Buddha stated that the Dharma he taught was unheard of before and arose from his own vision, wisdom, and enlightenment.
While some claim the Buddha merely reformed existing Indian teachings, his doctrine was substantially different from the Vedic and Brahmanic traditions of the time.
He was criticized by other religious groups, who later tried to absorb his teachings by claiming he was an incarnation (Avatara) of their god.
The Buddha did reform certain existing customs and practices, challenging false beliefs.
His core philosophical teachings, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and Nirvana, were entirely new concepts.
Although he used existing terms like karma and rebirth, he gave them original and logical interpretations as a natural law of cause and effect, which differed from the Brahmanic understanding.
The Buddha respected truth wherever he found it but was not afraid to speak out against mythology and false claims.

Is Buddhism a Theory or a Philosophy?

The Buddha valued inner wisdom gained through concentration over theoretical knowledge pursued for its own sake.
Buddhism is a practical way of life aimed at achieving peace, happiness, and liberation from suffering for all beings.
Salvation is an individual responsibility; the Buddha’s teachings are a guide based on his personal experience, not a theory.
The Buddha taught that enlightenment is not a product of the intellect, as intellectual pursuits can hinder spiritual progress if not balanced with practice.
A person can be an “intelligent fool” if they have great knowledge but pay no attention to their actions and consequences.
While philosophy deals with knowledge, Buddhism emphasizes practice and realization to overcome life’s frustrations.
The Buddha focused on practical matters, such as the Four Noble Truths, rather than engaging in metaphysical speculation.
Meditation is the practical system for verifying truth through personal experience and insight.

Is Buddhism Pessimistic?

Critics argue Buddhism is pessimistic because of the First Noble Truth (suffering), but it also teaches the cause and cessation of suffering.
The Buddha’s personality, depicted as serene, compassionate, and humorous, contradicts the idea of a pessimist.
The Buddha taught his followers to cultivate joy as a factor for enlightenment.
Buddhist texts like the Theragatha and Therigatha contain joyful utterances from disciples who found peace.
The Buddha’s disciples were observed to be radiant and joyful because they lived in the present moment without brooding over the past or future.
Buddhism offers the hope of salvation to every being, which is less pessimistic than religions that believe in eternal hell.
The religion is described not as pessimistic or optimistic, but as realistic, encouraging people to see things as they truly are.

Is Buddhism Atheistic?

Buddhism is only atheistic in the sense that it denies the existence of an eternal, omnipotent God who created the world.
The Buddha condemned “godlessness,” which he defined as the denial of moral, spiritual, and social obligations.
The negative connotations often associated with atheism, such as materialism, do not apply to Buddhism.
There is no justification for labelling Buddhists as atheists or pagans simply because their concept of God differs from other religions.
Like other religions, Buddhism teaches that lasting happiness is not found in the material world; however, it adds that it is also not found in a heavenly or divine world.
Buddhist spiritual values aim for the highest realization (Nirvana) in this present existence.

PART THREE - LEADING A BUDDHIST LIFE

7 MORAL FOUNDATION FOR HUMANITY

What is the Purpose of Life?

The purpose of life is to end suffering.
This is achieved through self-observation, insight, and understanding life’s true meaning.
Prerequisites include understanding human nature and calming the mind through religious practices.

Understanding the Nature of Human Beings

Humans are often ignorant of the inner workings of their own minds, leading to a false identity based on ego.
Enlightenment is possible because humans are not fixed; they are always changing and can mold their character and destiny.
Like the Buddha, individuals must cultivate their minds to realize their potential.

Understanding the Nature of Life

People often avoid the reality that life is uncertain and death is certain.
Facing life’s difficulties and understanding death can provide deeper insight.
Worldly happiness from wealth and status is an illusion because it is impermanent.
Buddhism encourages earning wealth for a decent life but discourages attachment to it as the source of ultimate happiness.

The Need for a Religion

An ethical-moral system, or religion, helps discourage evil, encourage good, and purify the mind.
Religion can transform negative qualities into positive ones and has been a source of cultural and artistic inspiration.
It teaches how to calm the senses by eliminating desire and cultivating contentment, which is more valuable than material wealth.

Searching for a Purpose in Life

Individuals have various aims in life, such as creating art or achieving professional success.
The underlying goal for these aims is to find happiness.
However, these worldly achievements often fail to bring lasting happiness and can lead to more suffering.

Realisation

Understanding that life is characterized by unsatisfactoriness and change reveals why happiness through accumulation is elusive.
Religion encourages contentment and looking beyond the ego.
Understanding karma motivates wholesome actions, which bring benefits in this life and future lives.
This leads to practicing the Noble Eightfold Path to develop morality, mental culture, and wisdom.
The ultimate goal becomes self-transformation and attaining Enlightenment, or Nirvana.

Buddhism for Human Beings in Society

It is a common misconception that Buddhism must be practised in seclusion; it is a way of life intended for all people, including those living with families in society.
True renunciation is not about physically escaping the world but about purifying the mind. A person with a pure mind living in a town is considered superior to an ascetic in a forest with impure thoughts.
The Buddha confirmed that many laypeople living normal family lives have successfully followed his teachings and attained high spiritual states.
Practising Buddhism while living among and serving fellow human beings is considered more courageous and praiseworthy than living in solitude for personal salvation.
The Order of monks and nuns (the Sangha) was established to allow individuals to dedicate their lives fully to spiritual development and serving others, which is difficult for a layperson with family responsibilities.
The Sangha provides spiritual guidance and education to the lay community, who in turn provide the Sangha with material necessities like food, shelter, and medicine.

The Buddhist Way of Life for Householders

The Buddha taught four principles for happiness in this world: be skilled in your profession, protect your righteous income, associate with good friends, and live within your means.
He also taught four virtues for happiness in the hereafter: have faith in moral and spiritual values (Saddha), abstain from harmful actions (Sila), practice generosity (Caga), and develop wisdom (Pañña).
A specific financial guideline given to a young man was to spend one-fourth of his income on daily expenses, invest half in his business, and save one-fourth for emergencies.
Four kinds of happiness for a layperson were identified: the happiness of economic security, of spending wealth liberally on good causes, of being debt-free, and of living a faultless and pure life.
While economic well-being is a requisite for happiness, true progress requires a moral and spiritual foundation.
The Buddhist path for laypeople is a Middle Path, which involves enjoying material comforts moderately without becoming attached to them in a way that hinders spiritual development.

8 BUDDHIST MORALITY AND PRACTICE

Buddhist Ethics

Buddhist ethics are based on universal, unchanging laws of nature (karma), not on human-made laws or social customs.
The need for ethics arises because humans are not perfect and must train themselves to be good.
The practical purpose of morality in Buddhism is to lead people to the final goal of ultimate happiness.
Individuals are responsible for their own salvation through understanding and effort; it cannot be imposed or granted by an external agent.
Buddhist ethics are not commandments but advice on wholesome actions for the long-term benefit of oneself and others.
The morality of the precepts can be summarized as: avoid evil, do good, and purify the mind.
Actions rooted in greed, hatred, and delusion are bad (Akusala Karma), while those rooted in generosity, love, and wisdom are good (Kusala Karma).

Buddhist Morals are Based on Intention or Volition

The Buddha stated that “Karma is volition,” meaning the intention behind an action makes it good or bad.
A conventionally immoral act, like murder, cannot be done with a good heart because the action itself is an outward expression of a negative state of mind (e.g., hate or greed).
Deeds are the physical manifestation of thoughts.
A person with a purified mind is incapable of committing immoral actions.
Moral values are also objective; the karmic consequences of an action occur according to natural law, regardless of individual or societal attitudes towards the act.

What is Vinaya?

It is the disciplinary code laid down by the Buddha for monks and nuns.
The rules were not formulated at once but were instituted as the need arose when the monastic order (Sangha) grew.
The code is divided into two areas: Universal Moral Codes (Lokavajja) for everyone, and specific disciplinary rules (Pañãatti Vajja) for monks and nuns based on cultural context.
The Buddha permitted ‘minor’ rules to be amended, but after his death, the First Council decided to maintain all rules without change, which later caused problems as Buddhism spread.

Development of Sangha Community

The Sangha evolved into different sects; the Theravada sect remained orthodox, while Mahayana became more liberal in observing the rules.
Strict adherence to ancient rules regarding food, robes, and behaviour can appear strange or ridiculous when Buddhism spreads to different cultures, such as in the West.
Monks are advised to use common sense and adapt to local customs, ensuring their actions are not immoral, harmful, or indecent.
Some followers mistakenly believe monks must follow every ancient rule literally, not realizing many were specific to Indian society 25 centuries ago.

Changing Society

Monks need to adapt to societal changes rather than remaining rigid traditionalists.
Changes to minor rules must be approved by a Sangha Council, not by individual monks.
Monks are expected to conduct themselves in a way that earns public respect, as they rely on the lay community for material support.
If monks do not uphold their discipline, they risk losing the confidence and support of lay people.

Dharma and Vinaya

The Dharma (the Buddha’s Truth) is unchangeable, whereas some Vinaya rules can and should be changed to suit modern society.
Some monks rigidly follow cultural traditions as if they were core religious principles.
Rules need to be amended to prevent monks from facing practical problems; for example, handling money is often necessary, but the key is non-attachment.
While some monks can live in isolation, others must engage with society to serve the religious needs of the public.

Characteristics of a Monk

Salient characteristics include purity, humility, simplicity, self-control, and compassion.
A monk observes four kinds of Higher Morality, collectively known as Sila-Visuddhi (Purity of Virtue).
A fully ordained monk (Bhikkhu) is bound to observe 227 precepts.
Four major rules—celibacy, not stealing, not killing, and not making false claims to spiritual attainment—are the most critical. Violating one makes a monk “defeated”.
Becoming a monk is a voluntary choice, not a permanent vow; a person is free to leave the order and return at any time.

Ten Meritorious and Ten Evil Actions

Merit (puñña) arises from good actions and purifies the mind of greed, hatred, and delusion.
The benefits of merit follow a person from life to life, creating opportunities and facilitating success.
Merit can lead to rebirth in heavens and provides the right conditions for attaining Nirvana.
The ten meritorious deeds are: Generosity, Morality, Mental culture, Reverence, Service, Transference of merits, Rejoicing in others’ merits, Preaching the Dharma, Listening to the Dharma, and Straightening one’s views.

Ten Evil Deeds

There are ten demeritorious deeds rooted in greed, hatred, and delusion which bring suffering.
The three unwholesome bodily actions are killing, stealing, and illicit sexual behaviour.
The four unwholesome verbal actions are lying, slander, harsh speech, and frivolous talk.
The three unwholesome mental actions are covetousness, ill-will, and wrong views.
Each of these actions leads to specific negative consequences for the person who performs them.
To overcome a past evil deed, one must realize the wrongdoing, resolve not to repeat it, and perform many good actions.

Precepts

Buddhist morality is based on the universal law of cause and effect (Karma), unlike societal codes which are flexible and contextual.
An action is judged as ‘good’ or ‘bad’ based on the intention (cetana) behind it.
Actions motivated by greed, hatred, and delusion are unwholesome, while those motivated by love, charity, and wisdom are wholesome.
A Buddhist’s first duty is to cleanse themselves of mental defilements, which provides a foundation for spiritual growth and benefits society by reducing anti-social acts.

Five Precepts

These precepts form the basis of lay Buddhist morality, enabling peaceful community living and starting the spiritual path to Liberation.
They are accepted voluntarily out of understanding, not as divine commandments imposed through fear.
The precepts are to refrain from: 1. killing, 2. stealing, 3. sexual misconduct, 4. false speech, and 5. intoxicants.
Observing the precepts also cultivates positive qualities (Ennoblers) such as loving-kindness, renunciation, contentment, truthfulness, and mindfulness.

Eight Precepts

Devout Buddhists may observe these on special days (e.g., full moon days) for a 24-hour period to develop tranquility and spiritual focus.
The purpose is to temporarily detach from material and sensual demands to train the mind.
They include the Five Precepts plus abstaining from: 6. eating after noonday, 7. entertainment and adornments (dancing, music, perfumes), and 8. using high and luxurious seats.
Restraining from entertainments is a short-term self-discipline to calm the senses and reduce enslavement to sensual pleasures.

Loving-Kindness

Despite material wealth and intellectual development, the world lacks true peace because it lacks spirituality and loving-kindness.
Peace must first be established within one’s own heart before it can be brought to the world.
To practice loving-kindness, one must practice non-violence and overcome selfishness, which is a mental struggle.
Buddhism distinguishes between selfish love (“Prema”) and selfless, altruistic love (“Metta” or “Karuna”), which purifies the mind.
Other types of love include fraternal (friendship) and sexual love, which are often limited.
Universal love (Metta) is the highest form—an all-embracing, non-discriminatory love for all living beings that expects no reward.
Developing love involves understanding the evils of hate; love releases, unites, and helps, while hate restricts, divides, and hinders.
The Metta Sutra compares this boundless love to a mother protecting her only child at the risk of her own life.

Real Charity

True charity is giving without expecting anything in return, not even gratitude, leaving both the giver and receiver free from obligation.
Giving with ulterior motives, such as for religious or political conversion, is not considered true charity.
The practice of giving, or dana, is a way to reduce selfishness, greed, and attachment to possessions.
Dana is performed with understanding to reduce the idea of ‘self’ and is considered the first perfection (paramita) practiced by the Buddha.
Charity can take many forms, including giving material things, knowledge, time, effort, counsel, sparing a life, or donating body parts.
The highest gift in Buddhism is the Dharma (the Buddha’s teachings), which can liberate beings from suffering and transform their lives.

Buddhist Attitude towards Human Organ Donations

Donating organs after death is considered a clear act of charity (dana) from a Buddhist perspective.
Dana can be practiced by giving material possessions, bodily organs, or one’s services, which helps cultivate virtues like compassion and wisdom.
Fear of organ donation often stems from a misunderstanding of existence; beliefs about missing organs in the next life have no rational basis in Buddhism.
Death occurs when consciousness leaves the body; it is this consciousness, not the physical organs, that determines the next life.
It is better to use organs to save a life through modern technology than to let them decompose and go to waste.
The text encourages people to volunteer as organ donors to help alleviate human suffering.

The Buddhist Attitude to Animal Life

Buddhism rejects the idea that animals were created for human benefit, pointing out that some animals eat humans.
While humans possess a greater reasoning faculty, animals are superior in some physical senses (e.g., a dog’s sense of smell).
Buddhists are encouraged to practice loving-kindness towards all living beings, as they have a right to exist and can feel fear and pain.
The text highlights human hypocrisy in cherishing some animals as pets while killing and eating others.
Buddhism teaches equal compassion for all creatures, viewing the destruction of any life as a disturbance of the Universal Order.
Human cruelty towards animals is seen as an expression of uncontrolled greed, which now threatens the environment and human existence.
While some animals can be a threat, humans are the greatest threat to all living beings, killing for pleasure and not just survival.

The Need for Tolerance Today

Modern society is filled with restless, fearful, and discontented people seeking fame, wealth, and power, which makes peaceful coexistence difficult.
Historically, both religious and political intolerance have caused immense suffering and bloodshed.
Despite a century of scientific and technological progress, humanity has also engaged in widespread violence, demonstrating a lack of tolerance and love.
People can explore outer space but struggle to live peacefully as neighbours on Earth.
The pursuit of material gain and a misunderstanding of life’s purpose have led to more frustration, fear, insecurity, and violence.
Intolerance is still practiced in the name of religion, as people often fail to follow the core teachings of peace and harmony found in their own faiths.

Buddhist Funeral Rites

Proper Buddhist funerals are simple, solemn, and dignified, but some have incorporated unnecessary and superstitious practices which are not part of the original teachings.
Buddhists are not particular about burial or cremation, though cremation is customary and often preferred for hygienic and economic reasons.
Buddhists do not believe that the consciousness of the deceased is connected to the physical remains (body, skeleton, or ashes).
Beliefs that improper burial causes a soul to wander or that expensive tombs benefit the deceased are not part of Buddhist teachings.
The best way to honour the deceased is by performing meritorious deeds, such as charitable donations, in their memory.
Buddhists believe that rebirth occurs according to a person’s past actions (karma), as long as the craving for existence remains. Only Arahants, who have extinguished all passions, attain Nirvana and are not reborn.

9 DHARMA AND OURSELVES AS REFUGE

Why we take Refuge in the Buddha

Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha as an enlightened Teacher who showed the path to emancipation, not as a god who rewards or punishes.
Homage is paid out of gratitude and respect, not to ask for material favours.
Reciting verses is a way to recall the Buddha’s virtues for inspiration and confidence, not a form of prayer.
True refuge is in the Buddha, Dharma (teachings), and Sangha (community), which leads to understanding the Four Noble Truths and freedom from sorrow. Refuge in worldly objects or even gods is considered unsafe as they are not free from suffering.
The Buddha was an extraordinary human, free from all weaknesses and defilements, who possessed supreme enlightenment and compassion.
Blessings are received by following the Buddha’s teachings, which brings joy and satisfaction. To “see” the Buddha is to understand and practise his teachings.
True closeness to the Buddha is achieved by living according to the Dharma (e.g., being non-covetous, attentive, and having controlled senses), not by physical proximity.

No Self Surrender

Depending on others for salvation is considered negative and a surrender of one’s own effort, intelligence, and self-confidence.
Humanity’s improvement comes from its own knowledge, understanding, and experience, not from supernatural forces.
Through understanding, people can control their environment and circumstances, achieving spiritual growth.
Buddhism credits human intelligence and effort, appealing to cultured and intellectual minds as a rational teaching.
Happiness is achieved not through religious dogma, but through knowledge of cosmic forces and the law of cause and effect.
The ultimate goal is to achieve Nirvana, a permanent state beyond change and the miseries of existence.

No Sinners

In Buddhism, bad actions are termed “unskillful” or “unwholesome” (Akusala Karma), not sinful transgressions against a divine law.
Humans are not considered inherently sinful but possess the capacity for both good and evil.
Individuals are responsible for their own actions and destiny; suffering is self-created, not a curse or original sin.
The consequences of actions cannot be escaped through the grace of an external power, but purifying the mind can reduce or eliminate the effects of past deeds.
A person who commits a wrong act is seen as ignorant and in need of guidance and instruction rather than punishment.
The Buddha’s role was to teach people to understand the foolishness and consequences of evil deeds, not to forgive sins or punish people.
Buddhism does not have commandments. The Five Precepts are voluntary training rules undertaken for spiritual development, based on understanding rather than fear of punishment.

Do It Yourself

Buddhists understand the need for self-effort and self-reliance, as no external sources can provide salvation.
The responsibility for one’s present and future life depends entirely on the individual.
Similar to a patient who must take prescribed medicine themselves to be cured, a person must follow the Buddha’s instructions to control greed, hatred, and ignorance.
Salvation cannot be attained by simply praising or making offerings to the Buddha, nor through prayers or begging.
One must strive to control their mind and eradicate selfish desires to achieve perfection.

Human Beings are Responsible for Everything

According to the Buddha, humans are the makers of their own destiny and are solely responsible for their lives, for better or worse.
All grief and misfortune are self-created, stemming from our own imperfections and past actions influenced by greed and delusion.
Since we create our own problems, it is within our power to overcome them and cultivate good natures.
Unlike the animal mind, the human mind can be trained for higher values; an uncultured mind creates trouble and can be more dangerous than an animal’s.
Humans create thousands of problems (religious, political, social) that animals do not, and often blame others for their failures instead of taking responsibility.
Peace and happiness can be maintained if we become more responsible for our actions.

Human Beings are their own Jailors

Humans are not truly free, as they are bound by numerous external and internal conditions, such as government laws, religious principles, social norms, natural laws, and their own emotions.
The belief in a divine will can also limit the concept of personal free will.
Restraints are necessary because of negative elements within human nature, such as cruelty, cunning, and unreliability.
If given complete freedom, many people would likely disrupt the peace and happiness of others.
Religion’s role is to train people to live respectably and achieve peace.
Racial arrogance is another significant obstacle to spiritual progress, as it encourages discrimination and hostility.
The Buddha taught that distinctions of race and caste are delusions and that all people should be treated equally.
Just as different rivers flow into the ocean and become one, people from various backgrounds should forget their differences and consider themselves as a unified humanity.

You Protect Yourself

The text illustrates a Buddhist teaching using a story of two jugglers: “Protecting oneself one protects others; protecting others one protects oneself.”
The Buddha approved of the apprentice’s view that one must first protect oneself to ensure mutual safety.
Protecting oneself is achieved through the practice of meditation and mindfulness.
Protecting others is achieved through patience, non-violence, loving-kindness, and compassion.
Self-protection is not selfish but is the cultivation of self-control and ethical development, which in turn safeguards others.
On a practical level, protecting one’s own health or being a careful driver protects the community.
On an ethical level, controlling internal evils like Greed, Hate, and Delusion prevents these negative traits from spreading and harming others.

You Have to Save Yourself

The core principle is that one is one’s own saviour; deliverance from Samsara and the attainment of Nirvana must be achieved by the individual alone.
This concept is illustrated by the story of the monk Attadatta, whom the Buddha praised for meditating to achieve Arahantship as the Buddha was dying, calling it the best way to honour him.
Buddhism is not selfish; while pursuing one’s own Nirvana, one is also expected to work for the welfare of others. The self-control required for enlightenment (not killing, stealing, etc.) automatically benefits society.
For those who are handicapped or less able, deliverance is a gradual process that can span many lifetimes, starting with small efforts and slowly developing self-reliance.
While others can have an influence, individuals are ultimately responsible for their own karma and actions; no external being can control another’s path to salvation.
The ability to save oneself applies to intelligent life forms capable of rational thought. Over countless rebirths, beings can evolve from lower forms to a level where they can consciously seek enlightenment.
External beings like devas (deities) can provide help with material or physical problems in daily life, but their power is limited to the temporal world.
As a person develops spiritually, they become less attached to the material world and the need for such external help diminishes. True self-reliance begins when one seeks to end the cycle of rebirth.
The Buddha himself helped people through wisdom and compassion, not miracles. The story of Kisa Gotami shows how he guided her to understand the nature of death and attachment, which was a more profound help than reviving her child.
Buddhism empowers humans by stating they have the ability to free themselves through their own efforts, without being dependent on external forces for ultimate salvation.

10 - PRAYER, MEDITATION AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

Faith, Confidence and Devotion

Buddhism emphasizes understanding over theistic faith, which demands belief in things that cannot be explained.
Confidence is different from faith; it is an assured expectation based on what can be personally tested, experienced, and understood.
Unlike blind faith, confidence is a product of reason, knowledge, and experience.
The question of belief arises only when something cannot be seen or experienced directly; once it is seen, belief is no longer necessary.

The Meaning of Prayer

Humans are potential masters of themselves, and prayers are answered by the power of their own minds.
Buddhism gives individuals full responsibility for their destiny, as no higher being sits in judgement.
Nature is impartial and cannot be influenced by prayer to grant special favours.
Prayer is considered a form of meditation for self-change, reconditioning one’s inner nature by purifying thoughts, words, and deeds.
The Buddha taught that rituals, recitals, or prayers alone cannot bring happiness or Nirvana; only purification of the mind through self-effort can.
An analogy of a man needing to cross a river illustrates that one must make a practical effort rather than just praying for the goal to be reached.
If prayer is used, it should be to strengthen the mind and cultivate qualities like fearlessness and patience, not to beg for shelter or gains.

Meditation

Meditation is a psychological method for training and purifying the mind, practised by Buddhists for spiritual development.
Attaining Nirvana is impossible without mental purification through meditation, as meritorious deeds alone are insufficient.
An untrained mind is easily misled by the senses, but meditation provides the control to overcome this.
Many modern physical and mental illnesses, such as ulcers, anxiety, and tension, are caused by an untrained mind, and meditation is a proven remedy.
The practice should be a spontaneous and joyful experience, not a forced effort, as its purpose is to bring the mind into a state of fully awakened consciousness in the present moment.
The Buddha achieved Enlightenment through self-effort and meditation, not divine aid.

Nature of Modern Life

Modern competitive life creates mental unrest, which people often try to escape through sensual pleasures, leading to more craving.
True relaxation comes from controlling the mind, which in turn controls the senses.
Practising meditation requires determination, effort, and patience, as results are not immediate.
A meditator needs a moral foundation, a suitable place, and an object of focus to trap the “jumping mind”.
Meditation helps one to live peacefully, handle disturbances, make better decisions, and relax the body and mind.
The ultimate goal of Buddhist meditation is to eradicate all mental defilements and attain Nirvana.
The practice is sometimes abused for materialistic motives, which contradicts its purpose of decreasing, not increasing, desire.
Patience is essential, and one should not rush for results or boast about achievements; working with an experienced teacher is ideal.

The Significance of Paritta Chanting

Paritta chanting is the recital of Buddhist Sutras in the Pali language for blessing and protection against misfortune, sickness, and evil influences.
The rhythm and intonation of the chanting are significant, creating psychological states of peace and influencing other beings.
The practice activates three powerful forces, or ‘Three Jewels’:
- The Buddha: Invoking the power of his wisdom and enlightenment.
- The Dharma: The power of truth and natural law, which protects those who uphold it.
- The Sangha: The holy order of monks who act as custodians of the teachings.
The practice started during the Buddha’s time to bring solace to people suffering from disasters.
The effectiveness of chanting depends on the devotion and understanding of the listener; it can overcome minor bad karmic effects but may only temporarily delay strong ones.
The power of the Buddha’s words comes from his unwavering commitment to truth and compassion.

Are Buddhists Idol Worshippers?

Buddhists are considered “ideal worshippers,” not idol worshippers, as they do not pray to the image as if it were a god.
The Buddha image is revered as a gesture of respect for the historical Buddha, recognized as a great, wise, and compassionate teacher.
It serves as a visual aid and a symbol to help recall the Buddha’s qualities, such as peace and serenity, and to inspire followers to emulate his example.
The statue is used as an object of concentration during meditation to achieve peace of mind.
Buddhists do not ask the image for worldly favors or forgiveness but instead focus on controlling their minds and following the Buddha’s teachings for their own salvation.
The act is compared to keeping photos of loved ones or erecting statues of historical figures to show respect and gratitude.
The image represents the ideal of Buddhahood, a state of perfection that all people can aspire to attain.
It is not obligatory for every Buddhist to use an image; the most important aspect is to practice the Buddha’s teachings (the Dhamma).

Religious Significance of Fasting

In Buddhism, fasting is a method for practising self-control, with monks and some lay people abstaining from solid food after noon.
It is considered a foundational stage of self-discipline in many religions, not a fad.
By fasting, individuals can contribute their uneaten food to the starving.
Leo Tolstoy wrote that self-control begins with fasting to fight gluttony, which he linked to laziness and lust.
Sages have used fasting to develop mental energy and attain high levels of spirituality, allowing them to endure great hardship.

Vegetarianism

The Buddha taught that eating meat does not inherently make a person impure; impurity comes from evil thoughts and actions like bigotry, deceit, and envy.
There is no strict rule in Buddhism that requires followers to be vegetarian.
The Buddha’s advice was that his followers should not intentionally kill or ask others to kill a living being for them.
Monks were advised to avoid ten specific types of meat (e.g., human, elephant, tiger) for their own protection and self-respect.
The Buddha refused a request to make vegetarianism compulsory, leaving it as a personal choice for his disciples.
Monks are allowed to eat meat if it is “pure in three respects”: not seen, heard, or suspected to have been killed specifically for them.
While vegetarianism is praiseworthy, those who practise it should not condemn non-vegetarians, as Buddhism is the “Middle Path” which avoids extremes.
The Buddha stated that what pollutes a person is not what goes into their mouth, but the evil that comes out of it.
The primary goal is the destruction of greed, including greed for food, rather than the specific type of food eaten.

The Moon and Religious Observances

Many significant events in the Buddha’s life, including his birth, enlightenment, and passing, occurred on full moon days, making them religiously important for Buddhists.
On full moon days, Buddhists often observe precepts, meditate, and focus on spiritual development.
Ancient Indian beliefs held that the moon controlled water, which was considered the elixir of life, sustaining all creatures.
The moon is believed to influence human beings, affecting mental states (the term ‘lunatic’ derives from ‘lunar’), aggravating certain illnesses, and causing bodily fluids to flow more freely.
The moon’s influence extends to nature, causing tides and affecting plant life, a fact recognized by ancient farmers.
Ancient sages advised people to relax and pursue spiritual activities on full moon days, as the mind is considered to be in a more awakened state.
Scientific research has indicated that living organisms operate on a 28-day cycle, with metabolism being significantly higher during the full moon.
Medical observations have suggested a correlation between the full moon and increased instances of excessive bleeding after surgery.

PART FOUR - HUMAN LIFE IN SOCIETY

11 LIFE AND CULTURE

Traditions, Customs and Festivals

Buddhism is tolerant of traditions and customs as long as they are not harmful to others.
The Buddha advised testing traditions to see if they are reasonable and beneficial before accepting them.
Unlike some other religions, Buddhist missionaries do not require converts to abandon their traditions.
Traditions should not violate universal religious principles.
Harmless traditions without religious value can be practised, but not in the name of religion.

Rites and Rituals

Rites and rituals are part of customs and traditions, serving as ornamentation to attract people and provide psychological help.
It is possible to practise religion without them.
In Buddhism, clinging to rites and rituals is not considered essential for spiritual development or salvation.

Festivals

True Buddhists observe festivals by abstaining from evil, practising charity, and helping others, not with liquor or animal slaughter.
Festivals can attract young people to religion but can also hinder the practice of a spiritually mature person.
Some people use religious festivals as an excuse for merrymaking.
Festivals should be organised in a cultured manner that does not cause a nuisance to others, especially in multi-religious societies.

Status of Women in Buddhism

The Buddha was the first religious teacher to give women full freedom to participate in religious life, a radical move that was criticized at the time.
Before the Buddha, women’s roles were confined to the kitchen, and they were not allowed to enter places of worship.
The Buddha allowed women to join the Holy Order, asserting they had the same capacity as men to attain the highest spiritual state, Arahantahood.
He countered the prevailing societal view of female inferiority, telling a disappointed king that a female child could prove to be a better offspring than a male.
Buddhism does not regard women as inferior, and the Buddha himself was born as a woman in several of his previous lives.

Buddhism and Politics

Although the Buddha was beyond worldly affairs, he gave advice on good governance and associated with rulers.
The Buddha never used political power to spread his teachings, and his name should not be used to support modern political ideologies.
Mixing religion (based on morality) with politics (based on power) can debase religious ideals.
The Buddha Dharma seeks to reform individuals within a society rather than creating new political institutions.
No political system can eliminate suffering (dukkha, anicca, anatta) which stems from greed, hatred, and delusion; true freedom is found within the mind.
The Buddha’s teachings align with some modern political concepts:
- The equality of all human beings, with classification based only on moral conduct.
- The encouragement of social cooperation and participation.
- Governance by a Rule of Law (Dharma and Vinaya) rather than an appointed successor.
- The use of democratic and consultative processes, similar to modern parliamentary systems.
The Buddhist approach to political power is its moralization and responsible use.
The Buddha preached non-violence, declared there is no ‘just’ war, and personally intervened to prevent conflict.
He taught that a ruler’s morality directly influences the ministers, officials, and the general populace.
Poverty was identified as a root cause of crime, and the Buddha suggested economic development and fair wages as a solution over punitive force.
The Buddha gave 10 rules for Good Government (Dasa Raja Dharma), which include liberality, high moral character, honesty, kindness, non-violence, and respect for public opinion.
A ruler should be impartial, free from hatred, unafraid to enforce justifiable laws, and have a clear understanding of those laws.
The teachings state that an unfit or immoral ruler can be subject to punishment by the people.
Emperor Asoka in the 3rd Century B.C. is a prime example of a ruler who applied Buddhist principles of peace, public welfare, and religious freedom.
While the Buddha was a social reformer, his primary goal was to address the root of human suffering in the mind, which is the source of lasting change.
Buddhists can participate in politics, but religion should not be misused for political gain, and those who have renounced worldly life should not be actively involved.

12 MARRIAGE, BIRTH CONTROL AND DEATH

Buddhist Views on Marriage

Marriage is considered a social institution, not a religious duty.
Buddhists are advised to be faithful to one spouse, as adultery and sexual misconduct are seen as a cause of downfall.
The decision to marry, remain single, or have children is a personal choice, and there are no religious laws compelling it.
Monks and nuns voluntarily choose celibacy to avoid worldly commitments and dedicate themselves to spiritual service.
While monks do not solemnize marriages, they can be asked to perform religious services to bless the couple.

Divorce

Divorce is not prohibited in Buddhism and is seen as preferable to an unhappy family life.
The Buddha advised against incompatible pairings, such as an old man with a young wife, to avoid disharmony.
A good marriage should develop from understanding and loyalty, with partners being equal, complementary, and mutually supportive.

Birth Control, Abortion and Suicide

Buddhists are not opposed to birth control as it prevents conception and does not involve killing or unskillful action (akusala karma).
Abortion is considered wrong because it is the destruction of a life.
The act of abortion fulfills the five Buddhist conditions that constitute the evil act of killing: a living being, awareness of the being, intention to kill, effort to kill, and the resulting death.
Even if abortion is legal in some countries for social reasons, it is not religiously justifiable.

Committing Suicide

Taking one’s own life is morally and spiritually wrong and is considered a cowardly way to deal with problems.
Suicide is an unskillful act driven by a mind filled with greed, hatred, and delusion.
Dying with a confused and frustrated mind makes it unlikely for a person to be reborn in a better condition.
Even self-sacrifice for what is considered a noble cause is not condoned from a Buddhist perspective, as suicidal states of mind lead to more suffering.

Why Does the World Population Increase?

The increase in population is attributed to modern medical facilities and favorable living conditions, which allow people to live longer, healthier lives.
There is no historical census data from vast ancient civilizations to prove that the current population is the highest it has ever been.
The number of beings in the universe is infinite, and when conditions are right and supported by good karma, more are reborn as humans.
Population growth can be managed by sensible control measures.
The text questions the belief that a god creates disasters to reduce population, arguing it would be more logical for a creator to simply control birth rates rather than inflict suffering.

Sex and Religion

The sex impulse is the most powerful force in human nature and requires self-control, which is distinct from harmful suppression.
For spiritual aspirants in Buddhism, celibacy is recommended for perfection, but for lay people, the precept is to avoid sexual misconduct, permitting legitimate sex within marriage.
Uncontrolled sexual urges can make humans behave worse than animals, who often act in a more regular manner.
Modern society over-emphasizes and exploits sex through media and advertising, in contrast to ancestral societies that played it down.
This constant sexual stimulation is a source of neurosis and social problems, as humans lack a natural period of sexual inactivity to recover vitality.
Sex should be given its proper place in life, controlled by will, neither repressed nor exaggerated.
In marriage, happiness depends more on patience, tolerance, and understanding than on sex. Over-indulgence can be destructive.
A successful marriage is a partnership based on openness and shared responsibility, as secrets can breed suspicion and conflict.

PART FIVE - A RELIGION FOR HUMAN PROGRESS

13 NATURE, VALUE AND CHOICE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Human Beings and Religion

Humans developed religion to understand life and the world, initially stemming from fear of the unknown.
Religions evolved over time, shaped by geographical, historical, and socio-political factors.
Religious approaches vary, based on faith, fear, rationality (humanism), or harmlessness (peace and goodwill).
Religions differ in their goals (e.g., heaven, union with a universal consciousness, or peace in the present life), methods (e.g., surrender, asceticism, rituals, meditation), and concepts of punishment.
The text advises that religion should be practiced for the welfare of all beings and that followers should be open-minded and tolerant.
It suggests that religious practices should adapt to modern times without sacrificing core universal principles, enabling people to live with dignity.

Misconceptions on Religion

Religion can foster superstition and be used as an escape from reality, with many followers focusing on external rituals rather than inner development.
People often misuse religion, committing atrocities, creating conflict, and discriminating against others in its name.
True religious practice involves developing inner awareness, goodwill, and understanding to face life’s problems, not run from them.
Religion has been misused for personal gain, political power, and to attract followers through immoral means.
Some groups de-emphasize morals and ethics, claiming faith alone is sufficient for salvation.
A true religion should help people live as cultured, understanding beings in the present, rather than just offering dogmatic ideas or dreams of an afterlife.

Which is the Proper Religion?

A religion can be considered proper if it contains the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
Many religions cause division and hatred, while a true religion should unite people.
False religions or philosophies include materialism, amoralism, and any belief in miraculous salvation, damnation, or predestination.
Buddhism is presented as realistic and verifiable, with its truths open to investigation by anyone, including scientists.
The validity of a religion cannot be proven by its age or the number of its followers.
Buddhism teaches that individuals are responsible for their own salvation, not a higher power.
The Buddha encouraged followers to question and test his teachings, which is why it appeals to intellectuals and its principles are being verified by modern science.

Moral and Spiritual Development

Buddhism is needed in the world to cultivate benevolent tolerance and ethical-moral co-operation.
Without a spiritual background, humans lack moral responsibility, which poses a danger to society.
Spiritual development is considered more important than material welfare.
Virtue alone is not enough for salvation; it must be combined with wisdom.
Of the four ways to realize the aim of life (material, emotional, intellectual, spiritual), the spiritual path is the most realistic and lasting.

The God-Idea

The validity of a belief in God depends on an individual’s mental maturity and capacity for understanding.

The Development of the God-idea

The concept of gods originated from primitive people’s fear and admiration of natural phenomena.
It began with polytheism, where gods were assigned to nature’s manifestations like trees, storms, and the sun.
Humans then attributed their own emotional and physical characteristics to these gods.
This evolved into monotheism, the idea that the universe is governed by a single entity.
Interpretations of this single God varied widely, from a personal king to an abstract principle, leading to diverse beliefs like pantheism, atheism, and agnosticism.
Even the monotheistic God is perceived differently across various religions, such as in Hinduism and Christianity.

The God-idea and Creation

Religions developed unique creation myths centered around their God-idea to explain existence.
Modern thought suggests these myths evolved from human imagination, rooted in the fear and ignorance of early humans.
From a scientific perspective, the theological definition of God is considered too vague for contemporary creation theories.
Buddhism teaches that humans are responsible for their own existence through karma, craving, and attachment, not an external creator.
The Buddhist perspective aligns with the scientific discovery of the world’s gradual development.

Human Weakness and the Concept of God

Believers have historically protected the concept of God and creation myths to justify their purpose.
While promoting high ideals, some religions have also spread superstition, opposed scientific advancement, and caused conflict and war.
The concept of God can impose a form of “authority” that threatens individual freedom and critical thinking.
Some religions teach that salvation is impossible without faith in their specific God, regardless of a person’s virtuous actions, a view that Buddhism finds unjustifiable.
Despite its flaws, belief in God has provided security, inspiration, and a moral framework for many, especially the less spiritually developed.
Religious tolerance and mutual respect are essential for peaceful coexistence.
Buddhists have practiced their religion peacefully for over 2,500 years without a creator God and see no need to introduce the concept.

Changing a Religious Label before Death

Some people change their religion just before death, mistakenly believing it will “wash away their sins” and guarantee them a passage to heaven.
The belief that an external being can forgive sins may encourage people to commit evil without fear.
According to Buddhist teachings, individuals cannot have their sins washed away by another; they must realize their wrongdoing and do good to counter the effects of their bad actions.
Exploiting the psychological fear of dying patients by promising salvation through conversion is a common practice in some hospitals.
A person’s destiny in the next life depends on their accumulated karma and their final thoughts, not on a religious label adopted at the last moment.

Short-cut to Paradise and End of the World

Paradise is accessible to anyone leading a righteous and noble life, regardless of their specific religion.
Some religious groups act as “paradise peddlers,” falsely claiming they hold the exclusive authority to grant entry into heaven.
These groups often use the threat of an imminent end of the world to convert people, a tactic that has been used for centuries and has been repeatedly proven wrong.
People who lack knowledge of their own religion or fail to use common sense can be misled by these claims.
Buddhism does not have a personal judge to condemn or reward; instead, it operates on the principle of impersonal moral causation and natural law.

14 PROMOTER OF TRUE HUMAN CULTURE

Modern Religion

Buddhist teachings are compatible with modern thought due to their focus on causation, relativism, pragmatism, morality, reasoning, and experience.
It is considered a rational religion suitable for the future world as it aligns with modern scientific discoveries and does not rely on a permanent soul, supernatural forces, or unnecessary rituals.
The Buddha encouraged his followers to investigate his teachings rather than accept them with blind faith.
Buddhism is a practical guide to life, a system of self-culture, and a method of education that helps restore peace of mind.
It posits that morality and righteousness are attainable through knowledge and purification of the mind, without needing sensual pleasure, belief in immortality, or divinity.

Religion in a Scientific Age

Science has a profound impact on modern life, challenging many traditional religious beliefs.
Some religionists ignore scientific discoveries that conflict with their dogma, while others reinterpret their beliefs to accommodate scientific theories, such as evolution.
Many religious views about the universe and life are now considered outdated due to scientific advancements.

Buddhism and Science

Buddhism is compatible with the scientific spirit because it encourages critical examination rather than rigid, dogmatic belief.
The Buddha’s method for discovering spiritual truth is similar to the scientific method, involving objective observation and personal verification.
While aligned with the scientific spirit, Buddhism is not the same as science; science is limited to empirical evidence, its truths are relative, and it cannot offer moral guidance or control over the mind.

Limitations of Science

Scientific knowledge is confined to data received through the senses, and its truths are relative and constantly changing.
Science is ill-equipped to address humanity’s inner world, such as mental unrest, frustration, and the need for purpose.
It cannot make people morally better and has created insecurity through the development of weapons of mass destruction.
Science is secular and cannot provide a meaningful purpose for life or answer questions beyond its narrow, material confines.

Learned Ignorance

Human intellect is limited by information gathered through imperfect sense organs, leading to a distorted understanding of the world.
The more a person learns, the more they realize their own limitations.
True wisdom involves recognizing the vastness of what one does not know, as exemplified by Socrates.

Beyond Science

Buddhism accepts knowledge gained through both sensory experience and mental culture, which transcends the limits of science.
The truth discovered by the Buddha is considered absolute and final, unlike the relative and changing truths of science.
Buddhism emphasizes practice and inner development over theory, teaching individuals how to find truth within themselves.
It offers a complete system of mental culture for gaining insight and achieving self-realization.

Science Without Religion

Without moral ideals, science poses a danger to humanity by creating weapons of mass destruction.
Science cannot provide moral guidance and can fuel human craving, becoming a “monster” that threatens to overpower its creator.
Cooperation between science and religion is desperately needed; science without religion is “crippled.”

Tribute to Buddhism

Albert Einstein stated that Buddhism is a religion that could cope with modern scientific needs.
Buddhism does not require revision to align with science because it already embraces scientific principles while also going beyond them.
It serves as a bridge between religious and scientific thought.

Religion of Freedom

Buddhism is presented as a religion of freedom and reason, encouraging followers to learn about other religions and respect their rational teachings.
Religion should be a matter of free choice, based on conviction and understanding, not a law forced upon individuals by family or religious authorities.
Changing one’s religion should be for spiritual development, not for emotional reasons, marriage, or material gain.
Buddhists do not use force, exploitation, or material incentives to gain followers; the Buddha advised people to carefully consider his teachings before accepting them.
The Buddha is regarded as a teacher who shows the path to salvation, not a saviour. Followers are encouraged to be free-thinking and not subservient to anyone for their spiritual development.
The teachings are compatible with modern science and have always supported the advancement of knowledge and human freedom.
The Kalama Sutra advises followers not to accept teachings based on authority, tradition, or speculation, but to verify for themselves what is wholesome and good before accepting it.
Salvation is achieved through one’s own effort to eradicate mental impurities, not through dependence on external powers.
A genuine Buddhist maintains an unbiased attitude, not getting upset by criticism or overjoyed by praise.

Buddhist Missionaries

Buddhist missionaries spread their message peacefully, without aggression, intolerance, or competing with other religions.
Buddhism respected and integrated with the national traditions, customs, and art of the people who adopted it.
The religion was never introduced through colonial or political power; its aim was to show people how to gain peace and happiness.
Emperor Asoka is a prime example of a Buddhist missionary who sent envoys to spread the message of peace and respected all other religions.
The golden eras of art, culture, and civilization in many Asian countries coincided with periods of strong Buddhist influence.
Buddhist history is not marked by holy wars, crusades, or inquisitions.
Missionaries do not seek to convert those satisfied with their own religion but support other faiths in helping people lead a religious life.
They do not use fear of hell or exaggerated promises of heaven to attract followers, but instead explain the real nature of life.

15 WAR AND PEACE

Why is there no Peace?

The world is full of contradictions: people fear war but prepare for it; there is abundance but miserly distribution; the world is crowded, yet people are isolated and lonely.
War begins in the mind, a sentiment shared by both the United Nations charter and the Buddha.
The belief in fighting force with more force has led to an arms race, bringing humanity to the brink of self-destruction.
The Buddha taught that hatred is overcome by love, not by more hatred. Pride and ego often prevent people from following this advice.
Tolerance is essential for peace and requires eradicating hatred, greed, and delusion.
Lasting peace comes from harmony with others and the environment, not from force, prayers, or rituals.
Buddhism is a religion of tolerance and self-restraint, teaching that one’s own negative thoughts are the most harmful enemy.
The world acts like a mirror; if you treat it kindly, it will treat you kindly in return.
To be free and find peace, one must have the courage to admit one’s own faults rather than blaming others.

Can We Justify War?

Human history is filled with wars driven by greed, hatred, and selfishness, with 15,000 major wars fought in the last 3,000 years.
Modern warfare technology has become so advanced that it can destroy entire cities in seconds, leading to an arms race for ‘Military Superiority’.
Despite numerous peace treaties and talks, the threat of war persists because we have failed to educate young people on the importance of selflessness and the dangers of selfishness.
To achieve genuine peace, youth must be educated to practice love, goodwill, and tolerance.

The Buddhist Attitude

Buddhists should avoid aggression but are permitted to defend their country from external threats if they have not renounced worldly life.
If everyone followed the Buddha’s teachings, war would not exist.
Peace requires training the mind, being humble, and sharing the world’s resources equitably, as the current wealth disparity is a major cause of conflict.
The arms race must stop, with funds diverted from weapons to schools, hospitals, and economic development.
True peace and disarmament can only be achieved through a change of heart, which religion can facilitate by teaching people to renounce selfish desires and lust for power.
The Buddha identified sensual craving as the root cause of all conflict, from family quarrels to wars between nations.
Due to the teaching of tolerance, Buddhists have not caused any major wars in the name of their religion for the last 2,500 years.

Can Buddhists Join the Army?

Punishment for criminals is permissible but must be administered without hatred; it is the consequence of their own actions.
The Buddha teaches that while all warfare is lamentable, those who fight to maintain peace and order after exhausting all other options are not blameworthy.
Life involves struggle, but it should be for truth and justice, not for self-interest like power, wealth, or fame.
A soldier fighting for a righteous cause must accept the risk of death.
A true and lasting victory is achieved not just by winning, but by showing compassion to the defeated enemy and establishing peace.
Conquering oneself is a greater victory than conquering others, and it makes a person more fit to succeed in life.

Mercy Killing

According to Buddhism, mercy and killing are incompatible and mercy killing cannot be justified.
Even if the motive is to relieve suffering, the act of killing is unwholesome and creates bad karma.
While killing without hatred has a less severe karmic reaction than killing with hatred, it is still not condoned.
Mercy killing prevents a being from working through its bad karma, which will then have to be paid in a future existence.
Buddhists should help reduce the pain of others, not take their lives.

Killing for Self-Protection

The Buddha advised against all killing, even in self-defence, recommending loving-kindness as the ultimate protection.
The karmic effect of killing in self-defence depends on intent; if there was no intention to kill, bad karma is not created from the death.
If a person kills with the intention to kill, they will face the karmic consequences, regardless of the circumstances.
Buddhism does not accept justifications like ‘humane killing’ because the unnatural termination of a life is what matters, not the method.

The Buddhist Stand on the Death Sentence

Buddhists must respect and strictly obey the laws of their country.
While religion teaches morality, it does not have the power to punish criminals; this is the role of the state’s legal system.
Buddhism cannot interfere with the enforcement of the law, even if it includes the death sentence.
Buddhists can plead for clemency, but the legal process must be respected.
During the Buddha’s time, rulers were expected to punish serious criminals, and the Buddha did not interfere with the law.
A Buddhist must comply with the country’s laws, such as military conscription, or choose to leave society by becoming a monk or nun.

PART SIX - THIS WORLD AND OTHER WORLDS

16 REALMS OF EXISTENCE

The Origin of the World

There are three schools of thought on the world’s origin: it came into existence by nature, it was created by a God, or it has no beginning or end.
Buddhism aligns with the third view, believing the world exists in a never-ending cycle of appearing, changing, and disappearing, a concept supported by thinkers like Bertrand Russell.
Unlike some religious explanations which are contradicted by modern science, the Buddha’s teachings on this topic are not in conflict with scientific knowledge.
The Buddha considered speculation on the origin of the universe irrelevant and a distraction from the main spiritual goal of escaping suffering (Samsara).
He used the parable of a man shot by a poisoned arrow to illustrate that the immediate task is to remove the suffering, not to investigate irrelevant details about its origin.
The Buddha’s teachings focused on what is necessary for liberation, such as the Four Noble Truths, rather than on satisfying curiosity about cosmology.

Other World Systems

The Buddha taught that other life forms exist in the universe, describing 31 distinct planes of existence.
Modern science is now exploring the hypothesis of life on other planets, which is considered scientifically feasible given the vastness of the cosmos.
Human perception is limited by our sense organs, but scientific discoveries like radio waves and X-rays show that other realities can exist beyond our direct experience.
According to the Buddha, the universe’s beginning and end are inconceivable; it undergoes a continuous cycle where sections disappear and others evolve.
Buddhism does not believe a god will destroy the world, but rather that all things that come into existence will naturally end as part of an indefinite cycle.
The Buddha’s teaching prioritizes understanding one’s own nature and taming the mind over mastering the universe for material comfort.

The Buddhist Concept of Heaven and Hell

In Buddhism, heaven and hell are not eternal places; they are temporary states.
Individuals can create their own heaven or hell in this life and the next through their actions.
Beings in hell can eventually leave by using merit they previously acquired.
The Buddha described ‘hell’ as a term for painful sensations, such as anger, lust, greed, and ignorance.
Heaven is any place or state with more pleasure and happiness, while hell is any place or state with more suffering.
Rebirth after death is conditioned by a person’s karma and their final thought-moment.
Good karma can lead to a temporary, pleasant existence (heaven), while bad karma can lead to a temporary state of suffering (hell).
There is no god controlling heaven and hell; they are the direct result of an individual’s actions (karma).
The focus of Buddhism is on character building and mental training to achieve Nirvana, not on fearing hell or seeking heaven.

Belief in Deities (Devas)

Buddhists acknowledge the existence of deities (Devas), who are more fortunate than humans in sensual pleasures and possess certain limited powers.
Devas are transitory beings subject to rebirth when their good karma is exhausted; they share a common destiny with humans.
Humans are considered to have more opportunities to accrue merit for a better rebirth than Devas.
Deities are not regarded as a source of support for moral development or the attainment of Nirvana.
Some Buddhists share merits with deities to gain their protection, but worshipping them is not encouraged as a means to salvation.
Buddhists believe that purity and salvation depend on oneself, and Nirvana can be attained without help from any external source.

Existence of Spirits

Buddhism acknowledges the existence of invisible good and evil spirits, which, like humans, are subject to birth and death.
A genuine Buddhist should focus on moral causation rather than worshipping spirits.
Goodness acts as a shield against evil, but this protection can be weakened if a person believes in the power of evil to harm them.
The Buddha advised against worshipping or fearing spirits; instead, Buddhists should transfer merits and radiate loving-kindness to them.
A virtuous, pure-minded, and intelligent person is considered stronger than spirits, causing evil spirits to stay away and good spirits to offer protection.

The Significance of Transference of Merits to the Departed

Good deeds produce ‘merit’ which brings happiness and can be transferred to other people, both living and departed.
To transfer merit, one performs a good deed and simply wishes for the merit to accrue to a specific person, either mentally or verbally.
When a beneficiary is aware of the good deed and rejoices in it, they become a participant and can sometimes gain more merit than the original doer.
A beneficiary can also gain merit without the doer’s knowledge, simply by feeling gladness about the good deed.
Transferring merit does not reduce the doer’s own merit; the act of transferring is itself a good deed that enhances their merit.

Highest Gift to the Departed

The Buddha taught that the greatest gift for the deceased is to perform meritorious acts and transfer the merit to them, which is more helpful than grieving.
The practice is based on the belief that departed beings in unfortunate states cannot generate new merit and rely on transfers from the living to improve their condition.
When the departed become aware they are remembered through a meritorious act, their resulting happiness can relieve their suffering and lead to a better state.
Meaningless ceremonies, such as building large tombs or burning offerings, are ineffective ways to help the departed.
The proper way to help is by performing genuine charitable deeds like giving alms, building schools or hospitals, or printing religious books in their name.
Instead of praying to a god, Buddhists radiate loving-kindness and transfer merits directly to their departed loved ones.

17 DIVINATION AND DREAMS

Astrology and Astronomy

Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects and their movements, while astrology studies the link between these movements and human destiny.
Astrology originated from early agricultural societies observing the connection between the sun’s path (the Zodiac) and their activities.
A horoscope is a chart based on planetary positions at birth, intended to provide insight into one’s character, tendencies, and karmic forces.
While a person’s nature is innate, free will allows them to overcome weaknesses and develop talents.
The field’s reputation is damaged by charlatans who exploit people’s ignorance and fear.
A horoscope can help individuals understand their inclinations, enabling them to chart their lives more meaningfully.

Buddhist Attitude Towards Astrology

The Buddha did not directly pronounce on astrology, as he considered it unrelated to spiritual development.
Buddhism does not condemn astrology and allows followers to use it as a tool for a more meaningful life.
Buddhism accepts that cosmic energy interacts with an individual’s karmic energy to determine the course of their life, including the time of birth.
While a skilled astrologer can chart a person’s life, only a Buddha can predict with perfect accuracy.
The Buddha taught that one can transcend these influences by developing the mind, purifying karma, and preventing rebirth.
Astrology is a tool for self-understanding, not a solution to problems. It shows tendencies (“impels”), but does not force outcomes (“compel”).
Individuals must use astrology intelligently, make their own efforts, and be wary of fake astrologers.

Fortune-Telling and Charms

Buddhism advises that people should not be slaves to deities, spirits, astrology, or fortune-telling, but should rely on their own intelligence and willpower.
Success comes from one’s own efforts and hard work, which is considered the “luckiest star,” rather than from consulting stars or lucky days.
The Buddha did not encourage fortune-telling or charms, viewing them as superstitions with no religious value.
Sickness originates from mental, physical, or karmic causes, not from charms.
For illness, one should first consult a medical specialist and may then seek spiritual guidance if needed.
Buddhists are advised to cultivate strong willpower and use meditation to avoid superstitious fears and strengthen the mind.

Consulting Mediums

People consult mediums for various reasons, such as sickness, complex problems, or greed, seeking psychological relief.
Some believe a deity communicates through the medium, while others attribute it to the subconscious mind.
Consulting mediums is a traditional belief, not a Buddhist practice.
The Buddhist attitude is non-committal, as the information is difficult to verify.
Buddhism focuses on spiritual development, whereas consulting mediums is for worldly gain.
Buddhists do not object to the practice unless it causes harm, such as animal sacrifice.
Those who understand and practice Buddha’s teachings can overcome problems without needing a medium.

Dreams and Their Significance

The nature of dreams is a long-standing mystery, with some philosophical views, like Wordsworth’s, suggesting life itself is a dream from which we awaken at death.
According to Buddhist psychology, dreams are mental processes that occur during the five stages of sleep.
The Milinda Panha identifies six causes for dreams: three organic (wind, bile, phlegm), supernatural forces, revival of past experiences, and future events (prophetic dreams), with only the last being considered truly significant.
Dreams can be classified into four main types:
- Psychological: Reflections of subconscious thoughts and anxieties stored in the mind.
- Provoked: Reactions to internal disturbances (like a heavy meal) or external stimuli (like weather), created by the mind to allow sleep to continue.
- Prophetic: Rare, symbolic messages from devas or spirits about important impending events.
- Karmic: Very rare dreams triggered when a powerful past karma is about to ripen.
Dreams can also be telepathic messages sent between two living people.
In a broader sense, Buddhism considers all unenlightened people to be “dreamers” for seeing the impermanent world as real.
Buddhas and Arahats are known as “Awakened Ones” and do not dream because their minds are stilled and free from craving.

Faith Healing

Faith healing is a psychological approach that works by activating the immune system.
Some practitioners use religion as a guise to build patient confidence or attract converts, but religion is not essential to the process.
The method involves conditioning a patient’s mind to create a mental attitude that results in favourable psychological and physiological changes.
This mental conditioning influences bodily functions, such as blood circulation, which in turn impacts the immune system.
Practices like meditation can also be used to condition the mind to help eradicate various illnesses.

Superstitions and Dogmas

Superstitions, especially when they become part of a religion, are difficult to cure and can overshadow core religious principles.
Dogmatic beliefs are linked to intolerance and have historically led to violence and cruelty, such as the inquisitions and crusades.
Ignorance fosters superstition, but purifying the mind allows one to see the universe as it is, which is the ‘salvation’ Buddhists aspire to.
Overcoming the emotional attachment to superstitions and dogmas is difficult, even with scientific knowledge.
It is important to separate religion from superstition and dogmatism to prevent its good name from being polluted.