The Dawn of Abhidharma

Hamburg Buddhist Studies 2, Anālayo, Hamburg University Press (2014)

Foreword

About Hamburg Buddhist Studies

The publication series from the Numata Center at the University of Hamburg aims to share research on Buddhism.
It uses a broad variety of academic methods to cover both historical and contemporary issues.
The series seeks to make the academic study of Buddhist traditions accessible to a wider audience.

About this Publication

This book by Bhikkhu Anālayo studies the beginnings of the Abhidharma.
Anālayo argues that Abhidharma is not just characterized by formal elements like lists (mātrkā), but by a new mode of thought.
This new thinking involved a meticulous examination of the constituents of events, going further (abhi-) than the Dharma in the early discourses.
He identifies the concept of the “supramundane path” as an instance where Abhidharma thought appears in the discourses.

Introduction

Theme

This book explores the emergence of the Abhidharma by studying selected early discourses.
It is a companion to the author’s previous study on the “Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal”.
The study is divided into four chapters, covering topics from communal recitation to the need for authenticating the Abhidharma.
Buddhist art is included to show that the Abhidharma was not just a product of dry scholasticism.

Sources

The primary sources are the early discourses found in the Pāli Nikāyas and their parallels.
The author’s approach is based on a comparative study of texts from a long period of oral transmission.
It is suggested that the beginnings of the Abhidharma predate the formation of distinct Buddhist schools.
The study aims to provide a point of reference for the topic based on the early textual corpus.

Acknowledgement

The author expresses gratitude to several scholars for their comments on the work.
The book is dedicated to Bhikkhu Bodhi.

1 Reciting the Dharma and the Functions of Lists

This chapter examines the oral transmission of the Dharma, focusing on communal recitation (sanigīti) and its connection to the Abhidharma.
It studies succinct lists of teachings, known as mātrkās, by surveying accounts of the first sangīti and discourses like the Sañgīti-sūtra.
The “seven sets” of thirty-seven qualities conducive to awakening are explored to understand the role of lists in oral transmission and the formation of the Abhidharma.

1.1 The First Sañgīti at Rājagṛha

In ancient India, the Dharma was transmitted orally, making communal recitation (sangīti) a crucial activity.
The fortnightly recitation of the prātimokṣa (monastic rules) served to express communal harmony and required a fixed text.
The first sangīti at Rājagṛha, held after the Buddha’s death, was intended to establish an authentic canon.
Accounts in different Vinayas (monastic codes) disagree on whether the Abhidharma was recited at this event.
The Mahāsānghika, Mahīśāsaka, and Theravāda Vinayas do not mention the Abhidharma as a separate collection recited at the first sangīti.
The Dharmaguptaka and Sarvāstivāda Vinayas do include the Abhidharma, suggesting its gradual emergence as a distinct collection.
The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya states that mātrkās (succinct lists) were recited, possibly representing an intermediate stage before the material was identified as “Abhidharma”.

1.2 Mātrkā and Abhidharma

A mātrkā is a succinct list or summary that serves as a skeleton for a more detailed exposition.
Textual comparisons show that the term “mātrkā” in some traditions corresponds to “Abhidharma” in others.
While scholars often link mātrkās to the Abhidharma’s development, the Pāli commentarial tradition also associates them with the Vinaya (monastic rules).
The use of lists (mātrkās) was likely a general feature of oral Buddhist literature to aid memorization, not exclusive to the Abhidharma.
Organizational features like topic-wise or numerical arrangements and question-and-answer formats are common in oral traditions and are not necessarily signs of Abhidharma influence.

1.3 Summaries of the Dharma

The Sañgīti-sūtra is a key example of a mātrkā, presented as an extended list of teachings arranged numerically from Ones to Tens.
Its purpose was to foster harmony and prevent disputes about the teachings through communal recitation, a concern highlighted by quarrels among the Jains after their leader’s death.
The Daśottara-sūtra improves on this structure with a consistent ten-times-ten pattern arranged in a soteriological sequence, making it easier to memorize.
Other summary discourses exist, such as the Arthavistara-sūtra and discourses in the Madhyama-āgama that show the proliferation and combination of lists.
A direct link to the Abhidharma is evident as the Sañgītiparyāya, a canonical Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma work, is a commentary on the Sañgīti-sūtra.

1.4 The Seven Sets

The “seven sets” of bodhipākṣikā dharmāh (thirty-seven qualities conducive to awakening) form a short mātrkā taught by the Buddha to ensure communal harmony.
The list includes: the four establishments of mindfulness, four right efforts, four bases for supernormal ability, five faculties, five powers, seven factors of awakening, and the noble eightfold path.
There is some overlap in the list, as the five faculties and five powers refer to the same five qualities, suggesting the list may have grown over time.
These seven sets appear with remarkable consistency across the different versions of the Sañgīti-sūtra, indicating they may have been a foundational part of it.
The development from this core list to the Sañgīti-sūtra and then to Abhidharma works like the Sañgītiparyāya was driven by the need to create a comprehensive summary of the Dharma for practice and to ensure harmony after the Buddha’s death.

2 Wisdom and Early Canonical Abhidharma

This chapter examines the basis for cultivating wisdom through a list of elements in the Bahudhātuka-sūtra.
It explores the meaning of the term “abhidharma” in early discourses and the commentarial nature of early canonical Abhidharma texts.
The aim is to show how passages in early discourses were expanded and to establish that early Abhidharma is fundamentally commentarial.

2.1 Wisdom and the Elements

Wisdom is central to early Buddhist thought, aiming for disenchantment and liberation.
The analysis of “elements” (dhātu) is a key practice for developing wisdom, commonly involving four elements (earth, water, fire, wind), six (adding space and consciousness), or eighteen (related to sense experience).
The Bahudhātuka-sūtra presents a long list of elements, knowledge of which constitutes wisdom.
A comparison of different versions of this sutra shows a gradual expansion of the list of elements, from 41 in the Theravāda version to 62 in Sarvāstivāda versions.
This expansion, along with the addition of the five aggregates in some versions, reflects a tendency toward comprehensive analysis that is characteristic of the emerging Abhidharma.

2.2 The Term Abhidharma

In early discourses, the term “abhidharma” likely meant “about the Dharma” or “concerning the Dharma,” and was often used interchangeably with “Dharma.”
The term often appeared alongside “abhivinaya” (about the Vinaya), reinforcing the sense of the prefix “abhi-” as “about.”
A developmental shift is visible where “abhidharma” and “abhivinaya” became “Abhidharma” and “Vinaya,” signifying the transition from a discussion about a topic to a distinct textual collection.
Several Chinese Āgama discourses refer to the Abhidharma as a third canonical collection, whereas their Pāli parallels do not, suggesting this is a later development.

2.3 Canonical Commentary

The Abhidharma likely originated from the oral tradition of accompanying discourses with commentaries.
Examples from the Sutta-piṭaka (e.g., Aṭṭhakavagga) and Vinaya-piṭaka show that commentarial material, such as background stories and exegesis, was often incorporated into the canonical texts themselves.
The Vinaya combines rules (prātimokṣa) with a commentary (vibhaṅga), a structure that is also foundational to the Abhidharma, which provides exegesis on summary lists (mātrkās).
Analytical (vibhaṅga) discourses in the suttas are not Abhidharma texts but share the method of combining a core statement with its explanation, a method that proliferated in the Abhidharma.

2.4 Early Canonical Abhidharma

The earliest Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma texts, such as the Dharmaskandha and Saṅgītiparyāya, are structured as commentaries, quoting discourses and then providing exegesis.
The Theravāda Vibhaṅga explicitly distinguishes between the perspective of the discourses (suttantabhājanīya) and that of the Abhidharma (abhidhammabhājanīya).
Early Abhidharma works from different traditions (Sarvāstivāda, Theravāda, Dharmaguptaka) show a common origin, often using the same discourse quotations as the basis for analyzing key topics.
This suggests the Abhidharma began as a commentary on the discourses, evolving from being “about” (abhi-) the Dharma to being considered the “superior” Dharma.

3 Meditative Analysis and Omniscience

This chapter examines the theme of analysis in meditation, focusing on the four noble truths and absorption.
It explores the Buddha’s awakening and the notion of his omniscience.
The central argument is that analysis in early discourses tended to proliferate, becoming more comprehensive and incorporating terms typical of later Abhidharma texts.

3.1 The Analysis of the Four Noble Truths

Different versions of the Smrtyupasthāna-sūtra (Discourse on the Establishments of Mindfulness) show considerable variation.
The Theravāda Pāli versions are the most extensive, uniquely including the contemplation of the four noble truths, which is likely a later addition not found in Chinese parallels.
The Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna-sutta provides a highly detailed, multi-page analysis of each of the four noble truths, in contrast to the brief mention in the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta.
This exhaustive analysis, especially of the arising and cessation of craving, is unique in the discourses and lists numerous mental factors in a way that seems impractical for mindfulness training.
This detailed, commentarial style is considered an intrusion into the discourse, reflecting an Abhidharma-like drive for comprehensive coverage.

3.2 The Analysis of Absorption

The Anupada-sutta, a discourse with no known parallel, describes Sāriputta’s detailed analysis of the mental factors present in each absorption (jhana).
The text lists both the factors specific to each absorption and a set of factors that are always present.
Irregularities in the text, such as inconsistent grammar and redundant listing of mental factors (e.g., mindfulness, equipoise), suggest it combines what were originally separate lists.
This minute analysis of mental states is uncharacteristic of early discourses but anticipates the methodology of the Abhidharma.
While early discourses and even some Abhidharma texts focus on a simpler analysis sufficient for practical progress, the Anupada-sutta shifts to a more theoretical, exhaustive taxonomy, lending the authority of Sāriputta to the Abhidharma approach.

3.3 The Buddha’s Awakening

Accounts of the Buddha’s own path to awakening describe his practice in a simpler, more straightforward manner than the analyses in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna-sutta and Anupada-sutta.
The Buddha’s cultivation of absorption is depicted with a focus on key factors to be overcome or developed, which was a sufficient degree of analysis for progress.
The four noble truths were taught as a basic analytical scheme analogous to a medical diagnosis (disease, cause, cure, treatment), which was considered effective enough for listeners to attain stream-entry.
There is a clear trajectory from the basic, practical analysis in what are likely earlier teachings to the detailed, comprehensive analysis concerned with minute details, which points to the emerging Abhidharma.

3.4 The Buddha and Omniscience

In early discourses, the term “all” in relation to the Buddha’s knowledge refers to insight into the nature of all experience via the six senses, not factual knowledge of everything.
The claim that the Buddha was omniscient appears to be a later development, as some early texts have the Buddha denying it, and it contradicts Vinaya accounts of him changing rules due to unforeseen problems.
The attribution of omniscience was likely influenced by competition with rival traditions like the Jains, who claimed their leader was omniscient.
The Abhidharma’s tendency toward comprehensive analysis is closely related to the idea of the Buddha’s omniscience; the Abhidharma was seen as an expression of the Buddha’s all-encompassing knowledge.
Both the elevation of the Buddha to an omniscient teacher and the development of the Abhidharma provided a sense of security and completeness for the community after his death.

4 Awakening and the Authentication of the Abhidharma

This chapter explores the emergence of Abhidharma thought in early discourses by examining the supramundane path in the Mahācattārīsaka-sutta.
It studies the parallelisms between Abhidharma and Mahāyāna in their efforts to be recognized as the authentic word of the Buddha.
It analyzes the tale of the Buddha teaching the Abhidharma to his mother in the Heaven of the Thirty-three.

4.1 The Supramundane Path

The Pāli Mahācattārīsaka-sutta is unique among its parallel versions for distinguishing between wrong, mundane right, and supramundane right path-factors.
This distinction between mundane and supramundane paths is a key feature of Abhidharma thought and is not found elsewhere in the Pāli discourses.
The terminology used to describe the supramundane path-factors is characteristic of the Abhidharma, not the early suttas.
The sutta reclassifies standard wholesome path-factors as merely “mundane” and leading to future rebirth, whereas other discourses present them as leading to the end of suffering.
The term “factor of the path” (magganga) is restricted to the supramundane path-factors, reflecting the Abhidharma view of the “path” as a single moment of attainment rather than a prolonged practice.
The description of the supramundane path is likely a later addition to the sutta, as it is absent in parallel versions and not essential to the discourse’s main theme.
Similar distinctions between mundane and supramundane paths are found in the Samyukta-āgama and Dīrgha-āgama, indicating this Abhidharma-style thought developed across different schools.

4.2 The Path to Awakening

In early discourses, the path to awakening is depicted as a prolonged process with four successive levels, using similes like a journey to a town.
The Abhidharma and later commentarial traditions shift this perspective, viewing the “path” as a single, momentary event of attainment.
This shift from a process-oriented to an event-oriented view is a characteristic difference between the suttas and the Abhidharma.
The presentation of the supramundane path in the Mahācattārīsaka-sutta is a prominent example of mature Abhidharma thought appearing within the Pāli discourses.

4.3 The Need for Authentication

Both the Abhidharma and Mahāyāna traditions needed to establish their texts as the authentic “word of the Buddha”.
A shared argument was that “whatever is well said is all the Buddha’s word.”
Followers of both traditions considered their teachings superior to the early discourses, leading to the formation of separate textual collections (Abhidharma-piṭaka and Bodhisattva-piṭaka).
Both traditions gave a central role to chief disciples, especially Śāriputra, in the formation and authentication of their texts.
Both had to explain why their texts were not recited at the first council, with Mahāyāna proponents arguing their teachings were beyond the understanding of the disciples present.
Both traditions sometimes attributed divine or celestial origins to their texts to bolster authenticity.

4.4 The Buddha in the Heaven of the Thirty-three

The story of the Buddha teaching in the Heaven of the Thirty-three is found in several traditions, but only the Theravāda commentaries specify that he taught the Abhidharma.
The detailed description of the Buddha’s descent via stairs likely originated from aniconic art and was later incorporated into textual accounts.
The Theravāda version of the tale serves to give the Abhidharma a celestial seal of approval, establishing its superiority.
This story creates an inconsistency within the Theravāda tradition, as its own discourses state the Buddha’s mother was reborn in Tuṣita Heaven, not the Heaven of the Thirty-three.
The Theravāda account appears to be an adaptation of a broader Indian tale, which placed the Buddha’s mother in the Heaven of the Thirty-three, in order to authenticate its specific Abhidharma collection.
The story also shows the Buddha fulfilling his filial duty by teaching his mother the superior doctrine, leading her to attain stream-entry.

Conclusion

Early Abhidharma texts began as commentaries on discourses; what was originally “about” the Dharma (abhi-Dharma) evolved into the “higher” Dharma (Abhidharma).
The fact that a commentary on the Sañgīti-sūtra became a canonical Abhidharma work does not automatically make the original discourse proto-Abhidharma.
Formal aspects like summary listings (mātrkās) and question-and-answer formats are tools for oral transmission and not necessarily expressions of Abhidharma influence.
The evolution of Abhidharma was primarily inspired by a shift in perspective towards being as comprehensive as possible, creating a complete map of the path.
This drive for comprehensiveness mirrors the concept of the Buddha’s omniscience, providing disciples with all necessary information after his passing.
The elevation of the Buddha to an omniscient teacher and the mapping of the doctrine in the Abhidharma were interdependent processes that helped establish an institutional identity.
Doctrinal proliferation, seen in the analysis of the four noble truths in the Mahāsatipaṭthāna-sutta and of absorptions in the Anupada-sutta, marks the “twilight of the dawn of Abhidharma” where new terminology begins to emerge.
The attempt to provide a complete list of all dharmas led to a focus on a single, momentary event rather than a prolonged process.
The Mahācattārīsaka-sutta represents a more mature stage of Abhidharma thought with its focus on a momentary event and the new idea of a supramundane path.
The development of the Abhidharma’s comprehensiveness and the apotheosis of the Buddha (e.g., his omniscience) both served to fill the vacuum left by his death.
The Theravāda tale of the Buddha teaching Abhidharma in heaven serves to authenticate its supremacy.
In essence, Abhidharma is characterized by its aim for a complete, analytical coverage of all constituents of a single moment, employing new terminology and ideas that go “further” than the original discourses.