The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal

Hamburg Buddhist Studies 1, Anālayo, Hamburg University Press (2010)

About this Publication

This book by Bhikkhu Anālayo investigates the origins of the bodhisattva ideal using early discourses from Pāli and Chinese sources.
Anālayo argues that early sources do not present compassionate concern for others as the primary motivation for the Buddha’s quest for awakening.
He shows that the single reference to Maitreya in the Pāli canon is likely a later addition.
The book examines a Madhyamāgama discourse, possibly the first of its kind, where Śākyamuni Buddha predicts the future buddhahood of Maitreya.
Anālayo outlines a gradual genesis of the bodhisattva ideal, documenting the evolution of the concept, the emergence of the vow, and the idea of receiving a prediction from a former buddha.

Introduction

The author investigates the origins of the bodhisattva concept by examining early Buddhist discourses.
The study is divided into three chapters: the bodhisattva conception in early discourses, the meeting between Gautama and Buddha Kāśyapa in relation to the bodhisattva vow, and the future Buddha Maitreya in relation to predictions of success.
The primary sources are the discourses in the four main Pāli Nikāyas and their counterparts in the Chinese Āgamas (Dīrgha-āgama, Madhyama-āgama, Saṃyukta-āgama).
The Ekottarika-āgama and the Mahāvastu are also used, but are noted to contain a mixture of early and later material.
The research is based on Pāli, Chinese (Taishō), and Tibetan (Derge and Peking) editions of the texts.

Acknowledgement

This publication combines several articles that were originally intended for separate publication.
The author thanks several scholars for their valuable suggestions and assistance.
The author takes sole responsibility for any errors or omissions.
A limitation of the research is the inability to consult works published in Japanese.

1 Gautama as a Bodhisattva

This chapter traces the development of the term “bodhisattva” from its use for the unawakened Gautama seeking enlightenment to the notion of a being destined to become a Buddha.
It examines four topics: Gautama’s progress to awakening, his motivation, his marvellous qualities, and the lineage of former Buddhas.

1.1 Gautama’s Progress to Awakening

In Pāli discourses, the Buddha uses the term “bodhisattva” (bodhisatta) to refer to himself before his awakening.
This term is often absent in parallel texts from other traditions, which tend to use more honorific titles even for the pre-awakening period.
The bodhisattva’s progress involved overcoming unwholesome mental states like fear and sensuality, developing mental tranquillity, and growing insight.
This path is similar to that of an arhat, suggesting the term initially meant an individual “in search of awakening”.

1.2 Gautama’s Motivation

The bodhisattva’s motivation to seek awakening was to find a solution for himself being subject to old age and death.
Early texts indicate his quest was for personal liberation, with no mention of a concern for others.
After his awakening, the Buddha was initially reluctant to teach, viewing it as potentially fatiguing and vexing, and only agreed after an intervention by the god Brahmā.
In early discourses, compassion and teaching activity are presented as a result of awakening, not the motivation for it, and were qualities also expected of arhats.

1.3 Gautama’s Marvellous Qualities

The Acchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta and its parallel describe marvellous qualities of the bodhisattva, focusing on his conception and birth.
These marvels include being mindful in Tuṣita heaven, entering his mother’s womb with clear comprehension, being born without impurities, and taking seven steps at birth.
The Pāli version adds a proclamation made by the infant bodhisattva: “I am supreme in the world… this is my last birth”, which is absent in the Chinese parallel and likely a later addition.
This proclamation shifts a realization originally attained at awakening to the moment of birth, transforming the bodhisattva from a seeker into a being already accomplished and destined for Buddhahood.
The purpose of these stories was likely to inspire devotion and provide an emotional connection to the Buddha after his death.

1.4 The Lineage of Former Buddhas

The Mahāpadāna-sutta applies the same marvellous qualities of the bodhisattva Gautama to the six previous Buddhas.
This establishes these marvels as a generic norm for all beings who are about to become Buddhas, not just a unique feature of Gautama.
The lineage of former Buddhas served to authenticate the Buddha’s message by providing him with a spiritual ancestry.
By making superiority a birthright for all bodhisattvas in their final life, this development helps transform the bodhisattva concept from a description of an individual into an ideal that can be emulated.

Summary

The concept of the bodhisattva developed from a being seeking his own liberation to a being destined for awakening from the moment of birth.
Gautama’s motivation was initially personal, with compassionate concern for others arising only as a consequence of his awakening.
After the Buddha’s death, the need for devotion led to the creation of stories about his marvellous qualities.
A key development was the story of the infant bodhisattva proclaiming his final birth, which shifted the knowledge of final liberation from the moment of awakening to the moment of birth.
Applying these marvels to a lineage of past Buddhas made them a generic norm, laying the foundation for the bodhisattva concept to evolve into an ideal to be emulated.

2 Meeting the Previous Buddha

This chapter focuses on the bodhisattva’s vow, using the story of Gautama’s meeting with the previous Buddha, Kāśyapa.
It examines the jātaka genre, the specific discourses of the meeting, and the nature of the tale as a jātaka, before discussing the vow itself.

2.1 The Jātaka Genre

The jātaka genre, which recounts the Buddha’s past lives, grew in importance as the bodhisattva ideal developed.
Many jātaka tales are ancient Indian fables that were adapted by identifying a protagonist with the Buddha in a former life.
Comparative analysis of different versions of tales from early discourses and the Vinaya shows that many were originally parables or similes.
These tales were later transformed into jātakas, a process indicated by variations across texts regarding which character was the bodhisattva, or whether the story was a jātaka at all.

2.2 Gautama Meets Kāśyapa

The Ghaṭikāra-sutta and its parallels tell the story of a potter who convinces his reluctant friend, a young Brahmin, to visit the Buddha Kāśyapa.
The Brahmin initially refuses, using derogatory language, but the potter physically compels him to go.
After hearing Kāśyapa’s teaching, the Brahmin becomes a monk and is not mentioned again in the story.
The narrative’s main focus is the potter’s exemplary conduct as a lay disciple, contrasting him with the local king.

2.3 The Meeting with Kāśyapa as a Jātaka

All versions of the tale identify the young Brahmin as a past life of the Buddha Gautama, but this identification presents several problems.
The Brahmin’s reluctance and disrespect towards a Buddha conflict with the developed bodhisattva ideal.
If Gautama had been a disciple of Kāśyapa, it would contradict his later claims of having no teacher and realizing something “unheard before.”
Evidence, such as a conflicting identification in the Ekottarika-āgama and the story’s absence from the Pāli Jātaka collection, suggests the tale may not have originally been a jātaka.

2.4 Gautama’s Vow under Kāśyapa

The Madhyama-āgama’s “Discourse on Marvellous Qualities” introduces the idea that the bodhisattva made his initial vow to seek Buddhahood while he was a monk under Buddha Kāśyapa.
This concept is likely a later addition, as it is absent from parallel texts and even from the Madhyama-āgama’s own telling of the meeting story.
The vow provides an ingenious solution to the problem of why the bodhisattva made no recorded spiritual progress under Kāśyapa: he chose to pursue future Buddhahood instead of immediate liberation.
The text suggests a three-stage evolution of the story: from a simple didactic tale, to the site of the bodhisattva’s initial vow, and finally to a reconfirmation of a vow made much earlier.

Summary

The Ghaṭikāra-sutta and its parallels narrate how a potter convinces a reluctant young Brahmin (identified as the bodhisattva Gautama) to visit the Buddha Kāśyapa, after which the Brahmin becomes a monk.
The tale may have originally been a didactic story about the exemplary potter, as the bodhisattva’s conduct is uninspiring.
The Madhyama-āgama introduces a solution: at that time, Gautama made the vow to pursue Buddhahood, explaining his lack of immediate attainment.
This introduces the resolve to become a Buddha, a key component of the bodhisattva ideal.

3 The Advent of the Next Buddha

The chapter focuses on the concept of a Buddha giving a prediction to a bodhisattva about their future success.
The primary text for this is the Discourse on an Explanation about the Past in the Madhyama-āgama, where a monk receives a prediction to become the future Buddha Maitreya.
The chapter will first examine an earlier reference to Maitreya in the Discourse on the Wheel-turning King.

3.1 Maitreya in the Discourse on the Wheel-turning King

Maitreya has been a significant figure in Buddhist history, serving as a source of inspiration, an object of worship in sculptures, and a protector.
Famous scholars like Buddhaghosa aspired to attain liberation under Maitreya, and Asaṅga is said to have received teachings from him.
The earliest textual reference to Maitreya is found in the Discourse on the Wheel-turning King, which exists in three versions: Dīgha-nikāya, Dīrgha-āgama, and Madhyama-āgama.
The discourse tells a story of a righteous king, followed by a period of moral decline and shortened lifespans, and then a gradual improvement culminating in a future golden age when Maitreya appears.

a) The Dīgha-nikāya version

In a future time when human lifespan is 80,000 years, a wheel-turning king named Sañkha will arise.
A Buddha named Metteyya (Maitreya) will also appear, possessing the same qualities as the current Buddha, Gautama.
King Sańkha will eventually renounce his throne, become a disciple of Metteyya, and achieve liberation.
The discourse concludes by advising monks to be a refuge unto themselves by practising the four establishments of mindfulness.

b) The Dirgha-āgama version

This version first describes the future Buddha Maitreya, who will have a community of disciples known as the “Sons of Maitri”.
It then describes the wheel-turning king Śańkha, who will rule righteously.
The king will raise a great jewelled pillar, give it away as a gift, and then renounce the world to achieve liberation.
The discourse ends by advising monks to cultivate wholesome conduct.

c) The Madhyama-āgama version

This version describes the future wheel-turning king Śańkha, who rules successfully by keeping to the traditions of his forefathers.
The discourse then directly advises monks to act similarly by keeping to their own “resort” (the four establishments of mindfulness).
This version makes no mention of the future Buddha Maitreya.

3.2 The Maitreya Episode in Comparative Perspective

A comparison of the three versions shows the Maitreya episode is placed differently in the Dīgha-nikāya and Dīrgha-āgama and is completely absent from the Madhyama-āgama version.
The author argues that the Maitreya episode was likely a later addition to the original discourse, with the Madhyama-āgama version representing the earlier form.
The idea of a precise, long-term prediction conflicts with the early Buddhist concept of dependent arising (conditioned but not predetermined).
The entire narration of the wheel-turning king is likely a parable or allegory, with the central teaching being that monks should keep to their proper resort (mindfulness practice).

3.3 Maitreya in the Discourse on an Explanation about the Past

This discourse from the Madhyama-āgama presents a more developed story of Maitreya.
It begins with a tale of Anuruddha’s past life, after which the Buddha tells a tale of the future.
In the Buddha’s tale, a monk named Maitreya hears about the future Buddha and aspires to become him.
The Buddha praises the monk’s aspiration and gives him a prediction that he will indeed become the future Buddha Maitreya.
This marks a significant shift, where a current disciple of Gautama is identified as a bodhisattva who will become the next Buddha.
The author suggests a three-stage textual evolution: first, a tale with no Maitreya; second, a tale where Maitreya’s advent is described; and third, a tale where a listener aspires to become Maitreya and receives a prediction.

3.4 The Prediction of Maitreya

The prediction given to the monk Maitreya emphasizes that he will become a Buddha with the exact same qualities as the present Buddha Gautama.
This message is heavily emphasized through repetition, occurring eight times in the narrative through description, aspiration, quotation, and the final prediction.
The primary purpose of the passage appears to be providing assurance and a sense of continuity for the faithful after the Buddha’s death.
It fills the vacuum left by the Buddha’s passing by providing a substitute: the future Buddha Maitreya and the present bodhisattva Maitreya dwelling in Tuṣita.
The concept of a Buddha giving a prediction to a bodhisattva may have arisen as a by-product of this need for reassurance.
Discourses in the Ekottarika-āgama complete the development by presenting Maitreya as a bodhisattva who can be emulated and who seeks instruction on the bodhisattva path.

Summary

A comparative study suggests the earliest canonical reference to the future Buddha Maitreya was a later addition to the Discourse on the Wheel-turning King.
The Discourse on an Explanation about the Past from the Madhyama-āgama contains a more developed version where the Buddha Gautama gives a prediction to a monk, assuring his future success in becoming the Buddha Maitreya.
This introduction of a prediction given to an aspiring bodhisattva is a key element in the genesis of the bodhisattva ideal.

Conclusion

The bodhisattva concept shifted from one in quest of awakening to a being inevitably destined for it, with the marvels at Gautama’s birth becoming the norm for all bodhisattvas.
Key developments contributing to the bodhisattva ideal include the idea of taking a vow to become a Buddha and receiving a prediction from a previous Buddha.
The gradual exaltation (apotheosis) of the Buddha after his death was a central factor behind these developments.
Evidence suggests that renunciate bodhisattvas existed within Nikāya Buddhism, practicing based on the early discourses.
The bodhisattva ideal became a pan-Buddhist phenomenon, with the Mahāyāna later emerging from groups who exclusively devoted themselves to the Bodhisattvayāna, exalting it as the “Great Vehicle”.
The precise origins of the ideal are difficult to determine due to the oral transmission of early textual records.

About the Author

Bhikkhu Anālayo was born in Germany in 1962 and ordained in Sri Lanka in 1995.
He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Peradeniya and completed habilitation research at the University of Marburg.
He teaches at the University of Hamburg, researches at Dharma Drum Buddhist College, and conducts meditation courses.

Abstract

The book investigates the genesis of the bodhisattva ideal by analyzing early discourses preserved in Pāli and Chinese.
It argues that compassionate concern was not the original motivation for the Buddha’s quest for awakening.
It suggests that the reference to Maitreya in the Pāli canon is likely a later addition.
The work delineates a gradual evolution of the bodhisattva ideal, documenting changes in the concept, the emergence of the vow, and the idea of receiving a prediction.