1: The Pali Language Basics

Info

Part of “A Beginner (Non-Linguist) Guide to Learning Pali”

Note

In this book, references to Kaccāyana are denoted by eg. {8} (8th sutta or “grammatical rule”). Altogether there are 675 suttas, which shows how compact Kaccāyana is.

Pali, like most other Indo-Aryan languages, is an oral language spoken as vākya (sentences) made up of vacana (words) which are a combination of akkhara (“sounds”, or “letters from an “alphabet”). {1}

There are debates about the origin of Pali, whether it was in fact a real language actually spoken by people, as opposed to an “invented” language specifically for the purposes of recording Buddhist doctrine. The term “Pali” actually just means “text”, and today “Pali” is used primarily for Buddhist literature.

Pali Alphabet and pronunciation {2}-{9}

The Buddha may have spoken a language similar to Pali, and when he died his sayings were collected and systematised so they can be transmitted orally generation to generation using memorisation techniques such as chanting. The Pali canon was not written down until hundreds of years after the Buddha has passed away.

As such, there is no “official” Pali alphabet or writing. Pali can be transcribed fairly faithfully in a number of alphabets, including Roman letters (with the addition of a few diacritical marks or accented characters similar to other European languages).

For this textbook, I will use Roman letters as the basis for the Pali alphabet since I am used to that.

Of course, no one knows for sure how Pali words would have been pronounced, and how Pali sentences would have been spoken, particularly with regards to tonality. Modern day Pali pronunciation is based on how the Buddhist Pali canon is chanted in various countries including Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand.

{{< alert title=“Reference” color=“light”>}} [B: The Pāli Alphabet]({{< relref “alphabet” >}}) {{< /alert >}}

Pali sentence structure

A Pali sentence (vākya) or Pali text (pali) is generally composed of multiple words (pada or vacana). Since Pali was an oral language, punctuation mark and upper/lower case conventions are typically not used, although modern editors have sometimes added these to aid reading.

Words also do not need to be separated by spaces, although modern Pali editions of text do add spaces, to aid reading. Later on, we will find out Pali has compound words, which consist of multiple words joined together to create a composite word.

To be able to distinguish words in a sentence, Pali relies heavily on paccaya (affixes to roots or word stems) to create distinctive word endings. Fluent Pali listeners will no doubt listen to the sound of these endings to distinguish the words. These endings also give additional meaning to the words and indicate how the words are used in a sentence.

Because of this, the word order in a Pali sentence is less important than many other languages, however there are conventions for how to arrange words in a typical sentence. Speakers can unconventionally reorder words, typically to give emphasis to certain words or to augment or add nuance to a sentence’s emotional meaning.

This is similar to our reaction when we hear “Yoda” speak in the “Star Wars” series of films. We appreciate who Yoda is as a personality, and we pay more attention to his words simply because of the different order.

dhātu (roots)

Fundamentally, all words in Pali are said to be derived from one or more dhātu (roots). These roots are similar to Sanskrit roots. Pali can be regarded as a simplified version of Sanskrit, however some of the roots may have different meanings, or nuances. There are some that say Sanskrit was a “sacred” language reserved for priests and members of the holy caste, whereas Pali, along with many other Indian languages, was spoken by the common people. The Buddha may have spoken in Pali because he wanted to convey his teachings to ordinary people, not just privileged members of a particular caste.

dhātu can have 1-3 syllables:

type	example	meaning
single stem or one-syllable roots	vā	to move
	yā	to go
	pā	to drink
	ji	to conquer
	nī	to carry
	su	to flow
	bhū	to be
dual-word roots	gamu	to go
	paca	to cook
	vada	to speak
multiple-stem or three syllable roots	vāyama	to attempt
	araha	to deserve
	kilisa	to torment

A series of transformations convert a root into a word by adding paccaya (affixes). Words can also be formed by combining a root with one or more upasagga (prefixes). Multiple upasagga and different forms of paccaya can be applied to a root before it becomes a word, thus creating multi-syllabic words. The result is a word that can be used in a sentence.

Altogether there are around 1700 roots in Pali. However, many many words can be made from them by attaching upasagga (prefixes) and various affixes (paccaya). In theory, fresh words can be formed by new combinations of roots with different prefixes so the adventurous Pali student can attempt to create Pali words for “modern” terms such as “computer” or “phone”.

It is not really necessary to memorise the 1700 roots, although it will be very useful if the reader chooses to do so. Knowing all the roots and the various prefixes and affixes will allow the reader to sometimes (not always) “guess” the meaning of a word not previously encountered, and will also help when applying the various transformation rules (see below).

sandhi (word transformations)

As Pali is a spoken language, when words are combined to form a sentence, changes may occur between words (or sometimes even within a word) to make the sentence “flow” or “sound” better.

In English, we often shorten words like “can not” to “can’t”, or “I will” to “I’ll”. This happens very frequently in Pali, especially when two vowels become adjacent to each other from two words next to each other, and there are complex rules governing how such transformations occur.

As a example {10} (don’t worry about the meaning of the words for now):

tatra + ayaṁ + ādi = tatra + aā yaṁm + ādi = tatrā’ya’mādi = tatrāyamādi

As you can see, when there are two adjacent vowels when we join two or more words together, sandhi typically involves deleting one of the vowels, and then either retaining, lengthening or changing the remaining vowel. Sometimes the consonant next to the vowel may also be changed.

The overall effect is to make the words easier to say as a group. Although tatrāyamādi may seem like a single word because of sandhi, a listener should still regard them as separate words when trying to understand a sentence. However, some sandhi combinations of common words are so often encountered they have acquired distinctive meaning as combined words.

Another example {11}

tatra + abhiratiṁ + iccheyya = tatra + aā bhiratiṁm + iccheyya = tatrā’bhirati’miccheyya = tatrābhiratimiccheyya ”… should prefer enjoying at that …”

For the time being, we are not going to go into detail on these rules but be aware that words may change in a sentence. Eventually, as you read more and more sentences in Pali, these changes will become easier to recognise.

{{< alert title=“Reference” color=“light”>}} For a summary of the rules, please refer to [E: sandhi Rules]({{< relref “sandhi” >}}) {12}-{51} {{< /alert >}}

nāmā (nouns) {52}

nāmā are the most common type of words in Pali, and roughly (but not exactly) correspond to the term “noun” in English. nāmā also means “name”, so these words represent things that we can “name” - including people, places, things, numbers, feelings and many other objects or concepts.

Example {53}

Here is a simple sentence, consisting of 3 nāma:

eso no satthā

which translates as:

that person/being / our / teacher That person [is] our teacher.

Instead of satthā other examples may be:

• brahmā (God)
• attā (self)
• sakhā (friend)
• rājā (King)

liṅga (gender) {53}

nāma can be classified into 3 different types or liṅga. The word liṅga actually means “gender”, and traditionally each nāma is assigned a gender. The liṅga represents an “intrinsic property” of the nāma.

The notion of a Pali gender is similar to (but not quite the same as) genders in some European languages. However, there are differences that it’s best to regard liṅga as a classification scheme or grammatical construct rather than what we may think of as “gender”. I like to think of it this way:

• pulliṅga - the “major” or “default” type. Most nouns fall into this category. Generally associated with masculinity or masculine persons (but not always)
• napuṁsakaliṅga - the “special” type. Tend to be used for nouns that don’t quite fit with the notions of masculinity or feminity, or represent abstract concepts.
• itthiliṅga - the “minor” type, comparatively rare with respect to the other two types. Generally associated with feminity or feminine persons.

Note that for the remainder of this book, we may refer to the above liṅga by the following symbols for brevity:

• 🚹 = pulliṅga
• 🚻 = napuṁsakaliṅga
• 🚺 = itthiliṅga

Ancient India was a patriarchal society, and men were regarded as the “major” component of society, doing activities considered important, hence the tendency is to associate important words to pulliṅga.

Number

Like in English, Pali words are slightly different depending on whether they are used to refer to one thing vs many things.

• ⨀ = ekavacana (singular)
• ⨂ = bahuvacana (plural)

There used to be also a “dual” form but that is now largely obsolete and encountered in very rare instances. Examples include:

• to idh’āgato (these two having come)
• ubho (both)
• mātāpitu (father and mother)

vibhatti (case endings) {54}

Unlike English, words need to be “transformed” before they are used in a sentence. This is done by adding endings or “suffixes” to the word (vibhatti).

Altogether there are seven types of vibhatti, and they are conveniently numbered 1 to 7 {55}:

symbol	⨀	⨂	vibhatti
①	si	yo	paṭhamā (“first”)
②	aṁ	yo	dutiyā (“second”)
③	nā	hi	tatiyā (“third”)
④	sa	naṁ	catutthī (“fourth”)
⑤	smā	hi	pañcamī (“fifth”)
⑥	sa	naṁ	chaṭṭhī (“sixth”)
⑦	smiṁ	su	sattamī (“seventh”)

You may note the 4th and 6th case endings are the same, which means in practice we can only tell which case is being used by context (more later). Notice also the plural endings for some of the cases are the same. Again, which case is being used can only be determined by context.

Let’s start with an example. Suppose we have the word purisa (“man”, in the masculine gender or 🚹) and we want to use it in a sentence in singular form, and we wish to transform it using the 1st case ending (paṭhamāvibhatti). If we look up the above table, we should add the si ending (using rule of {55}):

purisa + si → puriso

Wait, what happened? Why does the transformation not result in purisasi?

This is where additional rules comes into play. By rule of {83}, any word ending in a will be transformed into the 1st case by deleting the a and by rule of {104} replacing the si with o. Kaccāyana has a whole chapter of such rules.

So the transformation becomes:

purisa + si → purisa + si {83} → puris + si(o) {104} → puriso

The plural form undergoes a similar transformation:

purisa + yo → purisa + si {83} → puris + yo(ā) {107} → purisā

This does make things interesting, because the transformation result for every word then depends on:

• kāra’nta (word ending)
• liṅga (gender)
• ekavacana (singular) vs. bahuvacana (plural)
• vibhatti (desired case ending)

Here is a table of purisa transformed in all the 7 cases and singular vs plural.

number	vibhatti	ending	transformation	sutta	result
⨀	①	si	purisa + sio	{104}	puriso
⨂	①	yo	purisa + yoā	{107}	purisā
⨀	②	aṁ	purisa + aṁ		purisaṁ
⨂	②	yo	purisa + yoe	{107}	purise
⨀	③	nā	purisa + ena	{103}	purisena
⨂	③	hi	purisae + hi	{101}	purisehi
⨂	③	hi	purisae + bhi	{99}-{101}	purisebhi
⨀	④	sa	purisa + ssa	{61}	purisassa
⨂	④	naṁ	purisaā + naṁ	{89}	purisānaṁ
⨀	⑤	smā	purisa + smā		purisasmā
⨀	⑤	smā	purisa + mhā	{99}	purisamhā
⨀	⑤	smā	purisaā	{108}	purisā
⨂	⑤	hi	purisae + hi	{101}	purisehi
⨂	⑤	hi	purisae + bhi	{99}-{101}	purisebhi
⨀	⑥	sa	purisa + ssa	{61}	purisassa
⨂	⑥	naṁ	purisaā + naṁ	{89}	purisānaṁ
⨀	⑦	smiṁ	purisa + smiṁ		purisasmiṁ
⨀	⑦	smiṁ	purisa + mhi	{99}	purisamhi
⨀	⑦	smiṁ	purisae	{108}	purise
⨂	⑦	su	purisae + su	{101}	purisesu

You will note that in some of the cases, there are multiple ways the word can be transformed. For example, singular purisa can be transformed in the 3rd case into either purisehi or purisebhi. Both are acceptable. Which should we use for a given sentence? It depends on the “sound” - a native speaker would have chosen the version that sounded the most pleasing, depending on surrounding words.

The rules can be quite complicated, so let’s not worry about them for now. In practice, you can rely on looking up a relevant table to determine the appropriate transformation (TBD). If you are just reading Pali, then with practice you will learn to recognise the various endings which will become familiar to you.

{{< alert title=“Reference” color=“light”>}} A summary of the rules is provided in [G: vibhatti Rules]({{< relref “vibhatti” >}}) {{< /alert >}}

A much more important question to answer at this point is …

Why do we need vibhatti endings and what is their purpose?

In English, when we see a sentence like

The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

We know that words “quick” and “brown” refers to the “fox”, which is the “subject” of the sentence, and “lazy” refers to the dog, which is the “object” of the sentence. The verb “jumped over” separates the subject and the object. Our brain automatically “collects” and “groups” the words, so we read the sentence as:

(The quick brown fox) jumped over (the lazy dog).

In English, as we can see, word order is important. If we mixed the words up, the sentence becomes far harder to read:

Over the quick lazy brown fox the dog jumped.

This sentence would imply quite a different meaning.

In Pali, all words with the same gender and the same case ending should be grouped together, and that’s how we distinguish which words belong to which entity. So the word order becomes far less important, we could mix the words up and the sentence would still have the same meaning!

In practice, the 1st case is usually reserved for the “most important” entity in a sentence, the 2nd for the “second most important” and so on.

So, in the above English sentence, were it to be translated the Pali, “the quick brown fox” would all be in the 1st case, and “the lazy dog” would all be in the 2nd case. If there are more entities, they would take the 3rd, 4th cases and so on.

In many sentences, the 1st case would usually refer to the entity or actor “performing” or “doing” the action (or, the “subject” of the sentence), and the 2nd case refers to the entity being impacted by the action (the “object”) of the sentence. Although this is a very common pattern, it is by no means rigid, and in theory any case ending can be used for any purpose. There are many examples in the Pali canon where the cases are used in unconventional ways. (TBD: need to include examples)

Vibhatti usage typical meanings {271}-{315}

The following meanings are usually associated with each case. However, as noted above, these are conventions only, and the author of a sentence may choose to adopt an unconventional approach of assigning words to cases (perhaps for emphatic or stylistic reasons).

vibhatti	number	role	usage	Pali term	sutta
①	⨀/⨂	subject (active)	subject, doer	kattu/kattā	{284}
①	⨀/⨂	address	to address, to call	ālapana	{285}
②	⨀	to (object)	object	kamma	{297}
②	⨂	till	continuity for a certain period or distance	accantasaṁyoga	{298}
③	⨀	by (subject) (passive)	subject	kattu/kattā	{288}
③	⨂	by/with	supporting cause	karaṇa	{286}
③	⨂	with/together	company	sahayoga	{287}
③	⨂	by means of/in regard of	aspect or adjective	visesana	{292}
③	⨂	due to/for	reason	kāraṇa	{289}
④	⨀/⨂	receivership/purpose	recipient of action	sampadāna	{293}
⑤	⨀	from	source from which it occurs	apādāna	{295}
⑤	⨂	for/due to	reason	kāraṇa	{296}
⑥	⨀	(possessive) of	owner	sāmi	{301}
⑥	⨂	among/out of	selection for comparison	niddhāraṇa	{304}
⑥	⨂	while/despite	two concurrent actions	anādara	{305}
⑦	⨀	at, in, on	location/position	adhikaraṇa/okāsa	{302}
⑦	⨂	among/out of	selection for comparison	niddhāraṇa	{304}
⑦	⨂	for/due to	cause	nimitta	{310}
⑦	⨂	while/when	two concurrent actions	lakkhaṇa	{313}
⑦	⨂	despite/while	two concurrent actions	anādara	{305}

{{< alert title=“Reference” color=“light”>}} For a detailed explanation of the various meanings associated with each case ending, please refer to the next chapter:

[2: kāraka (word ending) meanings]({{< relref “cases” >}}) {271}-{315} {{< /alert >}}

{{< alert title=“Note” color=“secondary”>}} You may find in Pali grammar books written in English the following nomenclature for the cases:

• ① = “nominative”
• ② = “accusative”
• ③ = “instrumental”
• ④ = “dative”
• ⑤ = “ablative”
• ⑥ = “genitive”
• ⑦ = “locative”

Note that these terms only partially reflect the possible meanings and roles associated with each case, so I would discourage using these terms. They can lead to confusion. However, these terms are common in Pali-English dictionaries so I encourage you to substitute the case number when you see these terms. {{< /alert >}}

⓪ ālapana (vocative) {57}

English Pali textbooks often refer to a “vocative” case, but this is not recognised as a separate case but a variant of the 1st case. The usual case ending si (for 1st case singular) is instead called ga but the transformation rules are similar to si.

Examples:

bhoti ayye! (Oh madam!) bhoti kaññe! (Oh girl!) bhoti kharādiye! (Oh the girl named Kharādiya!)

Contrast this to the normal 1st case form of ayyā (🚺⨀①):

sā ayyā (that lady)

In plural:

bhotiyo ayyāyo (Oh Madams!)

*️⃣ sabbanāma (pronouns)

sabba means “all” so sabbanāma are “common” or “generic” nouns that can apply in “all’ situations.

Examples of sabbanāma include the different vibhatti forms of ya (“who, what”), ta (“he/she/it”, “that”), eta (“this”), ima (“this”), amu (“that”), kiṁ (“what?”). One of the common usage of sabbanāma is as “pronouns”, where they can assume all genders to represent all things and persons of the different genders. But they can also function as adjectives, adverbs, honorifics and interrogatives.

Examples:

Sabbanāma	meaning	④	⑥
sabba	all	sabbesaṁ	sabbesānaṁ
ya	which	yesaṁ	yesānaṁ
ta	that	tesaṁ	tesānaṁ
ima	this	imesaṁ	imesānaṁ
ka	who	kesaṁ	kesānaṁ
itara	other	itaresaṁ (others)	itaresānaṁ (others)
katama	what	katamesaṁ (of which ones)	katamesānaṁ (of which ones)

⏏️ nipāta (particles)

nipāta means “to fall. i.e. to be placed anywhere”, and refer to words that can be found placed in the beginning, in the middle or at the end of sentences and words, but not usually regarded as prefixes (see below).

Generally, the vibhatti endings of nipāta words are elided as these words are not related to other words in the sentence and therefore do not need to be matched with them. {221}

However, in some instances, the vibhatti endings may be retained, if the nipāta word play a role in the sentence meaning.

Examples

tvaṁ panā’vuso! tumhe panā’vuso!

you / (no specific meaning) / friend you (plural) / (no specific meaning) / friend How about you, my friend? And the rest of you (plural)?

padaso dhammaṁ vāceyya

by word / dhamma / teach (causative, optative) (He) should teach and say Dhamma word by word.

vihāraṁ • sve upagaccheyya

to temple / tomorrow / should approach (optative) (He) should come to the temple tomorrow.

The following is a brief descriptive list of some nipāta words. Some are plain nipātas without any affix, while some are with indeclinable affixes. Some may even have a sort of vibhatti-ending in them or may still have traces of vibhattis. Please note that the implied meaning of elided vibhatti still remains in effect for some nipāta words such as yathā, tathā and evaṁ etc.

nipāta	meaning	note
yathā, tathā	in a manner that, in such a way as	combination of sabbanāma ya ta with indeclinable affix thā. The affix itself is ex- pressive of manner or mood.
evaṁ	thus, in this way, true as it is said, yes (many meanings)	dutiyāvibhatti, very frequently used in Pāli texts
khalu	used mostly in a reported narrative
kho	mostly meaningless, but sometimes it may mean “only, really”	a plain nipāta, found often in main Buddhist texts. Used together with atha evaṁ taṁ etc.
tatra	there	a combination of sabbanāma ta with indeclinable affix tra
atho	in addition, besides
atha	now, then, later on, if	Sometimes used in the beginning of a chapter or an episode, as an introductory or initiating word
hi	really, for, only	Sometimes a meaningless particle
tu	in addition, only	Also an expletive without meaning, sometimes added to be more emphatic in a statement
ca	also, too	It is used to express some additional meaning in grammatical texts. Sometimes meaningless. Sometimes it has a lot of meanings when used after other nipāta particles
vā	similar to either or, in other ways	In grammatical texts, sometimes it is used to express other option or method or inconsistency of a function. Sometimes with no particular meaning
vo	you	It is sometimes a meaningless expletive
haṁ, ahaṁ	I	the use of these two nipāta are seldom found in texts unless it means “I”
alaṁ	(a) enough, (b) suitable, (c) worthiness, (d) appropriateness, (e) ability	Also, (f) sometimes used as a prohibition or rejection, usually used in combination with (1) a noun in instrumental case, or (2) tuṁ-infinitive Kita verbs or (3) an āya-infinitive in dative case nouns
eva	equal to “only”	used next to the word it want to modify or restrict or confirm in its implied meaning. A plain nipāta.
ho!, aho!		these are expression of interjection or surprise. No vibhatti
he!, ahe!, re!, are!	“hey”	Vocative nipāta particles, similar to “hey” in English. Usually vocative case vibhatti is applicable, but to be elided

nipāta as prefixes

However, there are quite a few nipāta that can be placed before some verbs or kita-affixed nouns and used in a way resembling prefixes.

combined	nipāta	word	combined meaning
antaradhāyati	antara	dhāyati	(he) disappears
āvikaroti	āvi	karoti	(he) makes it openly, displays clearly
pātubhavati	pātu	bhavati	(it) arises visibly, i.e. appears
sacchikaroti	sacchi	karoti	(he) realizes, i.e. attains
vinābhāvo	vinā	bhāvo	separation, being apart
sahacārī	saha	cārī	the one who used be together, a friend
punabbhavo	puna	bhavo	being born again, rebirth

🔼 upasagga (prefixes)

There are 20 upasagga words which are usually applied as prefixes to ākhyāta (verbs) and kita-affixed nouns (see below). Like nipāta, upasagga words also have their vibhatti endings elided, but in some cases where they are functioning as independent words (not attached to a verb or noun), they may retain their vibhatti endings.

There are three kinds of upasagga:

1. dhātva’tthā’nuvattaka - those that follow the meaning of the root, without affecting its original meaning.
2. dhātva’tthabādhaka - those that absolutely mean opposite of the root. These categorically change the original meaning of the root.
3. dhātva’tthavisesaka - those that enhance the original meaning of the root by adding more specific meaning and flavour to it.

Example:

parābhavo

🔼(parā) 🚹⨀①(bhava) opposite / to be, being loss, ruin

Here are various words that can be formed from the word hara (“carrying”) together with various upasagga prefixes and the ṇa-suffix:

example	upasagga	meaning	combined meaning
pahāro	pa	specially	carrying (instruments of harm) specially, i.e. beating, striking
nihāro	ni	out	taking out, evicting
nīhāro	nī	out	taking out, evicting (same as above)
uhāro	u	up	carrying up
duhāro	du	bad	carrying badly
saṁhāro	saṁ	well	carrying well
vihāro	vi	specially	carrying one’s body specially, staying, i.e. act of staying at a place using alternating bodily modes
avahāro	ava	lowly,contemptuous, mean	carrying in a mean manner, i.e. stealing
anuhāro	anu	following, subsequent	carrying accordingly
parihāro	pari	all around	carrying from all around
adhihāro	adhi	specially, nicely	carrying nicely
abhihāro	abhi	toward	carrying toward
patihāro	pati	again	carrying again
suhāro	su	well	carrying well
āhāro	ā	toward	carrying toward, food or meal
atihāro	ati	beyond, excessive	carrying beyond or excessively
apihāro	api	downward	carrying down
apahāro	api	out	carrying outward, i.e. removing
upahāro	upa	near, close to	carrying toward proximity, bringing up closer, carrying complementary gift etc.

{{< alert title=“Reference” color=“light”>}} For a listing of the detailed meanings that are associated with upasagga, please refer to [F: upasagga meanings]({{< relref “upasagga” >}}) {{< /alert >}}

🆎 samāsa (compound nouns) {316}-{343}

Like German, Pali often combines many nouns to form a compound noun.

The following table summarises the major types of compound nouns, typical liṅga (gender) and examples:

type	name	liṅga	example	rule
abyayībhāva	Adverbial	🚻	so napuṁsakaliṅgo	{320}
kammadhāraya	Appositional	variable, or follow last component	abhidheyavacano, paraliṅgo ca	{341}
digu	Numeral Appositional	🚻 (usually ⨀ but can be ⨂)	digusseʼkattaṁ	{321}
tappurisa	Determinative	variable	ayañʼca tappuriso abhidheyavacanaliṅgo	Rūpasiddhi {351}
dvanda	Copulative	Mostly 🚻 but variable in some instances per last component	samāhāre napuṁsakaṁ	Moggalāna {20} Chapter 3
bahubbīhi	Attributive	variable per the contextual meaning of the aññapada (the external word of attributive meaning)	bahubbīhi cāʼyaṁ abhidheyaliṅgavacano	Rūpasiddhi {352}

The rules for constructing a samāsa can be complex:

rāja + putta (the King’s son) → rāja + sa + putta (⨀⑥) → rāja + sa + putta + si (⨀①) → rāja(ññ) + sa(o) + putta + si {135} → rāñño + putta + si(o) {83} → rāñño + putto → rāñño(ja) + putto(a) {317} → rājaputta {318} → rājaputta + si (⨀①) → rājaputta + si(o) {104} → rājaputta + o {83} → rājaputto

Fortunately, resources such as the Digital Pali Dictionary can deconstruct compound words into their individual words, which helps the beginner to understand such words encountered. So there is less of a need to learn the complex rules associated with them.

➡️ taddhita (affixes) {344}-{405}

Various affixes can be added to a noun to create derived nouns and adjectives.

Compare and contrast with English use of affixes such as “-al”, “-ly”, “-er”, “-or” etc. For example, “topic” vs “topical”, “true” vs “truly”.

In English, “navigate” is a verb, whereas “navigator” (with an “-or” affix) is a profession. Similarly, in Pali, nāvā is “boat”, nāvā with ṇika as an affix becomes nāviko (“traveller by boat”, or “sailor”). Note that the last vowel of the root and the ṇ are both elided, and then the noun is given the 🚹⨀① vibhatti ending.

The rules for constructing a tadhitta affixed noun can be rather daunting:

vasiṭṭha + apacca (Vasiṭṭha’s son) → vasiṭṭha + sa (⨀⑥) + apacca → vasiṭṭha + s + sa + apacca {61} → vasiṭṭhassa + apacca + si (⨀①) → vasiṭṭhassa + apacca + si(aṁ) {219} → vasiṭṭhassa + apacca + aṁ {83} → vasiṭṭhassa + apaccaṁ (of Vasiṭṭha / son) → vasiṭṭhassa + ṇa + apaccaṁ {344} → vasiṭṭhassa + ṇa + apaccaṁ {317} → vasiṭṭha + ṇa {396} → vasiṭṭha + a {318} → va(ā)siṭṭha + a {400} → vāsiṭṭha + a {83} → vāsiṭṭha {601} → vāsiṭṭha + si (⨀①) → vāsiṭṭha + si(o) {104} → vāsiṭṭha + o {83} → vāsiṭṭho

type	meaning	affix	rule	liṅga
apacca	patronymic	ṇa	{344}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇāyana, ṇāna	{345}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇeya	{346}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇi	{347}	🚹
		ṇika	by vā of {347}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇava	{348}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇera	{349}	🚹 (but can be variable)
Aneʼkattha	various meanings	ṇika	{350}-{351}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇa	{352}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ima, iya	{353}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ima, iya, ika	by ādi of {353}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		kiya	by ca of {353}	🚹 (but can be variable)
samūha	collective grouping	kaṇ, ṇa	{354}	🚹
		tā	{355}	🚺
taʼdassathāna	the source or the cause	iya	{356}	🚻 (but can be variable)
upamā	analogous similitude	āyitatta	{357}	🚻
tanʼnissitattha	dependent nature and source	la	{358}	🚻 (mostly)
bahula	prominent nature	ālu*	{359}	variable
bhāva	abstract conditions	ṇya, tta	{360}	🚻
		ttana	by tu of {340}	🚻
		tā	{360}	🚺
		ṇa	{361}	🚻
visesa	comparisons	tara, tama, isika, iya, iṭṭha	{363}	variable
taʼdassaʼtthi	possessed quality or inherent nature	vī	{364}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		so	by ca of {364}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		sī	{365}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ika, ī	{366}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ra	{367}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		vantu	{368}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		mantu	{369}	🚹 (but can be variable)
		ṇa	{370}	🚹 (but can be variable)
tappakati	made up of something	maya	{372}	variable

*ka is added sometimes. eg. dayāluko

Words with taddhita affixes are sometimes not recognised by Pali-English dictionaries, since these dictionaries may not cover the full range of possible affixes and their meanings. So it is probably worthwhile learning how to recognise taddhita affixed words and the associated meanings.

{{< alert title=“Reference” color=“light”>}} For a summary of the taddhita affixes and associated meanings, please refer to [H: taddhita (affixes)]({{< relref “taddhita” >}}) {344}-{405} {{< /alert >}}

Numbers

Pali numbers have their own set of tadhikka affixes (to denote “first”, “second”, “third” etc.)

type	name	affix	rule	liṅga	notes
Saṅkhyā Taddhita	Numbers	ma	{373}	variable
		ī	{375}	🚺
		ti	{378},{389}	🚺	derivative morpheme
		tiya	{385}	variable
		ka	{392}	🚻

no	Cardinals	Ordinals
1	eka	paṭhama
2	dvi, di, du, dve	dutiya
3	ti or tri	tatiya
4	catu or catur (before a vowel)	catuttha, turīya
5	pañca	pañcatha, pañcama
6	cha	chaṭṭha, chatthama
7	satta	sattha, sattama
8	aṭṭha	aṭṭhama
9	nava	navama
10	dasa, rasa, lasa, ḷasa	dasama, dasī

Abyaya (indeclinable affixes)

These are undeclinable (and no liṅga), and often used as adverbs or adjectives.

affix	rule
dhā	{397}
so	by ca of {397}
thā	{398}
thattā	by tu of {398}
thaṁ	{398}
khattuṁ	Uṇādisutta {646}

Abyaya affixes applied after Sabbanāma-nouns

These are often used as a substitute or replacement for case endings (particularly ⑤ and ⑦), since they are indeclinable. They also have no liṅga (gender).

use	affix	rule
To express reason or time	to	{248}
To express position or place	to	{248}
	tra, tha	{249}
	dhi	{250}
	va	{251}
	hiṁ, haṁ, haṁ	{252}
	ha, dha	{254}
To express time	dā, dācanaṁ	{254}
	hiṁ, haṁ, haṁ	{252}
To express day	jja, jju	{571}

ākhyāta (verbs) {406}-{523}

Like nouns, verbs also have vibhatti endings affixed to them when used in sentences, but the endings are different from those of nouns. These endings depend on:

• voice {406}-{407}
  • 🟢 = parassapada (active)
  • 🔵 = attanopada (middle) - impersonal
• number
  • ⨀ = ekavacana (singular)
  • ⨂ = bahuvacana (plural)
• person {408}-{412} (if more than one, the last applies)
  • 🤟 = paṭhama purisa (first person, equivalent to ‘third person’ in English)
  • 🤘 = majjima purisa (middle person, equivalent to ‘second person’ in English)
  • 👆 = uttama purisa (primary person, equivalent to ‘first person’ in English)
• tense/mood {413}-{422}
  • ▶️ = vattamāna (present)*
  • ⏹ = piñcamī (imperative) - (used to express) āṇatti (command), āsīsa (wish) at a non-specific time-frame mode (anuttakāla)*
  • ⏯ = sattamī (potential/optative)*
  • 🔄 = parokkhā (past perfect)
  • ↩️ = hiyyattanī (past imperfect)*
  • ⏮ = ajjatanī(aorist)
  • ⏭ = bhavissanti (future)
  • 🔀 = kālātipatti (conditional)

* collectively referred to as sabbadhātuka vibhatti

{{< alert title=“Note” color=“secondary”>}} Note that the above tense/mood categories have been labelled with the nearest linguistic term (eg. “present”, “past perfect”, “aorist” etc.) these categories do not align precisely to those terms. I discourage the use of these terms and rely on the Pali terms instead and the usage of each category will be described later in this chapter. {{< /alert >}}

verb terminations {423}-{430}

	🟢	🟢	🟢	🟢	🟢	🟢	🔵	🔵	🔵	🔵	🔵	🔵
	🤟	🤟	🤘	🤘	👆	👆	🤟	🤟	🤘	🤘	👆	👆
	⨀	⨂	⨀	⨂	⨀	⨂	⨀	⨂	⨀	⨂	⨀	⨂
▶️	ti	anti	si	tha	mi	ma	te	ante	se	vhe	e	mhe
⏹	tu	antu	hi	tha	mi	ma	taṁ	antaṁ	ssu	vho	e	āmase
⏯	eyya	eyyuṁ	eyyāsi	eyyātha	eyyāmi	eyyāma	etha	eraṁ	etho	eyyāvho	eyaṁ	eyaṁhe
🔄	a	u	e	ttha	aṁ	mha	ttha	re	ttho	vho	iṁ	mhe
↩️	ā	ū	o	ttha	aṁ	mhā	ttha	tthuṁ	se	vhaṁ	iṁ	mhase
⏮	ī	uṁ	o	ttha	iṁ	mhā	ā	ū	se	vhaṁ	aṁ	mhe
⏭	ssati	ssanti	ssasi	ssatha	ssaṁi	ssāma	ssate	ssante	ssase	ssavhe	ssaṁ	ssāmhe
🔀	ssā	ssaṁsu	sse	ssatha	ssaṁ	ssāmha	ssatha	ssiṁsu	ssase	ssavhe	ssaṁ	ssāmhase

Here is an example of the root gamu (to go) with all the verb endings applied. A number of transformations need to happen prior to affixing the vibhatti:

gamu → gamu (elision of final vowel per rule {521}) → gamm(cch) (m→cch per rule {476}) → gacch

Here is an example for transforming into the parassapada (🟢), ekavacana (⨀), paṭhama purisa (🤟), vattamāna (▶️) form:

gamu + ti {414} → gamu + ti {521} → gam + a + ti {445} → gam(cch) + a + ti {476} → gacchati

The plural form bahuvacana (⨂) undergoes a similar transformation:

gamu + anti {414} → gamu + anti {521} → gam + a + anti {445} → gam(cch) + a + anti {476} → gacch + a + anti {510} → gacchanti

voice	number	person	tense	ending	transformation	rule	result	irregular forms
🟢	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	gacch + a + ti	{445}	gacchati	gacche
🟢	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	gacch + anti		gacchanti	gacchare
🟢	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	gacch + a + si	{445}	gacchasi
🟢	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	gacch + a + tha	{445}	gacchatha
🟢	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	gacch + ā + mi	{478}	gacchāmi	gacche
🟢	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	gacch + ā + ma	{478}	gacchāma
🔵	🤟	⨀	▶️	te	gacch + a + te	{445}	gacchate
🔵	🤟	⨂	▶️	ante	gacch + ante		gacchante	gacchare
🔵	🤘	⨀	▶️	se	gacch + a + se	{445}	gacchase
🔵	🤘	⨂	▶️	vhe	gacch + a + vhe	{445}	gacchavhe
🔵	👆	⨀	▶️	e	gacch + e		gacche
🔵	👆	⨂	▶️	mhe	gacch + ā + mhe	{478}	gacchāmhe
🟢	🤟	⨀	⏹	tu	gacch + a + tu	{445}	gacchatu	gacche
🟢	🤟	⨂	⏹	antu	gacch + antu		gacchantu
🟢	🤘	⨀	⏹	hi	gacch + ā + hi	{478}	gacchāhi	gaccha {479}, gacchassu {571}
🟢	🤘	⨂	⏹	tha	gacch + a + tha	{445}	gacchatha
🟢	👆	⨀	⏹	mi	gacch + ā + mi	{478}	gacchāmi	gacche
🟢	👆	⨂	⏹	ma	gacch + ā + ma	{478}	gacchāma
🔵	🤟	⨀	⏹	taṁ	gacch + a + taṁ	{445}	gacchataṁ
🔵	🤟	⨂	⏹	antaṁ	gacch + antaṁ		gacchantaṁ
🔵	🤘	⨀	⏹	etha	gacch + a + ssu	{445}	gacchassu
🔵	🤘	⨂	⏹	vho	gacch + a + vho	{445}	gacchavho
🔵	👆	⨀	⏹	e	gacch + e		gacche
🔵	👆	⨂	⏹	āmase	gacch + āmase		gacchāmase
🟢	🤟	⨀	⏯	eyya	gacch + eyya		gaccheyya	gacche
🟢	🤟	⨂	⏯	eyyuṁ	gacch + eyyuṁ		gaccheyyuṁ
🟢	🤘	⨀	⏯	eyyāsi	gacch + eyyāsi		gaccheyyāsi	gacche
🟢	🤘	⨂	⏯	eyyātha	gacch + eyyātha		gaccheyyātha
🟢	👆	⨀	⏯	eyyāmi	gacch + eyyāmi		gaccheyyāmi	gacche
🟢	👆	⨂	⏯	eyyāma	gacch + eyyāma		gaccheyyāma
🔵	🤟	⨀	⏯	etha	gacch + etha		gacchetha
🔵	🤟	⨂	⏯	eraṁ	gacch + eraṁ		gaccheraṁ
🔵	🤘	⨀	⏯	etho	gacch + etho		gacchetho
🔵	🤘	⨂	⏯	eyyāvho	gacch + eyyāvho		gaccheyyāvho
🔵	👆	⨀	⏯	eyaṁ	gacch + eyaṁ		gaccheyaṁ	gacche
🔵	👆	⨂	⏯	eyaṁhe	gacch + eyaṁhe		gaccheyaṁhe
🟢	🤟	⨀	🔄	a	jagamu + a	{458}	jagama	jagāma
🟢	🤟	⨂	🔄	u	jagamu + u	{458}	jagamu
🟢	🤘	⨀	🔄	e	jagamu + e	{458}	jagame
🟢	🤘	⨂	🔄	ttha	jagamu + i + ttha	{458},{516}	jagamittha
🟢	👆	⨀	🔄	aṁ	jagamu + aṁ	{458}	jagamaṁ
🟢	👆	⨂	🔄	mha	jagamu + ā + mha	{458}	jagamimha
🔵	🤟	⨀	🔄	ttha	jagamu + i + ttha	{458},{516}	jagamittha
🔵	🤟	⨂	🔄	re	jagamu + i + re	{458},{516}	jagamire
🔵	🤘	⨀	🔄	ttho	jagamu + i + ttho	{458},{516}	jagamittho
🔵	🤘	⨂	🔄	vho	jagamu + i + vho	{458},{516}	jagamivho
🔵	👆	⨀	🔄	iṁ	jagamu + iṁ	{458}	jagamiṁ
🔵	👆	⨂	🔄	mhe	jagamu + i + mhe	{458},{516}	jagamimhe
🟢	🤟	⨀	↩️	ā	a + gacch + ā	{519}	agacchā	gacchā, agaccha, gaccha
🟢	🤟	⨂	↩️	ū	a + gacch + ū	{519}	agacchū	gacchū, agacchu, gacchu
🟢	🤘	⨀	↩️	o	gacch + o		gaccho	agaccho, agaccha, gaccha, agacchi, gacchi
🟢	🤘	⨂	↩️	ttha	gacch + a + ttha	{445}	gacchattha	agacchattha, agacchatha, gacchatha
🟢	👆	⨀	↩️	aṁ	gacch + aṁ		gacchaṁ	agacchaṁ
🟢	👆	⨂	↩️	mhā	gacch + ā + mhā	{478}	gacchāmhā	agacchamhā
🔵	🤟	⨀	↩️	ttha	gacch + a + ttha	{445}	gacchattha	agacchattha
🔵	🤟	⨂	↩️	tthuṁ	gacch + a + tthuṁ	{445}	gacchatthuṁ	agacchatthuṁ
🔵	🤘	⨀	↩️	se	gacch + a + se	{445}	gacchase	agacchase
🔵	🤘	⨂	↩️	vhaṁ	gacch + a + vhaṁ	{445}	gacchavhaṁ	agacchavhaṁ
🔵	👆	⨀	↩️	iṁ	gacch + iṁ		gacchiṁ	agacchiṁ
🔵	👆	⨂	↩️	mhase	gacch + ā + mhase	{478}	gacchāmhase	agacchamhase
🟢	🤟	⨀	⏮	ī	a + gacch + ī	{519}	agacchī	gacchī, agacchi, gacchi
🟢	🤟	⨂	⏮	uṁ	gacch + uṁ		agacchuṁ	gacchuṁ, agacchiṁsu, gacchiṁsu
🟢	🤘	⨀	⏮	o	gacch + o		gaccho	agaccho, agaccha, gaccha, agacchi, gacchi
🟢	🤘	⨂	⏮	ttha	gacch + i + ttha	{445}	gacchittha	agacchittha
🟢	👆	⨀	⏮	iṁ	gacch + iṁ		gacchiṁ	agacchiṁ
🟢	👆	⨂	⏮	mhā	gacch + i + mhā	{516}	gacchimhā	agacchimhā, gacchimha, agacchimha
🔵	🤟	⨀	⏮	ā	a + gacch + ā	{519}	agacchā	gacchā, agacchittha, gacchittha
🔵	🤟	⨂	⏮	ū	a + gacch + ū	{519}	agacchū	gacchū
🔵	🤘	⨀	⏮	se	gacch + i + se	{516}	gacchise	agacchise
🔵	🤘	⨂	⏮	vhaṁ	gacch + i + vhaṁ	{516}	gacchivhaṁ	agacchivhaṁ
🔵	👆	⨀	⏮	aṁ	gacch + aṁ		gacchaṁ	agacchaṁ, agaccha, gaccha
🔵	👆	⨂	⏮	mhe	gacch + i + mhe	{516}	gacchimhe	agacchimhe
🟢	🤟	⨀	⏭	ssati	gacch + i + ssati	{516}	gacchissati
🟢	🤟	⨂	⏭	ssanti	gacch + i + ssanti	{516}	gacchissanti	gacchissare
🟢	🤘	⨀	⏭	ssasi	gacch + i + ssasi	{516}	gacchissasi
🟢	🤘	⨂	⏭	ssatha	gacch + i + ssatha	{516}	gacchissatha
🟢	👆	⨀	⏭	ssāmi	gacch + i + ssāmi	{516}	gacchissāmi
🟢	👆	⨂	⏭	ssāma	gacch + i + ssāma	{516}	gacchissāma
🔵	🤟	⨀	⏭	ssate	gacch + i + ssate	{516}	gacchissate	gacchissare
🔵	🤟	⨂	⏭	ssante	gacch + i + ssante	{516}	gacchissante
🔵	🤘	⨀	⏭	ssase	gacch + i + ssase	{516}	gacchissase
🔵	🤘	⨂	⏭	ssavhe	gacch + i + ssavhe	{516}	gacchissavhe
🔵	👆	⨀	⏭	ssaṁ	gacch + i + ssaṁ	{516}	gacchissaṁ
🔵	👆	⨂	⏭	ssāmhe	gacch + i + ssāmhe	{516}	gacchissāmhe
🟢	🤟	⨀	⏭	ssā	gacch + i + ssā	{516}	gacchissā	agacchissā, agacchissa, gacchissa
🟢	🤟	⨂	⏭	ssaṁsu	gacch + i + ssaṁsu	{516}	gacchissaṁsu	agacchissaṁsu
🟢	🤘	⨀	⏭	sse	gacch + i + ssase	{516}	gacchissase	agacchissase, agacchissasa, gacchissasa {517}
🟢	🤘	⨂	⏭	ssatha	gacch + i + ssatha	{516}	gacchissatha	agacchissatha
🟢	👆	⨀	⏭	ssaṁ	gacch + i + ssaṁ	{516}	gacchissaṁ	agacchissaṁ
🟢	👆	⨂	⏭	ssāmhā	gacch + i + ssāmhā	{516}	gacchissāmhā	agacchissāmhā, agacchissāmha, gacchissāmha
🔵	🤟	⨀	⏭	ssata	gacch + i + ssata	{516}	gacchissata	agacchissata
🔵	🤟	⨂	⏭	ssiṁsu	gacch + i + ssiṁsu	{516}	gacchissiṁsu	agacchissiṁsu
🔵	🤘	⨀	⏭	ssase	gacch + i + ssase	{516}	gacchissase	agacchissase
🔵	🤘	⨂	⏭	ssavhe	gacch + i + ssavhe	{516}	gacchissavhe	agacchissavhe
🔵	👆	⨀	⏭	ssaṁ	gacch + i + ssaṁ	{516}	gacchissaṁ	agacchissaṁ
🔵	👆	⨂	⏭	ssāmhase	gacch + i + ssāmhase	{516}	gacchissāmhase	agacchissāmhase

Note that some of the terminations are the same so in practice we will need to distinguish which tense is being used from context. Note also the irregular forms, particularly the aorist ones. The irregular aorists tend to be more commonly used than the regular forms. This is so prevalent other grammar books such as Moggalāṇa Vyākaraṇa and Rūpasiddhi created rules to accomodate them.

Voices

Like Sanskrit, Pali supports 3 different ways of expressing sentences, based on the “voice”:

1. the active voice (kattu) {444}-{452}
2. the passive voice (kamma)
3. the impersonal voice (bhāva)

However, in Pali literature, bhāva (middle, or impersonal, voice) is seldom used, probably because most of the literature is based on the Buddha (or a disciple) “speaking” to a group of monks, which has then been transformed into a structure suitable for memorisation and chanting.

🔴 Passive verb endings Vattamānā Vibhatti {440}-{443}

A passive verb is created by using the attanopada (🔵) endings together with an infix of ya in between the root and the ending.

Note that passive verbs can only be formed based on roots that can be expressed in a “passive” (kamma) sense - some roots can only result into “active” verbs and cannot be transformed this way.

Example transformation (based on the root paca (to cook)):

paca + ya + te {440} → paca + y(cc)a + te {441} → paccate (“is cooked”)

The full set of attanopada (🔵) endings of in the present tense vattamāna (▶️) across the 3 persons and plurality:

voice	number	person	tense	ending	transformation	result
🔴	🤟	⨀	▶️	te	paca + y(cc)a + te	paccate
🔴	🤟	⨂	▶️	ante	paca + y(cc)a + ante	paccante
🔴	🤘	⨀	▶️	se	paca + y(cc)a + se	paccase
🔴	🤘	⨂	▶️	vhe	paca + y(cc)a + vhe	paccavhe
🔴	👆	⨀	▶️	e	pacca + y(cc)a + e	pacce
🔴	👆	⨂	▶️	mhe	paccca + y(cc)a + ā + mhe	paccāmhe

Because the middle voice is seldom used, rule {518} allows these verbs to be retransformed into “reversed” parassapada (🟢) endings:

voice	number	person	tense	ending	transformation	result
🔴	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	paccate + ti	paccati
🔴	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	paccante + anti	paccanti
🔴	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	paccase + si	paccasi
🔴	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	paccavhe + tha	paccatha
🔴	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	pacce + ā + mi	paccāmi
🔴	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	paccāmhe + ā + ma	paccāma

Typically we would use the parassapada (🟢) endings for passive verbs.

Other examples (using different rules):

kara (“to do”) → kara + ya + te {440} → kara + ī + ya + te {442} → kara + ī + ya + te {521} → karīyate (“is done”)

vaḍha (“to grow”) → vaḍha + ya + te {440} → vaḍha + ya(ḍḍha) + te {443} → vuḍḍhate (“is grown”)

🟠 Causative verbs

There are two types of causative verbs:

1. Causative verb in the active voice
2. Causative verb in the passive voice

There 4 typical causative affixes (kārita) used to construct causative verbs {438}:

• ṇe
• ṇaya
• ṇāpe
• ṇāpaya

Just like for tadhikka noun affixes, the ṇ is typically elided when joined to a root, leaving the remaining letters. {523}

Various vowel gradation transformations may also take place when joining the affix to the noun as per rule {483}.

Example transformation (based on the root paca (to cook)) and the causative affix ṇe:

paca + ṇe + ti {438} paca + ṇe + ti {521} → pac + ṇe + ti {523} → pa(ā)c + e + ti {483} → pāceti (“(he) causes to cook”)

🟠 Causative (active) verbs {438}

The full set of causative versions of the vattamāna (▶️) forms of the root paca (to cook) using parassapada (🟢) endings:

voice	number	person	tense	ending	causative	transformation	result	irregular forms
🟠	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + ti	pāceti
🟠	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	ṇaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇaya + ti	pācayati
🟠	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + ti	pācāpeti	pacāpeti
🟠	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	ṇāpaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + ti	pācāpayati	pacāpayati
🟠	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + anti	pācenti
🟠	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	ṇaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇaya + anti	pācayanti
🟠	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + anti	pācāpenti	pacāpenti
🟠	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	ṇāpaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + anti	pācāpayanti	pacāpayanti
🟠	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + si	pācesi
🟠	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	ṇaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇaya + si	pācayasi
🟠	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + si	pācāpesi	pacāpesi
🟠	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	ṇāpaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + si	pācāpayasi	pacāpayasi
🟠	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + tha	pācetha
🟠	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	ṇaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇaya + tha	pācayatha
🟠	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + tha	pācāpetha	pacāpetha
🟠	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	ṇāpaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + tha	pācāpayatha	pacāpayatha
🟠	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + mi	pācemi
🟠	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	ṇaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇaya + mi	pācayami
🟠	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + mi	pācāpemi	pacāpemi
🟠	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	ṇāpaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + mi	pācāpayami	pacāpayāmi
🟠	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + ma	pācema
🟠	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	ṇaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇaya + ma	pācayama
🟠	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + ma	pācāpema	pacāpema
🟠	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	ṇāpaya	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + ma	pācāpayama	pacāpayāma

Note: not all forms of the above are encountered in Pali literature - they represent the full theoretical set of causative forms that can be generated.

🟠🔴 Causative passive verbs

It is also possible to construct causative verbs in the passive voice, just by adding the passive ya affix after the causative affix. The ṇaya and ṇāpaya causative affixes are rarely used in the passive voice.

Example transformation (based on the root paca (to cook)) and the causative affix ṇe and the passive affix ya:

paca + ṇe + ya + ti {438,440} paca + ṇe + ya + ti {521} → pac + ṇe + ya + ti {523} → pa(ā)c + ya + ti {483} → pāciyati (“is caused to be cooked”)

voice	number	person	tense	ending	causative	transformation	result
🟠🔴	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + ti	pāciyati
🟠🔴	🤟	⨀	▶️	ti	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + ti	pācāpiyati
🟠🔴	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + anti	pāciyanti
🟠🔴	🤟	⨂	▶️	anti	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + anti	pācāpiyanti
🟠🔴	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + si	pāciyasi
🟠🔴	🤘	⨀	▶️	si	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + si	pācāpiyasi
🟠🔴	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + tha	pāciyatha
🟠🔴	🤘	⨂	▶️	tha	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + tha	pācāpiyatha
🟠🔴	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + mi	pāciyāmi
🟠🔴	👆	⨀	▶️	mi	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + mi	Pācāpiyāmi
🟠🔴	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	ṇe	pa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + ma	pāciyāma
🟠🔴	👆	⨂	▶️	ma	ṇāpe	pa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + ma	pācāpiyāma

ākhyāta examples

▶️ vattamāna {414}

(used to express actions or events which occur) at the present

pāṭaliputtaṁ gacchati

Pāṭaliputta (city) / he goes He goes to Pāṭaliputta.*

sāvatthiṁ pavisati

Sāvatthi (city) / he enters He enters Sāvatthi.

⏹ piñcamī {415}

(used to express)

• āṇatti (command)
• āsīsa (wish)

at a non-specific time-frame mode (anuttakāla)

karotu kusalaṁ

do / meritorious deed (Please) do meritorious deed.

sukhaṁ te hotu

happiness / for you / be May you be happy.

⏯ sattamī {416}

(to express)

• anumati (permission)
• parikappa (thought)

at a non-specific time (anuttakāla).

tvaṁ gaccheyyāsi you / can go You can go.

kima’haṁ kareyyāmi what I (kiṁ + ahaṁ) / shoud do What should I do?

🔄 parokkhā {417}

{{< alert title=“Note” color=“secondary”>}} paro’kkhā = para + akkha beyond (ie. past) / physical senses {{< /alert >}}

(to be applied to express things happened in one’s absence, in a situation where the speaker is not a witness to) at a past time-frame mode (atīta - past).

supine kila’māha

in the dream / apparently / (he) said (kila + āha) (He is supposed to have) said.

evaṁ kila porāṇā’hu

thus / apparently / ancient sages / said (porāṇā + āhu) Ancient sages are supposed to have said thus.

{{< alert title=“Note” color=“secondary”>}} kila is a nipāta (particle) used in indirect hearsay where the speaker is uncertain of the truthfulness of what he heard or not a witness to the actual event occurred. Sometimes it means an asseveration or an emphasis. {{< /alert >}}

↩️ hiyyattanī {418}

(used to express events that took place) in past time (yesterday or before), either being witnessed or not witnessed (by the speaker)

so agamā maggaṁ

he / went / road He went along the road.

te agamū maggaṁ

they / went / road They went along the road.

{{< alert title=“Note” color=“secondary”>}} mā is a nipāta (particle) used to indicate negation, and is typically associated with verbs with hiyyattanī endings, but the verb is not associated with the past (or any other) tense. {420}

mā gamā

do not / gone Do not go.

mā vacā

do not / said Do not say. {{< /alert >}}

⏮ ajjatanī {419}

(used to express things happened) in the near past starting from today, either being witnessed or not witnessed (by the speaker)

so maggaṁ agamī

he / road / gone He has (just) gone along the road.

te maggaṁ agamuṁ they / road / gone They have (just) gone along the road.

⏭ bhavissanti {421}

(to be used) in the (expression of) future

so gacchissati, karissati

he / will go / will do He will go, will do.

te gacchissanti, karissanti

they / will go / will do They will go, will do.

🔀 kālātipatti {422}

(to be used) in (the expression of) an action that was past (without being materialised due to adverse conditions or lack of the supporting causes)

so ce taṁ yānaṁ alabhissā, agacchissā

he / if / that / vehicle / should have got / might have gone already If he had gotten that vehicle, he might have gone already.

te ce taṁ yānaṁ alabhissaṁsu, agacchissaṁsu

they / if / that / vehicle / should have got / might have gone already If they had gotten that vehicle, they might have gone already.

Example sentence constructions

kattu-vācaka vākya (active voice sentences)

An active voice sentence is a subject-principal sentence where Kattā (the agent, doer subject) is much more dominant.

1. kattu (subject) - Kathita Kattā or `Vutta-kattā“ (predominant-subject) must be in 1st case (①)
2. kamma (object) - Akathita-kamma or Avutta-kamma (non-principal object) must be in 2nd case (②)
3. The verb must be either in the parassapada termination (🟢) in most cases or in the attanopada termination (🔵) with or without an affix of kattu sense. [Affixes of kamma sense such as ya, or kita affixes eg. tabba, ta, etc. cannot be used]
4. The persons (subjects) and verbs should be concordant.

Subject (①)	Object (②)	Verb	Meaning
Puriso	odanaṁ	pacati	Man cooks the rice
Purisā	odanaṁ	pacanti	Men cook the rice
Buddhā	dhammaṁ	desenti	Buddha teach the Dhamma
Tvaṁ	odanaṁ	pacasi	You cook the rice
Tumhe	odanaṁ	pacatha	You (plural) cook the rice
Ahaṁ	odanaṁ	pacāmi	I cook the rice
Mayaṁ	odanaṁ	pacāma	We cook the rice

Kamma-vācaka Vākya (passive voice sentences)

A passive voice sentence is a object-principal sentence where the Kamma (the thing being done, the object) is more visibly dominant by being in the 1st case (①).

The rules in a passive voice sentence are:

1. kamma (object) - Kathita Kamma or Vutta-kamma (predominant-object) must be in 1st case (①)
2. kattā (subject) - Akathita-kattā or an Avutta-kattā (non-principal subject) must be in 3nd case (③)
3. The verb should be mainly in the attanopada termination (🔵) or it can be in a reversed parassapada form (🟢) with an affix which has a Kamma-sense only. {440}-{443}.
4. The object (not the subject!) and verb should be in agreement.

Subject (③)	Object (①)	Verb	Meaning
Purisena	odano	pacīyate	The rice is cooked by man
Purisehi	odano	pacīyate	The rice is cooked by men
Buddhena	dhammo	desīyate	The Dhamma is taught by Buddha
Rājena	tvaṁ	dīyase	By king, you are given
Rājena	tumhe	dīyavhe	By king, you (plural) are given
Raññā	ahaṁ	dīye	By king, I am given
Raññā	mayaṁ	dīyāmhe	By king, we are given

bhāva (impersonal) middle voice sentences

It’s like a passive voice sentence except the focus is purely on the action and does not focus on either the subject or object. Therefore the verb tends to be in ⨀ (ekavacana) 🤟 (paṭhama purisa) form. If there is a subject, it can be (but not always) be in 3rd (③) or 6th case (⑥).

Subject (③)	Verb	Meaning
Devadattena	bhūyate	Devadatta’s being
Pabbatena	ṭhīyate	The mountain’s standing
Purisena	kathīyate	The man’s speaking

Causative sentences

There are four integral parts in a causative sentence:

1. Causative subject - Hetu-kattā (the prompter), or Payojaka-kattā (the mover)
2. Subordinate Object - Kārita-kamma (causative object)
3. Root-object - dhātu-kamma, the object of the root which has direct connection/meaning to the root
4. Causative verb

If the root is a dual-kamma-indicative root (dvikammaka) such as nī (to carry), duha (to milk), then there can be three objects.

Causative Subject (①)	Subordinate Object (②)	The root-object (②)	Causative Verb	Meaning
Puriso	purisaṁ	odanaṁ	pāceti	Man causes the other man to cook the rice
Purisā	purise	odanaṁ	pācenti	Men cause the other men to cook the rice

🔽 kibbidhāna (kita-affixed nouns) {524}-{623}

This is a class of words which are verbs transformed into “verb nouns” through the addition of suffixes.

These “verb nouns” are nouns, and have noun vibhatti endings applied to them, but can function like verbs in a sentence, or as auxiliary verbs such as the absolutive (also called gerund), the present participle and past participle.

verbal affixes

use	affix	rule	voice	liṅga
Verb or adjective	tabba	{540}	🔴 (sometimes 🔵)	variable
	anīya	{540}	🔴 (sometimes 🔵)	variable
	ṇya	{541}	🔴 (sometimes 🔵)	🚻 (sometimes variable)
	teya	by ca of {541}	🔴 (sometimes 🔵)	🚻 (sometimes variable)
	kha	{560}	🔴 (sometimes 🔵)	🚻 (sometimes variable)
	ta	{555} , {556}, {557}	🟢🔴🔵	variable

gerund or auxiliary verbs

use	affix	rule	voice	liṅga
to-infinitive	tave	{561}	-	-
	tuṁ	{561}, {562}, {563}	-	-
gerund	tuna, tvāna, tvā	{564}	no voice, but sense of “active”	-
Present participle or adjective or adverb	māna, anta	{565}	🟢 (or 🔴 with ya affix)	variable

Individual noun affixes

All of these can be variable gender, even when a gender is specified in the following table.

no	affix	rule	gender
1	ṇa	{ 524, 528, 529}	variable
2	a	{525, 526, 527, 553}	variable
3	ṇvu, tu, āvī	{527}	🚹
4	kvi	{530}	🚹
5	ramma	{531}	🚻🚹
6	ṇī, tu, āvī	{532}	🚹
7	yu	{533, 553}	variable
8	rū	{534, 535}	🚹
9	ṇuka	{536}	🚹
10	ra	{538}	variable
11	ricca	{542}	🚻
12	i	{551}	variable
13	ti	{552, 553}	🚺
14	ririya	{554}	🚺
15	tavantu, tāvī	{555}	🚹
16	ina	{558, 559}	🚻🚹
17	ratthu	{566}	🚹
18	ritu	{567}	🚹
19	rātu	{567}	🚺
20	tuka	{569}	🚹
21	ika	{570}	🚹

Example

Here is a worked through example of how a root transforms into a kita-affixed noun (from caja, using the ṇa affix):

caja “to share generously” → caja {521} → caj + ṇa {529} → cajṇa (kārita) {621} → cajṇa {523} → ca(ā)ja (vuddhi) {483} → cāj(g)a {623} → cāga (noun) {601} → cāga + si (⨀①) → cāga + si(o) {104} → cāga + o {83} → cāgo (“charitable giving, sharing”)

Here is another example based on budha (to know):

budha “to know” → budha {521} → budh + ta {557} → budh + ta(dha) {576} → budh(d) + dha {611} → buddha (noun) {601} → buddha + si (⨀①) → buddha + si(o) {104} → buddha + o {83} → buddho (“The one who knows truth, who awakened”)

Given the complexity of the above rules, it’s probably better just to recognise the completed forms whenever you come across them, but try and recognise the affix and associated meaning if you can.

⏬ uṇādi (uṇādi-affixed nouns) {624}-{673}

These are also “verb nouns” that can behave like verbs or auxiliary verbs or future participles.

The majority of uṇādi-affixes, except some verbal affixes, are used mainly in the formation of individual nouns of varying genders.

Examples:

sama “to calm” → sama + tha {628} → samatha {601} → samatha + si (⨀①) → samatha + si(o) {104} → samatha + o {83} → samatho (“that which calms the mind, Samatha meditation”)

gaha “to take” → gaha {521} → ga(e)ha {629} → geha {601} → geha + si(aṁ) {104} → geha + aṁ {219} → gehaṁ (“home”)

sādhana

The process of attaching either kita or uṇādi affixes to create new words is called sādhana. Like kāraka (the syntax of case or vibhatti endings), sādhana affixed words can be associated with specific usage meanings.

sādhana-affixed word can be associated with a voice (kattu, kamma, bhāva), in which case their usage can affect the “voice” of a sentence. This is especially true when sādhana-affixed word is used as a verb-noun, ie. it carries the “action” of a sentence.

Example sentences of kattu sādhana-affixed words

dānaṁ dinno devadatto

🚻⨀②(dānaṁ) 🚹⨀①(⏬(ta)(dinno) devadatto) alms / gave (past participle) / Devadatta Devadatta gave alms.

kumaro antepuraṁ gato

🚻⨀②(antepuraṁ) 🚹⨀①(kumaro ⏬(ta)(gato)) King’s palace / prince / went (past participle) The prince went into the King’s palace.

so bhagavā sayam’pi cattāri saccāni buddho

🚹⨀①(so bhagavā ⏬(ta)(buddho)) ⏏️(sayam api) 🚻⨂②(cattāri saccāni) that / Bhagavā / understood (past participle) / by oneself / just / four / truths That Bhagavā (Buddha) understood the four truths just by himself.

Example sentences of kamma sādhana-affixed words

buddhena dhammo desito

🚹⨀③(buddhena) 🚹⨀①(dhammo ⏬(ta)(desito)) by Buddha / dhamma / taught (past participle) The Dhamma is taught by the Buddha.

bhotabbo odano bhavatā

🚹⨀①(⏬(tabba)(bhotabbo) odano) 🚹⨀③(bhavatā) eaten (future passive participle) / rice / Your Honourable That rice is to be eaten by Your Honourable.

Example sentences of bhāva sādhana-affixed words

tassa gītaṁ

🚻⨀⑥(tassa) 🚻⨀①(🔽(ta)(gītaṁ)) of that person / sung (past participle) Sung of that person.

sayitabbaṁ bhavatā

🚻⨀①(⏬(tabba)(sayitabbaṁ)) 🚹⨀③(bhavatā) eating (future passive particle) / by Your Honourable Eating by Your Honourable.

sādhana associated meanings and usage

The associated meanings are rather weak compared to case endings (vibhatti) and can sometimes have no significant role.

association	example	meaning	rule	usage
kattu	nāyako	the leader (who leads)	{527}	netī’ti nāyako
kamma	kammaṁ	work (which is being done)	{531}	karīyate tan’ti kammaṁ
bhāva	cāgo	generosity (act of giving, sharing)	{529}	cajate, cajanaṁ vā cāgo
karaṇa	vinayo	the discipline (by which one is trained)	{527}	vineti etenā’ti vinayo
sampadāna	dānīyo	the recipient monk (to which alms should be given)		databbo assā’ti dānīyo
apādāna	bhemo	the fearsome object (from which people fear)	{627}	bhāyanti etasmā’ti bhemo
adhikaraṇa	ṭhānaṁ	the place (where people stand)	{548}	tiṭṭhanti tasmin’ti

Exercise

Our first exercise, and also a celebration for finishing this chapter, is to translate the Saraṇattaya Kp 1 PTS 1. This is a very well known sutta commonly referred to as the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple Gem or Three Refuges) and traditionally recited by disciples of the Buddha as part of a ceremony by which one formally declares oneself a Buddhist.

Buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Dhammaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Saṅghaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Dutiyampi buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Dutiyampi dhammaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Dutiyampi saṅghaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Tatiyampi buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Tatiyampi dhammaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi Tatiyampi saṅghaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi

Let’s start by examining only the first line. Analysing each word by identifying the form of the vibhatti ending yields:

🚹⨀②(buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(gacchāmi)

{{< alert title=“Note” color=“secondary”>}} The notation used here is inspired by functional programming conventions. In mathematics, we refer to \(f(x)\) as the function \(f\) applying on the variable \(x\), so 🚹⨀②(x) means all words in x are in the 2nd case, singular (ekavacana) and pulliṅga in gender. Similarly, 🟢⨀🤟▶️(y) means all words in y are present indicative (vattamāna) active (parassapada) verbs in the singular (ekavacana), “first person” (in English, “third person”) form (paṭhama purisa). {{< /alert >}}

Translating each word into English yields:

Buddha / refuge / (I) go

Note that in Pali, all words in the same case refer to the same entity, so both “Buddha” and “refuge” refer to the same entity. In other words, the Buddha is the refuge and the refuge is the Buddha. In English, we can regard the equality as “Buddha as refuge”.

So, rearranging the words into a more idiomatic English sentence, we get:

I go to the Buddha as refuge.

For the exercise, translate the remainder of the sutta. It’s okay to leave words like “dhamma” and “sangha” untranslated (and use non-accented characters) as these are well known terms to Buddhists.

Answer

I go to the Buddha as refuge. I go to the Dhamma as refuge. I go to the Sangha as refuge. For the second time too, I go to the Buddha as refuge. For the second time too, I go to the Dhamma as refuge. For the second time too, I go to the Sangha as refuge. For the third time too, I go to the Buddha as refuge. For the third time too, I go to the Dhamma as refuge. For the third time too, I go to the Sangha as refuge.

Note that dutiyaṃ and tatiyaṃ are being used as nipāta. piis a nipāta meaning “too” or “also”.

The sentence structure of this sutta can also be represented as a pseudo UML class diagram:

classDiagram
  class sentence["dutiyampi/tatiyampi buddhaṃ/dhammaṃ/saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi"] {
    <>
    english((For the second/third time) I go to the Buddha/Dhamma/Sangha as refuge)
  }
  namespace saṅkhyāpūraṇa {
    class dutiyaṃ {
      <>
      ②
      english(second time)
    }
    class tatiyaṃ {
      <>
      ②
      english(third time)
    }
  }
  class pi {
    <>
    english(too)
  }
  namespace saraṇa {
    class buddhaṃ {
      <>
      🚹⨀②
    }
    class dhammaṃ {
      <>
      🚹⨀②
    }
    class saṅghaṃ {
      <>
      🚹⨀②
    }
  }
  class saraṇaṃ {
    <>
     🚹⨀②
    english(as refuge)
  }
  class gacchāmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     🟢⨀🤟▶️
    english(I go)
  }
  sentence *-- dutiyaṃ
  sentence *-- tatiyaṃ
  sentence *-- pi
  sentence *-- buddhaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- dhammaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- saṅghaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- saraṇaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- gacchāmi: kiriya
  buddhaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
  dhammaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
  saṅghaṃ .. saraṇaṃ

We can also model the successive actions as a pseudo UML sequence diagram:

sequenceDiagram
participant ahaṃ as (ahaṃ)
participant buddhaṃ
participant dhammaṃ
participant saṅghaṃ
  loop (paṭhama), dutiyampi, tatiyampi
    ahaṃ ->> buddhaṃ : gacchāmi
    buddhaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
    ahaṃ ->> dhammaṃ : gacchāmi
    dhammaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
    ahaṃ ->> saṅghaṃ : gacchāmi
    saṅghaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
  end

Finally, the different states of the refuges can be modelled as a pseudo UML state diagram:

stateDiagram-v2
  state fork_state <>
  state join_state <>
  [*] --> fork_state : gacchāmi
  fork_state --> buddhaṃ
  fork_state --> dhammaṃ
  fork_state --> saṅghaṃ
  buddhaṃ --> join_state
  dhammaṃ --> join_state
  saṅghaṃ --> join_state
  join_state --> saraṇaṃ
  saraṇaṃ --> fork_state : dutiyampi, tatiyampi

Conclusion

Congratulations on finishing this chapter! It is compact and dense, and not every feature of Pali explained here will sink in initially. It may be worthwhile revisiting this chapter from time to time to check your understanding as you progress in your journey in learning Pali.

The good news is you now know enough of the basics of Pali to start reading the Tipiṭaka with the aid of a good dictionary, and looking up every word as you go along. You may encounter sentences that you can’t interpret very well, but that’s okay. Leave it for now, and study the next chapters, which will help you build confidence and skill in your ability to analyse sentences and deduce the correct meaning.

Remember, the sentences in the Tipiṭaka are often repetitive and used in similar forms again and again. They are intentionally structured this way to assist in memorisation and chanting. So, once you have learnt how to correctly interpret a complex sentence, you may encounter it again and again and reading will become easier and easier over time.