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𑀓𑀘𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀬𑀦 (Kaccāyana)

My translation of the earliest available Pāli grammar into modern English, accompanied by diagrams.

1: Introduction
2: Summary
3: 1. 𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀓𑀧𑁆𑀧 (Sandhikappa)

3.1: 1.1 𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Paṭhamakaṇḍa) - Definitions
3.2: 1.2 𑀤𑀼𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Dutiyakaṇḍa) - Vowel Sandhi
3.3: 1.3 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Tatiyakaṇḍa) - Consonant Sandhi
3.4: 1.4 𑀘𑀢𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Catutthakaṇḍa) - Niggahita Sandhi
3.5: 1.5 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Pañcamakaṇḍa) - VuttaSandhi

𑀓

ka /k/

𑀘𑁆

c /c/

𑀘

cā /ca:/

𑀬

ya /j/

𑀦

na /n/

Palm leaf manuscript of Kaccāyana and Kaccāyanavutti (FPL3851)

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1 - Introduction

This section provides an overview of Kaccāyana in terms of context, structure, other available translations, motivation and reference sources.

Context

Kaccāyana is the oldest extant Pāli grammar, and was composed around the sixth century CE, most probably in India. It is partly based on Pāṇini and Kātantra:

Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī “Eight Lessons” 5th–4th c. B.C.E. Śalātura Northwest India
Śarvavarman, Kātantravyākaraṇa 2nd c. C.E. South India

The author of Kaccāyana is attributed to Mahā Kaccāyana, but modern scholars believe it is authored by multiple compilers and gradually evolved over time. According to James D’Alwis in An introduction to Kachchāyana’s grammar of the Pāli language:

the grammatical aphorisms (sutta), are ascribed to a certain Kaccāyana,
the “gloss” or explanation (vutti) is ascribed to a certain Saṅghanandin
the examples (payoga) is ascribed to a certain Brahmadatta

According to the Thai monk Dhammakitti in Saddhammasaṅgaha (Saddhamma-s IX, 18-20, 35):

kaccāyano kato yogo saṃghanandi pavuttikā, ṭīkā vimalabodhī ca brahmaputto ca kārakā.
(SADDHĀNANDA, 1890: 63)
Kaccāyana composed the yoga [“rule”], Saṅghanandin the pavuttikā [“notes”], and Vimalabodhī the ṭīkā [“commentary”], and Brahmaputto the kāraka [“section on factor of action”].

The structure of Kaccāyana

There are 673 rules (sutta), depending on the edition, spread across the following chapters and sections:

Sandhi
1. Definitions
2. Vowel sandhi
3. Consonant sandhi
4. niggahīta (ṃ) sandhi
5. Miscellanea
Nāma
1. Definitions, Internal sandhis, Default Declensions
2. Pronominal declension, an-stems
3. Pronominal dec. continued, mano-gaṇa, an-stems, tar-stems.
4. an-stems cont., feminine stems, adv. pronouns, nta-stems
5. Adverbial affixes
KĀRAKA
SAMĀSA
TADDHITA
Ākhyāta
1. Definitions
2. Special stems, causatives, bhāva, vb. classes
3. Reduplication, Special stems
4. Special affixes and stems
Kibbidhāna
1. Definition of kicca and kit affixes
2. Use of affixes with tenses, voices, etc.
3. niṭṭhā affixes
4. Modification of vb. stems in primary derivation
UṆĀDI

The structure of a sutta

Each sutta (rule, or grammatical aphorism) is described in a series of subsections or “fields”. The vutti is always present, the other fields may be present.

field	function	tags
vutti	gloss, or explanation	repeats and expands the words from the sutta
udāharaṇa	examples	taṃyathā
kimudāharaṇa	counter-examples	kasmā / kimatthaṃ
payojana	application/purpose/scope of the rule (“where is it used”)	kvattho / kimpayojanaṃ
gahaṇaphala	result of mentioned words, comments on anuvṛtti, meaning of ca or vā, etc.	(xxx)(sadda)ggahaṇena… eg. rule 35: `casaddaggahaṇena iheva makārassa pakāro hoti`.

Example (the first number is the Kaccāyana rule number, the second is the equivalent Padarūpasiddhi rule number):

151, 250.Bahuvacanesu vono.
Sabbesaṃ tumhaamhasaddānaṃ savibhattīnaṃ yadā padasmā paresaṃ vonoādesā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiyābahuvacanesu paresu. Kataṃ vo kammaṃ, kataṃ no kammaṃ. Padatoti kimatthaṃ? Tumhehi kataṃ, amhehi kataṃ. Bahuvacanaggahaṇena yomhi paṭhame vo noādesā honti. Gāmaṃ vo gaccheyyātha, gāmaṃ no gaccheyyāma.

field	text
no	151
Padarūpasiddhi	250
sutta	Bahuvacanesu vono.
vutti	Sabbesaṃ tumhaamhasaddānaṃ savibhattīnaṃ yadā padasmā paresaṃ vonoādesā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiyābahuvacanesu paresu.
udāharaṇa	Kataṃ vo kammaṃ, kataṃ no kammaṃ.
kimudāharaṇa	Padatoti kimatthaṃ? Tumhehi kataṃ, amhehi kataṃ.
payojana
gahaṇaphala	Bahuvacanaggahaṇena yomhi paṭhame vo noādesā honti. Gāmaṃ vo gaccheyyātha, gāmaṃ no gaccheyyāma.

Other examples:

361, 388.Ṇavisamādīhi.
Ṇapaccayo hoti visamādīhi ‘‘tassa bhāvo’’iccetasmiṃ atthe. Visamassa bhāvo vesamaṃ, sucissa bhāvo socaṃ.

field	text
no	361
Padarūpasiddhi	388
sutta	Ṇavisamādīhi.
vutti	Ṇapaccayo hoti visamādīhi ‘‘tassa bhāvo’’iccetasmiṃ atthe.
udāharaṇa	Visamassa bhāvo vesamaṃ, sucissa bhāvo socaṃ.
kimudāharaṇa
payojana
gahaṇaphala

364, 398.Tadassatthīti vī ca.
“Tadassatthi"iccetasmiṃ atthe vīpaccayo hoti. Medhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatītimedhāvī. Evaṃ māyāvī. Caggahaṇena sopaccayo hoti. Sumedhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatīti sumedhaso.

field	text
no	364
Padarūpasiddhi	398
sutta	Tadassatthīti vī ca.
vutti	“Tadassatthi"iccetasmiṃ atthe vīpaccayo hoti.
udāharaṇa	Medhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatītimedhāvī. Evaṃ māyāvī.
kimudāharaṇa
payojana
gahaṇaphala	Caggahaṇena sopaccayo hoti. Sumedhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatīti sumedhaso.

59, 182.Te itthikhyā po.
Te ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā yadā itthikhyā, tadā pasaññā honti. Rattiyā, itthiyā, dhenuyā, vadhuyā. Itthikhyāti kimatthaṃ? Isinā, bhikkhunā. Saiccanena kvattho? Pato yā.

field	text
no	59
Padarūpasiddhi	182
sutta	Te itthikhyā po.
vutti	Te ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā yadā itthikhyā, tadā pasaññā honti.
udāharaṇa	Rattiyā, itthiyā, dhenuyā, vadhuyā.
kimudāharaṇa
payojana	Saiccanena kvattho? Pato yā.
gahaṇaphala

57, 71.Ālapane si ga sañño.
Ālapanatthe si gasañño hoti. Bhoti ayye, bhoti kaññe, bhoti kharādiye. Ālapaneti kimatthaṃ? Sā ayyā. Sīti kimatthaṃ? Bhotiyo ayyāyo. Gaiccanena kvattho? Ghate ca.

field	text
no	57
Padarūpasiddhi	71
sutta	Ālapane si ga sañño.
vutti	Ālapanatthe si gasañño hoti.
udāharaṇa	Bhoti ayye, bhoti kaññe, bhoti kharādiye.
kimudāharaṇa	Ālapaneti kimatthaṃ? Sā ayyā. Sīti kimatthaṃ? Bhotiyo ayyāyo.
payojana	Gaiccanena kvattho? Ghate ca.
gahaṇaphala

Types of suttas

The rules can be classified into four categories, and additional subcategories, with examples given below:

saññā (technical term)
- anvattha (meaningful)
  8, 10.Aṃiti niggahitaṃ. saññā anvattha
  Aṃ iti niggahitaṃ nāma hoti. Tena kvattho? Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ.
- rūḷhī (artificial)
  58, 29.Ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā jhalā. saññā rūḷhī
  Ivaṇṇuvaṇṇāiccete jhalasaññā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ. Isino , aggino, gahapatino, daṇḍino. Setuno, ketuno, bhikkhuno. Sayambhuno, abhibhuno. Jhalaiccanena kvattho? Jhalato sassa no vā.
adhikāra (domain)
- sīhagatika (comprehensive)
  52, 60.Jinavacanayuttaṃhi. adhikāra sīhagatika
  “Jinavacanayuttaṃ hi” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.
- maṇḍūkagatika (selective)
  131, 0.Itthipumanapuṃsakasaṅkhyaṃ. adhikāra maṇḍūkagatika
  “Itthipumanapuṃsakasaṅkhyaṃ” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.
- yathānupubbika (progressive)
  413, 427.Kāle. adhikāra yathānupubbika
  “Kāle” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.
paribhāsā (metarule)
- saññaṅga (definition metarule)
  9, 11.Parasamaññā payoge. paribhāsā saññaṅga
  Yā ca pana paresu sakkataganthesu samaññā ghosāti vā aghosāti vā, tā payoge sati etthāpi yujjante. Tattha ghosā nāma-ga gha ṅa, ja jha ña, ḍa ḍha ṇa, da dha na, ba bha ma, ya ra la va ha ḷa, iti ghosā nāma. Aghosā nāma-ka kha, ca cha, ṭa ṭha, ta tha, pa pha, sa, iti aghosā nāma. Tena kvattho? Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā.
- vidhyaṅga (operational metarule)
  10, 12.Pubbamadhoṭhita massaraṃ sarena viyojaye. paribhāsā vidhyaṅga
  Tattha sandhiṃ kattukāmo pubbabyañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ katvā sarañca upari katvā sarena viyojaye. Tatrāyamādi.
- aññaṅga (other metarule)
  54, 62.Tato ca vibhattiyo. paribhāsā aññaṅga
  Tato jinavacanayuttehi liṅgehi vibhattiyo parā honti.
vidhi (operation)
- utsarga (general rule)
  12, 13.Sarā sare lopaṃ. vidhi utsarga
  Sarā kho sare pare lopaṃ papponti. Yassindriyāni samathaṅgatāni. No hetaṃ bhante sametāyasmā saṅghena.
- apavāda (exception)
  13, 15.Vā paro asarūpā. vidhi apavāda
  Saramhā asarūpā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā. Cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā, kinnu’ māvasamaṇiyo. Vāti kasmā? Pañcindriyāni, tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti.

According to Aleix Ruiz-Falqués in A Short Introduction to the Pāli Kaccāyana Grammar:

Several saññā “technical terms”,
within an adhikāra “domain”,
following paribhāsā “metarules”,
will be subject to vidhi “operations”
in order to derive words or sentences.

Megarules

mahāsutta or “megarules” are four rules that are invoked in order to derive forms that cannot be derived otherwise.

391, 423.Yadanupapannā nipātanā sijjhanti.
Ye saddā aniddiṭṭhalakkhaṇā, akkharapadabyañjanato, itthipumanapuṃsakaliṅgato , nāmupasagganipātato, abyayībhāvasamāsataddhitākhyātato, gaṇanasaṅkhyākālakārakappayogasaññāto, sandhipakativuddhilopāgamavikāraviparitato, vibhattivibhajanato ca, te nipātanā sijjhanti.
“Those [words] that are not formed by the suttas, should be formed as irregular forms.”
403, 354.Kvacādimajjhuttarānaṃ dīgharassā paccayesu ca.
Kvaci ādimajjhauttaraiccetesaṃ dīgharassā honti paccayesu ca apaccayesu ca.
“Sometimes, there is lengthening or shortening at the beginning, middle or end [vowels of a word], even before affixes.”
404, 370.Tesu vuddhilopāgamavikāraviparītādesā ca.
Tesu ādimajjhuttaresu yathājinavacanānuparodhena kvaci vuddhi hoti, kvaci lopo hoti, kvaci āgamo hoti, kvaci vikāro hoti, kvaci viparīto hoti, kvaci ādeso hoti.
“And in those cases [cf. rule 405], [sometimes,] there is full grade, elision, augment, modification, change, or replacement.”
517, 488.Kvaci dhātuvibhattipaccayānaṃ dīgha viparītādesalopāgamā ca.
Idha ākhyāte aniddiṭṭhesu sādhanesu kvaci dhātuvibhattipaccayānaṃ dīghaviparītādesalopāgamaiccetāni kāriyāni jinavacanānurūpāni kātabbāni.
“Sometimes [for verbal forms that cannot be derived otherwise, there is] lengthening, change, replacement or augment of the verbal root, the personal ending, or the affix(es).”

Rule 52 is halfway between a megarule and a normal rule:

52, 60.Jinavacanayuttaṃhi.
“Jinavacanayuttaṃ hi” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.

Ghost metarules

“Ghost Metarules” are paribhāsās that are consistently invoked in the commentaries, but that you will never see in the sūtra treatise.

Examples:

ekamhi vattabbe ekavacanaṃ bahumhi vattabbe bahuvacanan [e.g. Mmd 28,15–16]
“The singular is used when one [object] is to be stated, the plural is used when many [objects] are to be stated.”
[NOTE: in Pāṇini, 1.4.21 bahuṣu bahuvacanam (“plural for many [objects]”) & 1.4.22 dvyekayor dvivacanaikavacane (“dual and singular for two or one [objects respectively]”) are considered saṃjñā (“definition”) rules.]
vatticchānupubbikā saddapaṭipatti [e.g. Mmd 64,17–18]
“The meaning of a word is determined by the intention of the speaker.”
vuttatthānam appayogo [23 times in Mmd, e.g. 133,20]
“Words whose meaning has already been stated are not used.”
yogavibhāgā iṭṭhappasiddhi [Mmd, e.g. 252,29]
“After the splitting up (vibhāgā) of the sutta (yoga) [there is] the expected result [only].”

Usage of rūḷhī

In a sutta, a rūḷhī (artificial technical term) will have a case ending that matches the role/usage of the term within a rule. For example jha (used for masculine/neuter nominal bases ending with i or ī):

case	`jha`	usage
①	`jho`	`i`/`ī` (*replacement)
②	`jhaṃ`	`i`/`ī` (substitute)
③	`jhena`	not used
④	`jhassa`	not used
⑤	`jhamhā`/`jhato`	“after `i`/`ī`”
⑥	`jhassa`	“instead of `i`/`ī`”
⑦	`jhasmiṃ`	“before `i`/`ī`”

Types of vidhi (operation)

ādesa “replacement”
āgama “insertion”
vikāra “modification”
lopa “elision”
viparīta “metathesis”

Structure of a vidhi (operation)

An operation converts Before into After surrounded by Previous and Next, in the context of Marker and Semantic.

block-beta
  columns 8
  
  
    Previous["Previous"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("Before")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("After")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vidhi"-->After
  end
  
    Next["Next"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"Marker"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    Semantic[\"Semantic"/]
    class Semantic mod2
    
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

As an illustration, the sequence AXB is replaced with AYB:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
  
    Previous["A"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("X")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("Y")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"becomes"-->After
  end
  
    Next["B"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Markers:

ca
api
vā
kvaci
na
niccaṃ
…

Semantic: “in the sense of …”

Case endings are used to determine the various roles in the rule

block-beta
  columns 8
  

  Previous0["Previous"]
  class Previous0 context

block:operation0:4
  columns 4
  
    Before0["Before"]
    class Before0 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After0["After"]
    class After0 post
  
  Before0--"ādesa"-->After0
end

  Next0["Next"]
  class Next0 context


  Marker0["Marker"]
  class Marker0 mod1


  Semantic0["Semantic"]
  class Semantic0 mod2



  Previous1["⑤"]
  class Previous1 context

block:operation1:4
  columns 4
  
    Before1["⑥"]
    class Before1 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After1["①"]
    class After1 post
  
  Before1--"ādesa"-->After1
end

  Next1["⑦"]
  class Next1 context


  Marker1["n/a"]
  class Marker1 mod1


  Semantic1["⑦"]
  class Semantic1 mod2



  Previous2["⑤"]
  class Previous2 context

block:operation2:4
  columns 4
  
    Before2["①"]
    class Before2 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After2["①"]
    class After2 post
  
  Before2--"ādesa"-->After2
end

  Next2["⑦"]
  class Next2 context


  Marker2["n/a"]
  class Marker2 mod1


  Semantic2["⑦"]
  class Semantic2 mod2



  Previous3["⑤"]
  class Previous3 context

block:operation3:4
  columns 4
  
    Before3["①"]
    class Before3 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After3["②"]
    class After3 post
  
  Before3--"ādesa"-->After3
end

  Next3["⑦"]
  class Next3 context


  Marker3["n/a"]
  class Marker3 mod1


  Semantic3["⑦"]
  class Semantic3 mod2



  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Example: rule 103 (ato n’ ena) - “After a, nā [becomes] ena”:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
ato n' space space ena space space space
x1["⑤"] x2["①"] space space x3["①"] space space space

  
    Previous["a"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("nā")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("ena")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

buddha + nā
→ buddha + (nā→ena) (rule 103)
→ buddhena

Example: rule 70 (jhalānam iyuvā sare vā) - “Optionally, before a vowel: iya replaces i/ī, uva replaces u/ū”:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space jhalānam space:2 iyuvā sare vā space
space x1["⑥"] space space x2["①"] x3["⑦"] space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("i/ī,u/ū")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("iya,uva")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Example: rule 12 (sarā sare lopaṃ) - “Vowels, before a vowel, [adopt] elision”:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space sarā lopaṃ:2 space sare space space
space x1["①"] x2["②"]:2 space x3["⑦"] space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

tena + upasaṅkami
→ ten(a) + upasaṅkami (rule 12)
→ tenupasaṅkami

Most vidhi “operational” rules teach paccaya “affixation” or ādesa “replacement” using previous definitions (saññā-s). It is all about adding particles to a base, and then replacing them if/when needed. To understand vidhi-s, we should keep in mind the following code of case endings:

⑤ - “after X”
⑥ - “instead of X”
① - “X”, ādesa
⑦ - “before X”
⑦ - “in the sense of X”

Other available translations

Satis Chandra Acharyva, Widyabhusana, Kaccayana’s Pali Grammar, The Mahabodhi Society, Calcutta (1901)
Phramaha Thiab Malai, Kaccāyana-Vyākarana: A Critical Study, Department of Sanskrit and Pali Studies, University of Pune (1997)
A. Thitzana, Kaccāyana Pāli Vyākaraṇaṁ Volumes 1 and 2, Pariyatti Press (2016)
U Silananda, U Nandisena, Kaccāyanabyākaraṇaṁ, Institudo de Estudios Buddhistas Hispano (IEBH) (2005, 2017)

Motivation

I have decided to attempt a new translation of Kaccāyana’s grammar, because of several reasons:

I am not entirely satisfied with the existing translations. Some of them seem to lack clarity (primarily due to the writing style). Others don’t explain the examples well enough, and yet others are too verbose, inserting explanations not in the original text.
There are some spelling errors and mistakes in the edition published on Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana Tipiṭaka, some of which have been incorporated into existing translations. I have taken the opportunity to correct the mistakes, uncovered by scholars such as O. H. Pind and A. Ruiz-Falqués.
Unlike some translations, I am honouring the use of option markers in Kaccāyana, and in most cases am faithfully translating vā as “optionally”, kvaci as “occasionally” and navā as “by exception.”
I am also cross referencing the use of technical terms with other classical Pāli grammars.
It is a good way to further my understanding of Pāli.
It is also a good opportunity for me to introduce the Brahmi script. As we know, there are no surviving Buddhist texts written in Brahmi, so there is no need to learn this script, however, I like it due to it’s elegance and simplicity.
I wanted to augment the translations with diagrams, and incorporate worked through grammatical analysis and rule derivations in the examples.
In comparison with the other classical Pāli grammars, Kaccāyana is brief and succinct, minimising repetition. It was used as a standard textbook for teaching Pāli in countries such as Burma for many years, and often used in various monasteries as a Pāli reference text.
I prefer Kaccāyana to most English Pāli textbooks and grammar books, as it describes Pāli without the distorting lens of Western linguistics.
My translation is presented using a modern responsive web design, featuring Google’s Noto Sans font.

References

James D’Alwis, An introduction to Kachchāyana’s grammar of the Pāli language, with an introduction, appendix, notes, etc., Williams and Norgate, London (1863)
Dhammakitti, Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhusana; Punnananda Swami; Sailendranath Mitra, Bālāvatārā - an Elementary Pāli Grammar Abridged for the Undergraduate Course, University of Calcutta (1935)
Aleix Ruiz-Falqués, On the Authorship of Kaccāyana, the Oldest Pāli Grammar, Pariyatti: Studies In Pāli Language And Literature, Aditya Prakashan, New Dehli (2017)
Aleix Ruiz-Falqués, A Short Introduction to the Pāli Kaccāyana Grammar, Shan State Buddhist University, Taunggyi (Myanmar) (2020)
Mahesh A. Deokar, Technical Terms and Technique of The Pali and Sanskrit Grammars, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi (2008)

2 - Summary

This section provides a summary of the rules contained in Kaccāyanabyākaraṇaṃ.

Chapter	Section	Kaccāyana	Rūpasiddhi	Rule
1	1	1	1	Attho akkharasaññāto
1	1	2	2	Akkharāpādayo ekacattālisaṃ
1	1	3	3	Tatthodantā sarā aṭṭha
1	1	4	4	Lahumattā tayo rassā
1	1	5	5	Aññe dīghā
1	1	6	8	Sesā byañjanā
1	1	7	9	Vaggā pañcapañcaso mantā
1	1	8	10	Aṃiti niggahitaṃ
1	1	9	11	Parasamaññā payoge
1	1	10	12	Pubbamadhoṭhitamassaraṃ sarena viyojaye
1	1	11	14	Naye paraṃ yutte
1	2	12	13	Sarā sare lopaṃ
1	2	13	15	Vā paro asarūpo
1	2	14	16	Kvacāsavaṇṇaṃ lutte
1	2	15	17	Dīghaṃ
1	2	16	18	Pubbo ca
1	2	17	19	Yamedantassādeso
1	2	18	20	Vamodudantānaṃ
1	2	19	22	Sabbo caṃ ti
1	2	20	27	Do dhassa ca
1	2	21	22	Ivaṇṇo yaṃ navā
1	2	22	28	Evādissa ri pubbo ca rasso
1	3	23	36	Sarā pakati byañjane
1	3	24	35	Sare kvaci
1	3	25	37	Dīghaṃ
1	3	26	38	Rassaṃ
1	3	27	39	Lopañca tatrākāro
1	3	28	40	Para dvebhāvo ṭhāne
1	3	29	42	Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā
1	4	30	58	Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ
1	4	31	49	Vaggantaṃ vā vagge
1	4	32	50	Ehe ñaṃ
1	4	33	51	Sa ye ca
1	4	34	52	Madā sare
1	4	35	34	Ya va ma da na ta ra lā cāgamā
1	4	36	47	Kvaci o byañjane
1	4	37	57	Niggahitañca
1	4	38	53	Kvaci lopaṃ
1	4	39	54	Byañjane ca
1	4	40	55	Paro vā saro
1	4	41	56	Byañjano ca visaññogo
1	5	42	32	Gosare puthassāgamo kvaci
1	5	43	33	Pāssa canto rasso
1	5	44	2	Abbho abhi
1	5	45	25	Ajjho adhi
1	5	46	26	Te na vā ivaṇṇe
1	5	47	23	Atissa cantassa
1	5	48	43	Kvaci paṭi patissa
1	5	49	44	Puthassu byañjane
1	5	50	45	O avassa
1	5	51	59	Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ vuttayogato
2	1	52	60	Jinavacanayuttaṃ hi
2	1	53	61	Liṅgañca nippajjate
2	1	54	62	Tato ca vibhattiyo
2	1	55	63	Si yo aṃ yo nā hi sa naṃ smā hi sanaṃ smiṃ su
2	1	56	64	Tadanuparodhena
2	1	57	71	Ālapane si gasañño
2	1	58	29	Ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā jhalā
2	1	59	182	Te itthidhyā po
2	1	60	177	Ā gho
2	1	61	86	Sāgamo se
2	1	62	206	Saṃsāsvekavacanesu ca
2	1	63	217	Etimāsami
2	1	64	216	Tassā vā
2	1	65	215	Tato sassa ssāya
2	1	66	205	Gho rassaṃ
2	1	67	229	No ca dvādito naṃmhi
2	1	68	184	Amā pato smiṃsmānaṃ vā
2	1	69	186	Ādito o ca
2	1	70	30	Jhalānamiyuvā sare vā
2	1	71	489	Yavakārā ca
2	1	72	185	Pasaññassa ca
2	1	73	174	Gāva se
2	1	74	169	Yosu ca
2	1	75	170	Avaṃmhi ca
2	1	76	171	Āvassu vā
2	1	77	175	Tato namaṃ patimhālutte ca samāse
2	1	78	31	O sare ca
2	1	79	46	Tabbiparītūpapade byañjane ca
2	1	80	173	Goṇa naṃmhi vā
2	1	81	172	Suhināsu ca
2	1	82	149	Aṃmo niggahitaṃ jhalapehi
2	1	83	67	Saralopo mādesapaccayādimhi saralope tu pakati
2	1	84	144	Agho rassamekavacanayosvapi ca
2	1	85	150	Na sismimanapuṃsakāni
2	1	86	227	Ubhādito naminnaṃ
2	1	87	231	Iṇṇamiṇṇannaṃ tīhi saṅkhyāhi
2	1	88	147	Yāsu katanikāralopesu dīghaṃ
2	1	89	87	Sunaṃhisu ca
2	1	90	252	Pañcādīnamattaṃ
2	1	91	194	Patissinīmhi
2	1	92	100	Ntussanto yosu ca
2	1	93	106	Sabbassa vā aṃsesu
2	1	94	105	Simhi vā
2	1	95	145	Aggissini
2	1	96	148	Yosvakatarasso jho
2	1	97	156	Vevosu lo ca
2	1	98	189	Mātulādīnamānattamīkāre
2	1	99	81	Smāhismiṃnaṃ mhābhimhi vā
2	1	100	214	Na timehi katākārehi
2	1	101	80	Suhisvakāro e
2	1	102	202	Sabbanāmānaṃ naṃmhi ca
2	1	103	79	Ato nena
2	1	104	66	So
2	1	105	0	So vā
2	1	106	302	Dīghorehi
2	1	107	69	Sabbayonīnamāe
2	1	108	90	Smāsmiṃnaṃ vā
2	1	109	295	Āya catutthekavacanassa tu
2	1	110	201	Tayo neva ca sabbanāmehi
2	1	111	179	Ghato nādīnaṃ
2	1	112	173	Pato yā
2	1	113	132	Sakhato gasse vā
2	1	114	178	Ghate ca
2	1	115	181	Na ammādito
2	1	116	157	Akatarassā lato yvālapanassavevo
2	1	117	124	Jhalato sassa no vā
2	1	118	146	Ghapato ca yonaṃ lopo
2	1	119	115	Lato vokāro ca
2	2	120	243	Amhassa mamaṃ savibhattissa se
2	2	121	233	Mayaṃ yomhi paṭhame
2	2	122	99	Ntussa nto
2	2	123	103	Ntassa se vā
2	2	124	98	Ā simhi
2	2	125	198	Aṃ napuṃsake
2	2	126	101	Avaṇṇā ca ge
2	2	127	102	To titā sasmiṃnāsu
2	2	128	104	Naṃmhi taṃ vā
2	2	129	222	Imassidamaṃsisu napuṃsake
2	2	130	225	Amussāduṃ
2	2	131	0	Itthipumanapuṃsakasaṅkhyaṃ
2	2	132	228	Yosu dvinnaṃ dve ca
2	2	133	230	Ticatunnaṃ tisso catasso tayocattāro tīṇi cattāri
2	2	134	251	Pañcādīnamakāro
2	2	135	118	Rājassā rañño rājino se
2	2	136	119	Raññaṃ naṃmhi vā
2	2	137	116	Nāmhi raññā vā
2	2	138	121	Smiṃmhi raññe rājini
2	2	139	245	Tumhamhākaṃ tayi mayi
2	2	140	232	Tvamahaṃ simhi ca
2	2	141	241	Tava mama se
2	2	142	242	Tuyhaṃ mayhañca
2	2	143	235	Taṃmamaṃmhi
2	2	144	234	Tavaṃmamañca na vā
2	2	145	238	Nāmhi tayā mayā
2	2	146	236	Tumhassa tuvaṃtvamamhi
2	2	147	246	Padato dutiyācatutthīchaṭṭhīsu vo no
2	2	148	247	Hemekavacanesu ca
2	2	149	248	Na aṃmhi
2	2	150	249	Vā tatiye ca
2	2	151	250	Bahuvacanesu vo no
2	2	152	136	Pumantassā simhi
2	2	153	138	Amālapanekavacane
2	2	154	0	Samāse ca vibhāsā
2	2	155	137	Yosvāno
2	2	156	142	Āne smiṃmhi vā
2	2	157	140	Hivibhatthimhi ca
2	2	151	143	Susmimā vā
2	2	159	139	U nāmhi ca
2	2	160	197	Akammantassa ca
Iti nāmakappe dutiyo kaṇḍo.
2	3	161	244	Tumhamhehi namākaṃ
2	3	162	237	Vā yvappaṭhamo
2	3	163	240	Sassaṃ
2	3	164	200	Sabbanāmakārate paṭhamo
2	3	165	208	Dvandaṭṭhā vā
2	3	166	209	Nāññaṃ sabbanāmikaṃ
2	3	167	210	Bahubbīhimhi ca
2	3	168	203	Sabbato naṃ saṃsānaṃ
2	3	169	117	Rājassa rāju sunaṃ hisu ca
2	3	170	220	Sabbassimasse vā
2	3	171	219	Animi nāmhi ca
2	3	172	218	Anapuṃsakassā yaṃ simhi
2	3	173	223	Amussa mo saṃ
2	3	174	211	Etatesaṃ to
2	3	175	212	Tassa vā nattaṃ sabbattha
2	3	176	213	Sasmāsmiṃsaṃsāsvattaṃ 0.0011
2	3	177	221	Imasaddassa ca
2	3	178	224	Sabbato ko
2	3	179	204	Ghapato smiṃ sānaṃ saṃsā
2	3	180	207	Netāhi smimāyayā
2	3	181	95	Manogaṇādito smiṃnānamiā
2	3	182	97	Sassa co
2	3	183	48	Etesamo lope
2	3	184	96	Sa sare vāgamo
2	3	185	112	Santasaddassā so bhe bo cante
2	3	186	107	Simhi gacchantādīnaṃ ntasaddo aṃ
2	3	187	108	Sesesu ntuva
2	3	188	155	Brahmatta sakha rājādito amānaṃ
2	3	189	113	Syā ca
2	3	190	114	Yonamāno
2	3	191	130	Sakhato cāyo no
2	3	192	135	Smime
2	3	193	122	Brahmato vassa ca
2	3	194	131	Sakhantassi nonānaṃsesu
2	3	195	134	Āro himhi vā
2	3	196	133	Sunamaṃsu vā
2	3	197	125	Brahmato tu smiṃni
2	3	198	123	Uttaṃ sanāsu
2	3	199	158	Satthupitādīnamā sismiṃ silopo ca
2	3	200	196	Aññesvārattaṃ
2	3	201	163	Vā naṃmhi
2	3	202	164	Satthunattañca
2	3	203	162	U sasmiṃ salopo ca
2	3	204	167	Sakkamandhātādīnañca
2	3	205	160	Tato yonamo tu
2	3	206	165	Tato smimi
2	3	207	161	Nā ā
2	3	208	166	Āro rassamikāre
2	3	209	168	Pitādīnamasimhi
2	3	210	239	Tayātayinaṃ takāro tvattaṃ vā
2	4	211	126	Attanto hismimanattaṃ
2	4	212	129	Tato smiṃ ni
2	4	213	127	Sassano
2	4	214	128	Smā 0.0013 nā
2	4	215	141	Jhalato ca
2	4	216	180	Ghapato smiṃyaṃ vā
2	4	217	199	Yonaṃ ni napuṃsakehi
2	4	218	196	Ato niccaṃ
2	4	219	195	Siṃ
2	4	220	74	Sesato lopaṃ gasipi
2	4	221	282	Sabbāsamāvusopasagganipātādīhi ca
2	4	222	327	Pumassa liṅgādīsu samāsesu
2	4	223	188	Aṃ yamīto pasaññato
2	4	224	153	Naṃ jhato katarassā
2	4	225	151	Yonaṃ no
2	4	226	154	Smiṃni
2	4	227	270	Kissa ka ve ca
2	4	228	272	Ku hiṃ haṃsu ca
2	4	229	226	Sesesu ca
2	4	230	262	Tra to thesu ca
2	4	231	263	Sabbassetassākāro vā
2	4	232	267	Tre niccaṃ
2	4	233	264	E tothesu ca
2	4	234	265	Imassi thaṃ dāni ha to dhesu ca
2	4	235	281	A dhunāmhi ca
2	4	236	280	Eta rahimhi
2	4	237	176	Itthiyamato āpaccayo
2	4	238	187	Nadādito vā ī
2	4	239	190	Ṇava ṇika ṇeyya ṇantuhi
2	4	240	193	Patibhikkhurājīkārantehi inī
2	4	241	191	Ntussa tadhīkāre
2	4	242	192	Bhavato bhoto
2	4	243	110	Bho ge tu
2	4	244	72	Akārapitādyantānamā
2	4	245	152	Jhalapā rassaṃ
2	4	246	73	Ākāro vā
2	5	247	261	Tvādayo vibhattisaññāyo
2	5	248	260	Kvaci to pañcamyatthe
2	5	249	266	Tratha sattamiyā sabbanāmehi
2	5	250	268	Sabbato dhi
2	5	251	269	Kiṃsmā vo
2	5	252	271	Hiṃhaṃhiñcanaṃ
2	5	253	273	Tamhā ca
2	5	254	274	Imasmā hadhā ca
2	5	255	275	Yato hiṃ
2	5	256	0	Kāle
2	5	257	276	Kiṃsabbaññekayakuhi dādācanaṃ
2	5	258	278	Tamhā dāni ca
2	5	259	279	Imasmā rahidhunādāni ca
2	5	260	277	Sabbassa so dāmhi vā
2	5	261	369	Avaṇṇo ye lopañca
2	5	262	391	Vuḍḍhassa jo iyiṭṭhesu
2	5	263	392	Pasatthassa so ca
2	5	264	393	Antikassa nedo
2	5	265	394	Bāḷhassa sādho
2	5	266	395	Appassa kaṇa
2	5	267	396	Yuvānañca
2	5	268	397	Vantumantuvīnañca lopo
2	5	269	41	Yavataṃ talaṇadakārānaṃ byañjanāni calañajakārattaṃ
2	5	270	120	Amha tumha ntu rāja brahmatta sakha satthu– pitādīhi smā nāva
3	1	271	88,308	Yasmā dapetiṃ bhayamādatte vā tadapādānaṃ
3	1	272	309	Dhātunāmānamupasaggayogādīsvapi ca
3	1	273	310	Rakkhaṇatthānamicchitaṃ
3	1	274	311	Yena vā dassanaṃ
3	1	275	312	Dūrantikaddhakāla nimmāna tvālopa disā yoga vibhattārappayoga suddhappamocanahetu vivittappamāṇapubbayoga bandhanaguṇavacana pañhakathana thokātattūsu ca
3	1	276	302	Yassa dātukāmo rocate dhārayate pā taṃ sampadānaṃ
3	1	277	303	Silāgha hanu ṭhā sapa dhāra piha kudha duhisso ssūya rādhikkha paccāsuṇa anupatigiṇa pubbakattārocanattha tadattha tumatthālamattha maññānādarappāṇini gatyatthakammaniāsisatthasammutibhiyyasattamyatthesu ca
3	1	278	320	Yodhāro tamokāsaṃ
3	1	279	292	Yena vā kayirate taṃ karaṇaṃ
3	1	280	285	Yaṃ karoti taṃ kammaṃ
3	1	281	294	Yo karoti sa kattā
3	1	282	295	Yo kārehi sa hetu
3	1	283	316	Yassa vā pariggaho taṃ sāmī
3	1	284	283	Liṅgatthe paṭhamā
3	1	285	70	Ālapane ca
3	1	286	291	Karaṇe tatiyā
3	1	287	296	Sahādiyoge ca
3	1	288	293	Kattari ca
3	1	289	297	Hetvatthe ca
3	1	290	298	Sattamyatthe ca
3	1	291	299	Yenaṅgavikāro
3	1	292	300	Visesane ca
3	1	293	301	Sampadāne catutthī
3	1	294	305	Namoyogādīsvapi ca
3	1	295	307	Apādāne pañcamī
3	1	296	314	Kāraṇatthe ca
3	1	297	284	Kammatthe dutiyā
3	1	298	287	Kāladdhānamaccantasaṃyoge
3	1	299	288	Kammappavacanīyayutte
3	1	300	286	Gati buddhi bhuja paṭha hara kara sayādīnaṃkā rite vā
3	1	301	315	Sāmismiṃ chaṭṭhī
3	1	302	319	Okāse sattamī
3	1	303	321	Sāmissarādhipati dāyāda sakkhī pathibhū pasuta kusalehi ca
3	1	304	322	Niddhāraṇe ca
3	1	305	323	Anādare ca
3	1	306	289	Kvaci dutiyā chaṭṭhīnamatthe
3	1	307	290	Tatiyāsattamīnañca
3	1	308	317	Chaṭṭhī ca
3	1	309	318	Dutiyāpañcamīnañca
3	1	310	324	Kammakaraṇanimittatthesu sattamī
3	1	311	325	Sampadāne ca
3	1	312	326	Pañcamyatthe ca
3	1	313	327	Kālabhāvesu ca
3	1	314	328	Upa’dhyādhikissaravacane
3	1	315	329	Maṇḍitussukkesu tatiyā ca
4	1	316	331	Nāmāna samāso yuttattho
4	1	317	332	Tesaṃ vibhattiyo lopā ca
4	1	318	333	Pakati cassa sarantassa
4	1	319	330	Upasagganipātapubbako abyayībhāvo
4	1	320	335	So napuṃsakaliṅgo
4	1	321	349	Digussekattaṃ
4	1	322	359	Tathā dvande pāṇi tūriye yogga senaṅga khuddajantuka vividha viruddha visabhāgatthādīnañca
4	1	323	360	Vibhāsā rukkha tiṇa pasu dhana dhañña janapadā dīnañca
4	1	324	339	Dvipade tulyādhikaraṇe kammadhārayo
4	1	325	348	Saṅkhyāpubbo digu
4	1	326	341	Ubhe tappurisā
4	1	327	351	Amādayo parapadebhi
4	1	328	352	Aññapadatthesu bahubbīhi
4	1	329	357	Nāmānaṃ samuccayo dvando
4	1	330	340	Mahataṃ mahā tulyādhikaraṇe pade
4	1	331	353	Itthiyaṃ bhāsitapumitthī pumāva ce
4	1	332	343	Kammadhārayasaññe ca
4	1	333	344	Attaṃ nassa tappurise
4	1	334	345	Sare ana
4	1	335	346	Kadi kussa
4	1	336	347	Kā’ppatthesu ca
4	1	337	350	Kvaci samāsanta gatānamakāranto
4	1	338	356	Nadimhā ca
4	1	339	358	Jāyāya tudaṃ jāni patimhi
4	1	340	355	Dhanumhā ca
4	1	341	336	Aṃvibhattīnamakārantā abyāyitāvā
4	1	342	337	Saro rasso napuṃsake
4	1	343	338	Aññasmā lopo ca
5	1	244	361	Vā ṇā’pacce
5	1	345	366	Ṇāyana ṇāna vacchādito
5	1	346	367	Ṇeyyo kattiyādīhi
5	1	347	368	Ato ṇi vā
5	1	348	371	Ṇavopakvādīhi
5	1	349	372	Ṇera vidhavādito
5	1	350	373	Yena vā saṃsaṭṭhaṃ tarati carati vahati ṇiko
5	1	351	374	Tamadhīte tenakatādhi sannidhānaniyoga sippa bhaṇḍa jīvikatthesu ca
5	1	352	376	Ṇa rāgā tassedamaññatthesu ca
5	1	353	378	Jātādīnamimiyā ca
5	1	354	379	Samūhatthe kaṇa ṇā
5	1	355	380	Gāma jana bandhu sahāyādīhi tā
5	1	356	381	Tadassa ṭhānamiyo ca
5	1	357	382	Upamatthāyitattaṃ
5	1	358	383	Tannissitatthe lo
5	1	359	384	Ālu tabbahule
5	1	360	387	Ṇuttatā bhāve tu
5	1	361	388	Ṇa visamādīhi
5	1	362	389	Ramaṇīyādito kaṇa
5	1	363	390	Visese taratamisikiyiṭṭhā
5	1	364	398	Tadassatthīti vī ca
5	1	365	399	Tapādito sī
5	1	366	400	Daṇḍādito ika ī
5	1	367	401	Madhvādito ro
5	1	368	402	Guṇādito vantu
5	1	369	403	Satyādīhi mantu
5	1	370	405	Saddhādito ṇa
5	1	371	404	Āyussukārāsa mantumhi
5	1	372	385	Tappakativacane mayo
5	1	373	406	Saṅkhyāpūraṇe mo
5	1	374	408	Sa chassa vā
5	1	375	412	Ekādito dasassī
5	1	376	257	Dase so niccañca
5	1	377	0	Ante niggahitañca
5	1	378	414	Ti ca
5	1	379	258	La da rānaṃ
5	1	380	255	Vīsati dasesu bā dvissa tu
5	1	381	254	Ekādito dassa ra saṅkhyāne
5	1	382	259	Aṭṭhādito ca
5	1	383	353	Dvekaṭṭhānamākāro vā
5	1	384	407	Catucche hi tha ṭhā
5	1	385	409	Dvitīhi tiyo
5	1	386	410	Tiye dutāpi ca
5	1	387	411	Tesamaḍḍhūpapadena aḍḍhuḍḍhadivaḍḍha diyaḍḍha’ ḍḍhatiyā
5	1	388	68	Sarūpāna mekasesvasakiṃ
5	1	389	413	Gaṇanedasassa dvi ti catu pañca cha satta aṭṭhanavakānaṃ vī ti cattāra paññā cha sattāsanavā yosu yonañcīsamāsaṃṭhiritītuti
5	1	390	256	Catūpapadassa lopo tu’ttarapadādicassa cu copi navā
5	1	391	423	Yadanupapannā nipātanā sijjhanti
5	1	392	418	Dvādito ko’nekatthe ca
5	1	393	415	Dasadasakaṃ sataṃ dasakānaṃ sataṃ sahassañca yomhi
5	1	394	416	Yāva taduttari dasaguṇitañca
5	1	395	417	Sakanāmehi
5	1	396	363	Tesaṃ ṇo lopaṃ
5	1	397	420	Vibhāge dhā ca
5	1	398	421	Sabbanāmehi pakāravacane tu thā
5	1	399	422	Kimimehi thaṃ
5	1	400	364	Vuddhādisarassa vā’saṃyogantassa saṇe ca
5	1	401	375	Māyūnamāgamo ṭhāne
5	1	400	377	Āttañca
5	1	403	354	Kvacādimajjhuttarānaṃ dīgharassa paccayesu ca
5	1	404	370	Tesu vuddhi lopāgama vikāra viparitādesā ca
5	1	405	365	Ayuvaṇṇānañcāyo vuddhi
6	1	406	429	Atha pubbāni-vibhattīnaṃ cha parassapadāni
6	1	407	439	Parāṇuttanopadāni
6	1	408	430	Dve dve paṭhamamajjhimuttamapurisā
6	1	409	441	Sabbesamekābhidhāne paro puriso
6	1	410	432	Nāmamhi payujjamānepi tulyādhikaraṇe paṭhamo
6	1	411	436	Tumhe majjhimo
6	1	412	437	Amhe uttamo
6	1	413	426	Kāle
6	1	414	428	Vattamānā paccuppanne
6	1	415	451	Āṇātyāsiṭṭhe’nuttakāle pañcamī
6	1	416	454	Anumatiparikappetthesu sattamī
6	1	417	460	Apaccakkhe parokkhā’tīte
6	1	418	456	Hiyyopabhuti paccakkhe hiyyattanī
6	1	419	469	Samīpe’jjatanī
6	1	420	471	Māyoge sabbakāle ca
6	1	421	473	Anāgate bhavissantī
6	1	422	475	Kriyātipanne’tīte kālātipatti
6	1	423	426	Vattamānā tī anti, si tha, mi ma te ante, sevhe, e mhe
6	1	424	450	Pañcamī tu antu, hi tha, mi ma, taṃ antaṃ, ssu vho, e āmase
6	1	425	453	Sattamī eyya eyyuṃ, eyyāsi eyyātha, eyyāmi eyyāma, etha eraṃ, etho eyyāvho, eyyaṃ eyyāmhe
6	1	426	459	Parokkhā a u, e ttha, aṃ mha, ttha re, ttho vho, iṃ mhe
6	1	427	455	Hiyyattanī ā ū, o ttha, aṃ mhā, ttha tthuṃ, sevhaṃ, iṃ mhase
6	1	427	468	Ajjatanī īñaṃ ottha, iṃ mhā, ā ū, se vhaṃ, aṃ mhe
6	1	429	472	Ssavissantī ssati ssanti, ssasi ssatha, ssāmi ssāma, ssate ssante, ssase ssavhe, ssaṃ ssāmhe
6	1	430	474	Kālātipatti ssā ssaṃsu, sse ssatha, ssaṃ ssāmā, ssatha ssisu, ssase ssavhe, ssiṃ ssāmhase
6	1	431	428	Hiyyattanī sattamī pañcamī vattamānā sabbadhātukaṃ
6	2	432	362	Dhātuliṅgehi parā paccayā
6	2	433	528	Tijagupakitamānehi khachasā vā
6	2	434	534	Bhujaghasaharasupādīhitumicchatthesu
6	2	435	536	Āya nāmato kattūpamānādācāre
6	2	436	537	Īyū’pamānā ca
6	2	437	538	Nāmamhā’tticchatthe
6	2	438	540	Dhātūhi ṇe ṇaya ṇāpe ṇāpayā kāritāni hetvatthe
6	2	439	539	Dhāturūpe nāmasmā ṇa yo ca
6	2	440	445	Bhāvakammesu yo
6	2	441	447	Tassa cavaggayakāravakārattaṃ sadhātvantassa
6	2	442	448	Ivaṇṇāgamo vā
6	2	443	449	Pubbarūpañca
6	2	444	511	Tathā kattari ca
6	2	445	433	Bhūvādito a
6	2	446	509	Rudhādito niggahitapubbañca
6	2	447	510	Divādito yo
6	2	448	512	Svādito ṇuṇā uṇā ca
6	2	449	513	Kiyādito nā
6	2	450	517	Gahādito ppaṇhā
6	2	451	520	Tanādito oyirā
6	2	452	525	Curādito ṇe ṇayā
6	2	453	444	Attanopadāni bhāve ca kammani
6	2	454	440	Kattari ca
6	2	455	530	Dhātuppaccayehi vibhattiyo
6	2	456	420	Kattari parassapadaṃ
6	2	457	424	Bhūvādayo dhātavo
6	3	458	461	Kvacādivaṇṇānamekassarānaṃ dvebhāvo
6	3	459	462	Pubbo’ bbhāso
6	3	460	506	Rasso
6	3	461	464	Dutiyacatutthānaṃ paṭhamatatiyā
6	3	462	467	Kavaggassa cavaggo
6	3	463	532	Mānakitānaṃ va tattaṃ vā
6	3	464	504	Hassa jo
6	3	465	463	Antassivaṇṇākāro vā
6	3	466	489	Niggahitañca
6	3	467	533	Tato pāmānānaṃ vāmaṃ sesu
6	3	468	492	Ṭhā tiṭṭho
6	3	469	494	Pā pivo
6	3	470	514	Ñāssa jājaṃnā
6	3	471	483	Disassa passa dissa dakkhā vā
6	3	472	531	Byañjanantassa co chappaccayesu ca
6	3	473	529	Ko khe ca
6	3	474	535	Harassa gī se
6	3	475	465	Brūbhūnamāhabhūvā parokkhāyaṃ
6	3	476	442	Gamissanto ccho vā sabbāsu
6	3	477	479	Vacassa’jjatanimhi makārā o
6	3	478	438	Akāro dīghaṃ himimesu
6	3	479	452	Hi lopaṃ vā
6	3	480	490	Hotissare’ ho’he bhavissantimhi ssassa ca
6	3	481	524	Karassa sappaccayassa kāho
6	4	482	508	Dādantassaṃ mimesu
6	4	483	527	Asaṃyogantassa vuddhi kārite
6	4	484	542	Ghaṭādīnaṃ vā
6	4	485	434	Aññesu ca
6	4	486	543	Guhadusānaṃ dīghaṃ
6	4	487	478	Vaca vasa vahādīnamukāro vassaye
6	4	488	481	Ha vipariyayo lo vā
6	4	489	519	Gahassa ghe ppe
6	4	490	518	Halopo ṇhāmhi
6	4	491	523	Karassa kāsattamajjatanimhi
6	4	492	499	Asasmā mimānaṃ mimhā’ntalopo ca
6	4	493	498	Thassa tthatthaṃ
6	4	494	495	Tissa tissa tthitthaṃ
6	4	495	500	Tussa tthuttaṃ
6	4	496	497	Simhi ca
6	4	497	477	Labhasmā īaṃnaṃ tthattaṃ
6	4	498	480	Kusasmā dī cchi
6	4	499	480	Dā dhātussa dajjaṃ
6	4	500	486	Vadassa vajjaṃ
6	4	501	443	Gamissa ghammaṃ
6	4	502	493	Yamhi dā dhā mā ṭhā hā pā maha mathādīnamī
6	4	503	485	Yajassādissi
6	4	504	470	Sabbato uṃ iṃsu
6	4	505	482	Jaramarānaṃ jīra jīyya mīyyā vā
6	4	506	496	Sabbatthā’sassādilopo ca
6	4	507	501	Asabbadhātuke ñā
6	4	508	515	Yeyyassa ñāto iyā ñā
6	4	509	516	Nāssa lopo yakārattaṃ
6	4	510	487	Lopañcettamakāro
6	4	511	521	Uttamokāro
6	4	512	522	Karassākāro ca
6	4	513	435	O ava sare
6	4	514	491	E aya
6	4	515	541	Te āvāyā kārite
6	4	516	466	Ikārāgamo asabbadhātukamhi
6	4	517	488	Kvaci dhātuvibhattippaccayānaṃ dīghaviparītādesa lopāgamā ca
6	4	518	446	Attanopadāni parassapadattaṃ
6	4	519	457	Akārāgamo hiyyatthanīajjatanīkālātipattīsu
6	4	520	502	Brūto ī timhi
6	4	521	425	Dhātussanto lopo’ nekasarassa
6	4	522	476	Isuyamūnamanto ccho vā
6	4	523	526	Kāritānaṃ ṇo lopaṃ
7	1	524	561	Dhātuyā kammādimhi ṇo
7	1	525	565	Saññāyama nu
7	1	526	567	Pure dadā ca iṃ
7	1	527	568	Sabbato ṇvutvā’vī vā
7	1	528	577	Visa ruja padādito ṇa
7	1	529	580	Bhāve ca
7	1	530	584	Kvi ca
7	1	531	589	Dharādīhi rammo
7	1	532	590	Tassīlādīsu ṇī tvā vī ca
7	1	533	591	Sadda kudha cala maṇḍattha rucādīhi yu
7	1	534	592	Pārādigamimhā rū
7	1	535	593	Bhikkhādito ca
7	1	536	594	Hanatyādīnaṃ ṇuko
7	1	537	566	Nu niggahitaṃ padante
7	1	538	595	Saṃhanā’ññāya vā ro gho
7	1	539	558	Ramhi ranto rādino
7	1	540	545	Bhāvakammesu tabbā’nīyā
7	1	541	552	Ṇyo ca
7	1	542	557	Karamhā ricca
7	1	543	555	Bhūto’bba
7	1	544	556	Vada mada gamu yuja garahākārādīhi jja mmaggayheyyāvāro vā
7	1	545	548	Te kiccā
7	1	546	562	Aññe kita
7	1	547	596	Nandādīhi yu
7	1	548	597	Kattukaraṇapadesesu ca
7	1	549	550	Rahādito ṇa
7	2	550	549	Ṇādayo tekālikā
7	2	551	598	Saññāyaṃ dādhāto i
7	2	552	609	Ti kiccā’siṭṭhe
7	2	553	599	Itthiyamatiyavo vā
7	2	554	601	Karato ririya
7	2	555	612	Atīte ta tavantu tāvī
7	2	556	622	Bhāvakammesu ta
7	2	557	606	Budhagamāditthe kattari
7	2	558	602	Jito ina sabbattha
7	2	559	603	Supato ca
7	2	560	604	Īsaṃdusūhi kha
7	2	561	636	Icchatthesu samānakattukesu tave tuṃ vā
7	2	562	638	Arahasakkādīsu ca
7	2	563	639	Pattavacane alamatthesu ca
7	2	564	640	Pubbakāle’kakattukānaṃ tuna tvāna tvā vā
7	2	565	646	Vattamāne māna’ntā
7	2	566	574	Sāsādīhi ratthu
7	2	567	575	Pātito ritu
7	2	568	576	Mānādīhi rātu
7	2	569	610	Āgamā tuko
7	2	570	611	Bhabbe ika
7	3	571	624	Paccayādaniṭṭhā nipātanā sijjhanti
7	3	572	625	Sāsadisato tassa riṭṭho ca
7	3	573	626	Sādisanta puccha bhanja hantādīhi ṭṭho
7	3	574	613	Vasato uttha
7	3	575	614	Vasa vāvu
7	3	576	607	Dha ḍha bha he hi dhaḍḍhā ca
7	3	577	628	Bhanjato ggo ca
7	3	578	560	Bhujādīnamanto no dvi ca
7	3	579	629	Vaca vā vu
7	3	580	630	Gupādīnañca
7	3	581	616	Tarādīhi iṇṇo
7	3	582	631	Bhidādito inna anna īṇā vā
7	3	583	617	Susa paca sakato kkha kkā ca
7	3	584	618	Pakkamādīhi nto ca
7	3	585	619	Janādīna mā timhi ca
7	3	586	600	Gama khana hana ramādīnamanto
7	3	587	632	Rakāro ca
7	3	588	0	Ṭhāpānamiī ca
7	3	589	621	Hantehi ho hassa ḷo vā adahanahānaṃ
7	4	590	579	Ṇamhi ranjassa jo bhāvakaraṇesu
7	4	591	544	Hanassa ghāto
7	4	592	503	Vadho vā sabbattha
7	4	593	564	Ākārantānamāyo
7	4	594	582	Purasamupaparīhi karotissa kha kharā vā tappaccayesu ca
7	4	595	637	Tavetunādīsu kā
7	4	596	551	Gamakhanahanādīnaṃ tuṃtabbādīsu na
7	4	597	641	Sabbehi tunādīnaṃ yo
7	4	598	643	Canantehi raccaṃ
7	4	599	644	Disā svānasvantalopo ca
7	4	600	645	Mahadabhehi mma yha jja bbha ddhā ca
7	4	601	334	Taddhitasamāsakitakā nāmaṃ vā’tavetunādīsu ca
7	4	602	6	Dumhi garu
7	4	603	7	Dīgho ca
7	4	604	684	Akkharehi kāra
7	4	605	547	Yathāgamamikāro
7	4	606	642	Dadhantato yo kvaci
7	5	607	578	Niggahita saṃyogādi no
7	5	608	623	Sabbattha ge hī
7	5	609	484	Sadassa sīdatthaṃ
7	5	610	627	Yajassa sarassi ṭṭhe
7	5	611	608	Hacatutthānamantānaṃ do dhe
7	5	612	615	Ḍho ḍhakāre
7	5	613	583	Gahassa ghara ṇe vā
7	5	614	581	Dahassa do ḷaṃ
7	5	615	586	Dhātvantassa lopo kvimhi
7	5	616	587	Vidante ū
7	5	617	633	Na ma ka rānamantānaṃ niyuttatamhi
7	5	618	571	Na ka vatthaṃ ca jā ṇvumhi
7	5	619	573	Karassa ca tattaṃ thusmiṃ
7	5	620	549	Tuṃtunatabbesu vā
7	5	621	553	Kāritaṃ viya ṇānubandho
7	5	622	570	Anakā yu ṇvūnaṃ
7	5	623	554	Ka gā ca jānaṃ
8	1	624	563	Kattari kitta
8	1	625	605	Bhāvakammesu kiccattakkhatthā
8	1	626	634	Kammani dutiyāya tto
8	1	627	652	Khyādīhi mana ma ca to vā
8	1	628	653	Samādīhi thamā
8	1	629	569	Gahassu’padhasse vā
8	1	630	654	Masussa sussa ccharaccherā
8	1	631	655	Āpubbacarassa ca
8	1	632	656	Ala kala salehi la yā
8	1	633	657	Yāṇa lāṇā
8	1	634	658	Mathissa thassa lo ca
8	1	635	559	Pesātisaggapattakālesu kiccā
8	1	636	659	Avassakādhamiṇesu ṇī ca
8	1	637	0	Arahasakkādīhi tuṃ
8	1	638	668	Vajādīhi pabbajjādayo nippajjante
8	1	639	585	Kvilopo ca
8	1	640	0	Sacajānaṃ ka gā ṇānubandhe
8	1	641	572	Nudādīhi yu ṇvūna manā na nā kā na na kā sakāritehi ca
8	1	642	588	I ya ta ma kiṃ esānamantassaro dīghaṃ kvaci dusassa guṇaṃ doraṃ sa kkhī ca
8	1	643	635	Bhyādīhi mati budhi pūjādīhi ca tto
8	1	644	661	Vepu sī dava vamu ku dā bhūtvādīhi thuttima ṇimā nibbatte
8	1	645	662	Akkose namhāni
8	1	646	419	Ekādito sakissa kkhattuṃ
8	1	647	663	Sunassunasso ṇa vānuvānūnanakhunānā
8	1	648	664	Taruṇassa susu ca
8	1	649	665	Yuvassuvassuvuvānanūnā
8	1	650	651	Kāle vattamānātīte ṇvādayo
8	1	651	647	Bhavissati gamādīhi ṇī ghiṇa
8	1	652	648	Kriyāyaṃ ṇvu tavo
8	1	653	307	Bhāvavācimhi catutthī
8	1	654	649	Kammani ṇo
8	1	655	650	Sese ssaṃ ntu mānānā
8	1	656	666	Chadādīhi ta traṇa
8	1	657	667	Vadādīhi ṇitto gaṇe
8	1	658	668	Midādīhi tti tiyo
8	1	659	669	Usuranjadasānaṃ daṃsassa daḍḍho ḍhaṭhā ca
8	1	660	670	Sūvusānamūvusānamato tho ca
8	1	661	671	Ranjudādīhi dhadiddakirā kvaci jadalopo ca
8	1	662	672	Paṭito hissa heraṇa hīraṇa
8	1	663	673	Kaḍhādīhi ko
8	1	664	674	Khādāmagamānaṃ khandhandhagandhā
8	1	665	675	Paṭādīlyalaṃ
8	1	666	676	Puthassa puthu pathā mo vā
8	1	667	677	Sasvādīhi tu davo
8	1	668	678	Cyādīhi īvaro
8	1	669	679	Munādīhi ci
8	1	670	680	Vidādīlyūro
8	1	671	681	Hanādīhi nu ṇu tavo
8	1	672	682	Kuṭādīhi ṭho
8	1	673	683	Manupūrasuṇādīhi ussanusisā

3 - 1. 𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀓𑀧𑁆𑀧 (Sandhikappa)

sandhi is derived from saṃ + dhā meaning “putting together” and is used to refer to the transformation that result from the joining together of two words (or two parts of a word) for the sake of euphony.

(a)
To the Supreme, honoured in the three worlds, worthy of the ultimate salute,
To the pure Dhamma of the Buddha and the highest collection (the Tipiṭaka);
To fully understand the meaning of the excellent words of that Teacher,
I will articulate thoroughly here the sutta (rules) in the sandhikappa (Sandhi Chapter)

(b)
The wise obtain using the excellent method proclaimed by the Conqueror,
As well as fully understanding the meaning of his words;
And the clear knowledge of the meaning in the words and letters,
Excellent benefit for those who will listen to the words here in many ways.

(Ka)
Seṭṭhaṃ tilokamahitaṃ abhivandiyaggaṃ,
Buddhañca dhammamamalaṃ gaṇamuttamañca;
Satthussa tassa vacanatthavaraṃ suboddhuṃ,
Vakkhāmi suttahitamettha susandhikappaṃ.

(Kha)
Seyyaṃ jineritanayena budhā labhanti,
Tañcāpi tassa vacanatthasubodhanena;
Atthañca akkharapadesu amohabhāvā,
Seyyatthiko padamato vividhaṃ suṇeyyaṃ.

(𑀓)
𑀲𑁂𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀁 𑀢𑀺𑀮𑁄𑀓𑀫𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀯𑀦𑁆𑀤𑀺𑀬𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀁
𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀥𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀫𑀫𑀮𑀁 𑀕𑀡𑀫𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀫𑀜𑁆𑀘
𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀼𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀯𑀘𑀦𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀯𑀭𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀼𑀁
𑀯𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀸𑀫𑀺 𑀲𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀫𑁂𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀲𑀼𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀓𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀁

(𑀔)
𑀲𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬𑀁 𑀚𑀺𑀦𑁂𑀭𑀺𑀢𑀦𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀸 𑀮𑀪𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺
𑀢𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀧𑀺 𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀯𑀘𑀦𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀲𑀼𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀦𑁂𑀦
𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀧𑀤𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀅𑀫𑁄𑀳𑀪𑀸𑀯𑀸
𑀲𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀓𑁄 𑀧𑀤𑀫𑀢𑁄 𑀯𑀺𑀯𑀺𑀥𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀡𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬𑀁

(क)
सेट्ठं तिलोकमहितं अभिवन्दियग्गं,
बुद्धञ्च धम्मममलं गणमुत्तमञ्च;
सत्थुस्स तस्स वचनत्थवरं सुबोद्धुं,
वक्खामि सुत्तहितमेत्थ सुसन्धिकप्पं।

(ख)
सेय्यं जिनेरितनयेन बुधा लभन्ति,
तञ्चापि तस्स वचनत्थसुबोधनेन;
अत्थञ्च अक्खरपदेसु अमोहभावा,
सेय्यत्थिको पदमतो विविधं सुणेय्यं।

3.1 - 1.1 𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Paṭhamakaṇḍa) - Definitions

This section provides an introductory rule, technical terms including akkhara (sounds, or letters), and rules for carrying out sandhi

1 [R1] Meaning from recognition of `akkhara` (sounds, or letters)

𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸𑀢𑁄 (attho akkharasaññāto) adhikāra sīhagatika

akkhara means “constant, durable, long-lasting” and in the context of Kaccāyana it means “sounds, tones, words” and also the letters of the alphabetical syllabary.

All meanings of words are based on the recognition of “akkhara” (sounds, or letters). A mistaken akkhara result in difficulty in interpreting meaning, therefore proficiency in akkhara is extremely helpful in (deciphering) the rules (or understanding the suttas in the Tipiṭaka).

Sabbavacanānamattho akkhareheva saññāyate. Akkharavipattiyaṃ hi atthassa dunnayatā hoti, tasmā akkharakosallaṃ bahūpakāraṃ suttantesu.

𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀯𑀘𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀫𑀢𑁆𑀣𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑁂𑀳𑁂𑀯 𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸𑀬𑀢𑁂𑁇 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀯𑀺𑀧𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀁 𑀳𑀺 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀤𑀼𑀦𑁆𑀦𑀬𑀢𑀸 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺, 𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀫𑀸 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀓𑁄𑀲𑀮𑁆𑀮𑀁 𑀩𑀳𑀽𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀼𑁇

सब्बवचनानमत्थो अक्खरेहेव सञ्ञायते। अक्खरविपत्तियं हि अत्थस्स दुन्नयता होति, तस्मा अक्खरकोसल्लं बहूपकारं सुत्तन्तेसु।

2 [R2] 41 `akkhara` starting with `a`

𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸𑀧𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄𑀏𑀓𑀘𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸𑀮𑀻𑀲𑀁 (akkharāpādayoekacattālīsaṃ) saññā anvattha

The “Brahmi” script introduced here is one of the earliest scripts known to India. It came into existence in the form of stone inscriptions during the reign of Asoka, in 4th - 3rd century BCE.

And there are forty one akkhara constructed from sounds/syllables, starting with a.

Te ca kho akkharā api akārādayo ekacattālīsaṃ¹ suttantesu sopakārā.

Taṃ yathā?
a ā i ī u ū e o,
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ,
iti akkharā nāma.

The CSCD edition misspells this as ekacattā līsa. ↩︎

𑀢𑁂 𑀘 𑀔𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀅𑀧𑀺 𑀅𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄 𑀏𑀓𑀘𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸𑀮𑀻𑀲𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑁄𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀅 𑀆 𑀇 𑀈 𑀉 𑀊 𑀏 𑀑,
𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀲 𑀳 𑀍𑀅 𑀅𑀁,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

ते च खो अक्खरा अपि अकारादयो एकचत्तालीसं सुत्तन्तेसु सोपकारा।

तं यथा?
अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ओ,
क ख ग घ ङ,
च छ ज झ ञ,
ट ठ ड ढ ण,
त थ द ध न,
प फ ब भ म,
य र ल व स ह ऌअ अं,
इति अक्खरा नाम।

𑀅

a /ə/

𑀆

ā /aː/

𑀇

i /i/

𑀈

ī /iː/

𑀉

u /u/

𑀊

ū /uː/

𑀏

e /eː/

𑀑

o /oː/

𑀓

ka /k/

𑀔

kha /kʰ/

𑀕

ga /ɡ/

𑀖

gha /ɡʱ/

𑀗

ṅa /ŋ/

𑀘

ca /c/

𑀙

cha /cʰ/

𑀚

ja /ɟ/

𑀛

jha /ɟʱ/

𑀜

ña /ɲ/

𑀝

ṭa /ʈ/

𑀞

ṭha /ʈʰ/

𑀟

ḍa /ɖ/

𑀠

ḍha /ɖʱ/

𑀡

ṇa /ɳ/

𑀢

ta /t̪/

𑀣

tha /t̪ʰ/

𑀤

da /d̪/

𑀥

dha /d̪ʱ/

𑀦

na /n/

𑀧

pa /p/

𑀨

pha /pʰ/

𑀩

ba /b/

𑀪

bha /bʱ/

𑀫

ma /m/

𑀬

ya /j/

𑀭

ra /r/

𑀮

la /l/

𑀯

va /w, ʋ/

𑀲

sa /s/

𑀳

ha /ɦ/

𑀅𑀁

aṃ /aɲ/

Applicability

Refer to rule 1: attho akkharasaññāto (meaning from recognition of akkhara)

3 [R3] (From akkhara) eight ending with “o”: sara (vowel)

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣𑁄𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞 (tatthodantā sarā aṭṭha) saññā anvattha

sara means “sound, voice, intonation, accent” and in the context of Kaccāyana it means “vowel”. Vowels have independent existence, unlike consonants which need to be combined with vowels to make a sound.

Regarding the akkhara, the eight akkhara starting with a and ending with o are called sarā (vowels).

Tattha akkharesu akārādīsu odantā aṭṭha akkharā sarā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
a ā i ī u ū e o,
iti sarā nāma.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀅𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀻𑀲𑀼 𑀑𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀅 𑀆 𑀇 𑀈 𑀉 𑀊 𑀏 𑀑,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तत्थ अक्खरेसु अकारादीसु ओदन्ता अट्ठ अक्खरा सरा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ओ,
इति सरा नाम।

Independent vowels:

𑀅

a /ə/

𑀆

ā /aː/

𑀇

i /i/

𑀈

ī /iː/

𑀉

u /u/

𑀊

ū /uː/

𑀏

e /eː/

𑀑

o /oː/

Vowel marks (to be added to consonants):

◌

a /ə/

𑀸

ā /aː/

𑀺

i /i/

𑀻

ī /iː/

𑀼

u /u/

𑀽

ū /uː/

𑁂

e /eː/

𑁄

o /oː/

Example of vowel marks added to ka:

𑀓

ka /kə/

𑀓𑀸

kā /kaː/

𑀓𑀺

ki /ki/

𑀓𑀻

kī /ki:/

𑀓𑀼

ku /ku/

𑀓𑀽

kū /ku:/

𑀓𑁂

ke /ke:/

𑀓𑁄

ko /ko:/

Applicability

Refer to rule 12: sarā sare lopaṃ (elision of vowel from vowels)

4 [R4] 3 short vowels: `rassa`

𑀮𑀳𑀼𑀫𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀢𑀬𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸 (lahumattā tayo rassā) saññā anvattha

rassa refers to a “short” vowel (with a metrical length of one morae, or approximately the time taken to blink the eyes).

Regarding the eight vowels, the three short vowels are called rassa.

The rassa vowels are:
a i u.

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu lahumattā tayo sarā rassā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
a i u,
iti rassā nāma.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀮𑀳𑀼𑀫𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀢𑀬𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀅 𑀇 𑀉,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तत्थ अट्ठसु सरेसु लहुमत्ता तयो सरा रस्सा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
अ इ उ,
इति रस्सा नाम।

Applicability

Refer to rule 26: Rassaṃ (short vowels)

5 [R5] Other (vowels) are `dīgha` (long)

𑀅𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁂 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀸 (aññe dīghā) saññā anvattha

dīgha refers to a “long” vowel (with a metrical length of two morae, or perhaps even longer).

Regarding the eight vowels, the five vowels other than the short vowels are called “digha.”

The digha vowels are:
ā ī ū e o.

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu rassehi aññe pañca sarā dīghā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
ā ī ū e o,
iti dīghā nāma.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁂𑀳𑀺 𑀅𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁂 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀆 𑀈 𑀊 𑀏 𑀑,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तत्थ अट्ठसु सरेसु रस्सेहि अञ्ञे पञ्च सरा दीघा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
आ ई ऊ ए ओ,
इति दीघा नाम।

Applicability

Refer to rule 25: Dīghaṃ (long vowels)

6 [R6] Remaining (letters) are `byañjanā` (consonants)

𑀲𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸 (sesā byañjanā) saññā anvattha

byañjana means “attribute, sign, mark” and in the context of Kaccāyana it means “consonant”, because consonants are “signs” that manifest the meaning of a word. From a metrical perspective, they are regarded as having a length of half a morae.

Having set aside the eight vowels, the (remaining) letters starting with ka and ending with the niggahita (aṃ) are named byañjana (consonants).

The byañjanā are:
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ.

Ṭhapetvā aṭṭha sare sesā akkharā kakārādayo niggahitantā byañjanā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ,
iti byañjanā nāma.

𑀞𑀧𑁂𑀢𑁆𑀯𑀸 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀲𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀓𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀲 𑀳 𑀍𑀅 𑀅𑀁,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

ठपेत्वा अट्ठ सरे सेसा अक्खरा ककारादयो निग्गहितन्ता ब्यञ्जना नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
क ख ग घ ङ,
च छ ज झ ञ,
ट ठ ड ढ ण,
त थ द ध न,
प फ ब भ म,
य र ल व स ह ऌअ अं,
इति ब्यञ्जना नाम।

Applicability

Refer to rule 23: Sarā pakati byañjane (vowels naturally in consonants)

7 [R9] `vagga`: 5 by 5 (consonants) ending with `ma`

𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀸 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀲𑁄 𑀫𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 (vaggā pañcapañcaso mantā) saññā anvattha

vagga means “group” or “series”.

The consonants starting with ka and ending with ma arranged in five groups of five, are named vagga (grouped).

ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma.

Tesaṃ kho byañjanānaṃ kakārādayo makārantā pañcapañcaso akkharavanto vaggā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
iti vaggā nāma.

𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀓𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀲𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀯𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तेसं खो ब्यञ्जनानं ककारादयो मकारन्ता पञ्चपञ्चसो अक्खरवन्तो वग्गा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
क ख ग घ ङ,
च छ ज झ ञ,
ट ठ ड ढ ण,
त थ द ध न,
प फ ब भ म,
इति वग्गा नाम।

Applicability

Refer to rule 31: Vaggantaṃ vā vagge (end-of-groups vs groups)

8 [R10] `aṃ`: `niggahita`

𑀅𑀁 𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 (aṃ iti niggahitaṃ) saññā anvattha

niggahita is a technical term referring to a nasalised after sound (Sanskrit: anusvāra) following a vowel. It is sometimes referred to as a vowel, but Kaccāyana classifies it as a consonant.

The aṃ letter is named niggahita (nasal consonant).

Aṃ iti niggahitaṃ nāma hoti.

𑀅𑀁 𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अं इति निग्गहितं नाम होति।

Applicability

Refer to rule 30: Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ (“aṃ” in consonants: niggahita)

9 [R11] Other grammatical terms used

𑀧𑀭𑀲𑀫𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸 𑀧𑀬𑁄𑀕𑁂 (parasamaññā payoge) paribhāsā saññaṅga

ghosa means “sound” and is used to refer to “sonants” (consonants voiced with “sonority”) whereas aghosa is used to refer to “surds” (consonants pronounced with unintonated breath). Note that these are just two examples of Sanskrit technical terms that Kaccāyana says are applicable, others are used without definition, so Kaccāyana expects readers to be familiar with Sanskrit grammar.

Terms such as ghosa (voiced) and aghosa (unvoiced) used in other texts (ie. Sanskrit grammar) are applicable here, keeping in mind when they are required to be used.

ghosā letters:
ga gha ṅa,
ja jha ña,
ḍa ḍha ṇa,
da dha na,
ba bha ma,
ya ra la va ha ḷa.

aghosā letters:
ka kha,
ca cha,
ṭa ṭha,
ta tha,
pa pha,
sa.

Yā ca pana paresu sakkataganthesu samaññā ghosāti vā aghosāti vā, tā payoge sati etthāpi yujjante.

Tattha ghosā nāma -
ga gha ṅa,
ja jha ña,
ḍa ḍha ṇa,
da dha na,
ba bha ma,
ya ra la va ha ḷa,
iti ghosā nāma.

Aghosā nāma -
ka kha,
ca cha,
ṭa ṭha,
ta tha,
pa pha,
sa,
iti aghosā nāma.

𑀬𑀸 𑀘 𑀧𑀦 𑀧𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀢𑀕𑀦𑁆𑀣𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀫𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸 𑀅𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸, 𑀢𑀸 𑀧𑀬𑁄𑀕𑁂 𑀲𑀢𑀺 𑀏𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀸𑀧𑀺 𑀬𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂𑁇

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 -
𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀳 𑀍𑀅,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

𑀅𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 -
𑀓 𑀔,
𑀘 𑀙,
𑀝 𑀞,
𑀢 𑀣,
𑀧 𑀨,
𑀲,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀅𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

या च पन परेसु सक्कतगन्थेसु समञ्ञा घोसाति वा अघोसाति वा, ता पयोगे सति एत्थापि युज्जन्ते।

तत्थ घोसा नाम -
ग घ ङ,
ज झ ञ,
ड ढ ण,
द ध न,
ब भ म,
य र ल व ह ऌअ,
इति घोसा नाम।

अघोसा नाम -
क ख,
च छ,
ट ठ,
त थ,
प फ,
स,
इति अघोसा नाम।

Applicability

Refer to rule 29: Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā

10 [R12] Detach vowel from preceeding/succeeding (phonemes, to create) vowelless (consonants)

𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀁 𑀅𑀥𑁄𑀞𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀭𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀺𑀬𑁄𑀚𑀬𑁂 (pubbaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ sarena viyojaye) paribhāsā vidhyaṅga

Note that this is a meta-operational rule that makes sense when referring to scripts like Brahmi or Devanagari where the vowels are attached to consonants in words. In Romanised Pāli, the vowels and consonants are represented by distinct letters so separating the vowel from the consonant is inherently done.

In that regard, those wishing to make “sandhi” should detach the vowel(s) from the preceeding and succeeding consonants (end phoneme of preceeding word, and first phoneme of succeeding word).

Tattha sandhiṃ kattukāmo pubbabyañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ katvā sarañca upari katvā sarena viyojaye.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀁 𑀓𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀼𑀓𑀸𑀫𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀁 𑀅𑀥𑁄𑀞𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀭𑀁 𑀓𑀢𑁆𑀯𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀉𑀧𑀭𑀺 𑀓𑀢𑁆𑀯𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀺𑀬𑁄𑀚𑀬𑁂𑁇

तत्थ सन्धिं कत्तुकामो पुब्बब्यञ्जनं अधोठितं अस्सरं कत्वा सरञ्च उपरि कत्वा सरेन वियोजये।

Example

✅

tatrāyamādi

🔼(tatra) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(ādi)
in that place | this | starting with

tatra + ayaṃ + ādi
→ ta + (tr + a) + (a) + (ya + ṃ) + (ā) + di (rule 10)
→ ta + tr + (a + a) + ya + ṃ + ā + di (rule 12)
→ ta + tr + (a→ā) + ya + ṃ + ā + di (rule 15)
→ ta + tr + ā + ya + (ṃ→m + ā) + di (rule 34)
→ ta + (tr + ā) + ya + (m + ā) + di (rule 11)
→ tatrāyamādi

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭 + 𑀅𑀬𑀁 + 𑀆𑀤𑀺
→ 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀅) + (𑀅) + (𑀬 + 𑀅𑀁) + (𑀆) + 𑀤𑀺
→ 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅 + 𑀅) + 𑀬 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀆 + 𑀤𑀺
→ 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅→𑀆) + 𑀬 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀆 + 𑀤𑀺
→ 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆 + 𑀬 + (𑀅𑀁→𑀫𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀤𑀺
→ 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀬 + (𑀫𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀤𑀺
→ 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀬𑀫𑀸𑀤𑀺

तत्र + अयं + आदि
→ त + (त्र् + अ) + (अ) + (य + अं) + (आ) + दि
→ त + त्र् + (अ + अ) + य + अं + आ + दि
→ त + त्र् + (अ→आ) + य + अं + आ + दि
→ त + त्र् + आ + य + (अं→म् + आ) + दि
→ त + (त्र् + आ) + य + (म् + आ) + दि
→ तत्रायमादि

dhp375

11 [R14] Connect next if applicable

𑀦𑀬𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑀁 𑀬𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 (naye paraṃ yutte) paribhāsā vidhyaṅga

This meta-operational rule is the counterpart to rule 10, to ensure consonants and vowels are connected after the application of other sandhi rules.

The final vowelless consonant (in the preceeding word) must be connected to the next phoneme (first phoneme of the succeeding word).

Assaraṃ kho byañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ¹ parakkharaṃ naye yutte.

The CSCD edition misspells this as adhoṭhataṃ. ↩︎

𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀭𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀁 𑀅𑀥𑁄𑀞𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀧𑀭𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀁 𑀦𑀬𑁂 𑀬𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂𑁇

अस्सरं खो ब्यञ्जनं अधोठितं परक्खरं नये युत्ते।

Example

✅

tatrābhiratimiccheyya

🔼(tatra) 🚺②⨀(abhirati) ⏯🤟⨀(icchati)
in that place | pleasure in | will desire

tatra + abhiratiṃ + iccheyya
→ ta + (tr + a) + (a) + bhira + (ti + ṃ) + (i + c) + cheyya (rule 10)
→ tatr + (a + a) + bhira + ti + ṃ + i + ccheyya (rule 12)
→ tatr + (a→ā) + bhirati + ṃ + i + ccheyya (rule 15)
→ tatr + ā + bhirati + (ṃ→m + i) + ccheyya (rule 34)
→ ta + (tr + ā) + bhirati + (m + i) + ccheyya (rule 11)
→ ta + trā + bhirati + mi + ccheyya
→ tatrābhiratimiccheyya

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭 + 𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺𑀁 + 𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀅) + (𑀅) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭 + (𑀢𑀺 + 𑀅𑀁) + (𑀇 + 𑀘𑁆) + 𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅 + 𑀅) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭 + 𑀢𑀺 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀇 + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅→𑀆) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀇 + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆 + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + (𑀅𑀁→𑀫𑁆 + 𑀇) + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + (𑀫𑁆 + 𑀇) + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸 + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + 𑀫𑀺 + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
→ 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺𑀫𑀺𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬

तत्र + अभिरतिं + इच्छेय
→ त + (त्र् + अ) + (अ) + भिर + (ति + अं) + (इ + च्) + छेय्य
→ तत्र् + (अ + अ) + भिर + ति + अं + इ + च्छेय्य
→ तत्र् + (अ→आ) + भिरति + अं + इ + च्छेय्य
→ तत्र् + आ + भिरति + (अं→म् + इ) + च्छेय्य
→ त + (त्र् + आ) + भिरति + (म् + इ) + च्छेय्य
→ त + त्रा + भिरति + मि + च्छेय्य
→ तत्राभिरतिमिच्छेय्यय

an10.169#6.1

Counter Example

⛔️

Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me

In the above text (from Dhp 3) the rule is not applicable, so there are no connections (between the preceeding vowels and the following consonants, or between the final niggahita and the following vowel)

dhp3

3.2 - 1.2 𑀤𑀼𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Dutiyakaṇḍa) - Vowel Sandhi

This section describes sarasandhi (combination of vowels).

12 [R13] Vowel, before vowel, is elided

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 (sarā sare lopaṃ)¹ vidhi utsarga

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space sarā lopaṃ:2 space sare space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
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  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Vowel, before a vowel, experience elision.
(When there are two vowels, the first vowel is elided)

Sarā kho sare pare lopaṃ papponti.

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरा खो सरे परे लोपं पप्पोन्ति।

Examples

✅

yassindriyāni samathaṅgatāni

🚹⑥⨀(ya) 🚻①⨂(indriya) 🚻①⨂(samathaṅgata)
of whatever | faculties | calmed

yassa + indriyāni
→ yas + (s + a) + (i + n) + driyāni (rule 10)
→ yas + s + (a + i) + n + driyāni (rule 12)
→ yas + (s + i + n) + driyāni (rule 11)
→ yassindriyāni

dhp94

✅

no hetaṃ bhante

🔼(no) 🔼(hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
not | certainly | Bhantehi + etaṃ

hi + etaṃ
→ (h + i) + (e) + taṃ (rule 10)
→ h + (i + e) + taṃ (rule 12)
→ (h + e) + taṃ (rule 11)
→ hetaṃ

dn1#1.5.4

✅

sametāyasmā saṅghena

🚹⓪⨀(sameta) 🚹⑤⨀(āya) 🚹③⨀(saṅgha)
attained | from power | by monastic community

sameta + āyasmā
→ same (t + a) + (ā) + yasmā (rule 10)
→ same t + (a + ā) + yasmā (rule 12)
→ same (t + ā) + yasmā (rule 11)
→ sametāyasmā

pli-tv-bu-pm#24.3

13 [R15] Optionally, next (vowel) not of the same type (following a vowel is elided)

𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀅𑀲𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸 (vā paro asarūpā) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x["paro asarūpā"] space:2 space space vā space

  
    Previous["sara"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post0
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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Optionally, when a vowel not of the same type (of articulation) follows a vowel, the second vowel experience elision.

Saramhā asarūpā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā.

𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀅𑀲𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

सरम्हा असरूपा परो सरो लोपं पप्पोति वा।

Examples

✅

cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā

🚹①⨂(catu) 🚹①⨂(ima) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(dhamma)
four | these | bhikkhave | teachings

cattāro + ime
→ cattā + (r + o) + (i) + me (rule 10)
→ cattā + r + (o + i) + me (rule 13)
→ cattā + (r + o) + me (rule 11)
→ cattārome

an4.249#1.1

✅

kinnumāva samaṇiyo

🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(nu mā va) 🚹①⨀(samaṇiya)
who | ? | do not | like | a monastic

kiṃ + nu + imā
→ kiṃ + (n + u) + (i) + mā (rule 10)
→ kiṃ + n + (u + i) + mā (rule 13)
→ kiṃ + (n + u) + mā (rule 11)
→ kinnumā

pli-tv-bi-pm#28.2

Counter examples

⛔️

pañcindriyāni

🚻①⨂(pañcindriya)
five faculties

pañca + indriyāni
→ pañ + (c + a) + (i + n) + driyāni (rule 10)
→ pañ + c + (a + i) + n + driyāni (rule 12)
→ pañ + (c + i + n) + driyāni (rule 11)
→ pañcindriyāni

Note rule 12 is applied rather than rule 13 because “a” and “i” are considered “similar” vowels (from the perspective of articulation).

an10.90#6.3

⛔️

tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti

🚹①⨂(ti) ⏯🤟⨂(assa) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🚹①⨂(jahita) ▶️🤟⨂(bhavati)
three | will be | teachings | abandoned | is

tayo + assu
→ ta + (y + o) + (a + s) + su (rule 10)
→ ta + y + (o + a) + s + su (rule 12)
→ ta + (y + a + s) + su (rule 11)
→ tayassu

Note rule 12 is applied rather than rule 13 because “o” and “a” are considered “similar” vowels (from the perspective of articulation).

snp2.1#10.2

14 [R16] Occasionally, when (previous vowel) elided, following vowel becomes different

𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀸𑀲𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑀁 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 (kvacāsavaṇṇaṃ lutte) vidhi apavāda

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A vowel, when the previous vowel has been elided, occasionally becomes a different vowel.

Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci asavaṇṇaṃ pappoti.

𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀔𑁄 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀅𑀲𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरो खो परो पुब्बसरे लुत्ते क्वचि असवण्णं पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

saṅkhyaṃ nopeti vedagū

🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(nopeti) 🚹①⨀(vedagū)
categorisation | does not approach | one who has perfect knowledge

na + upeti
→ (n + a) + (u) + peti (rule 10)
→ n + (a + u) + peti (rule 12)
→ n + (u→o) + peti (rule 14)
→ (n + o) + peti (rule 11)
→ nopeti

snp3.12#40.4

✅

bandhusseva samāgamo

🚹⑥⨀(bandhu) 🔼(iva) 🚹①⨀(samāgama)
of relation | like | association of

bandhussa + iva
→ bandhus + (s + a) + (i) + va (rule 10)
→ bandhus + s + (a + i) + va (rule 12)
→ bandhus + s + (i→e) + va (rule 14)
→ bandhus + (s + e) + va (rule 11)
→ bandhusseva

Counter examples

⛔️

yassindriyāni (samathaṅgatāni)

🚹⑥⨀(ya) 🚻①⨂(indriya) (🚻①⨂(samathaṅgata))
of whatever | faculties | (calmed)

yassa + indriyāni
→ yas + (s + a) + (i + n) + driyāni (rule 10)
→ yas + s + (a + i) + n + driyāni (rule 12)
→ yas + (s + i + n) + driyāni (rule 11)
→ yassindriyāni

dhp94

⛔️

tathūpamaṃ dhammavaraṃ adesayi

🚻①⨀(tathūpama) 🚹②⨀(dhammavara) ⏮🤟⨀(adesayi)
similar to that | excellent teaching | taught

tathā + upama
→ ta + (th + ā) + (u) + pama (rule 10)
→ ta + th + (ā + u) + pama (rule 12)
→ ta + th + (u→ū) + pama (rule 15)
→ ta + (th + ū) + pama (rule 11)
→ tathūpama

kp6#13.3

15 [R17] (Occasionally, when previous vowel elided, following vowel becomes) long

𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 (dīghaṃ) vidhi apavāda

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A vowel, when the previous vowel has been elided, occasionally becomes long.

Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti.

𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀔𑁄 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरो खो परो पुब्बसरे लुत्ते क्वचि दीघं पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

saddhīdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ

🔼(saddhīdha) 🚻①⨀(vitta) 🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚻①⨀(seṭṭha)
confidence here | wealth | of person | most important

saddhā + idha
→ sad + (dh + ā) + (i) + dha (rule 10)
→ sad + dh + (ā + i) + dha (rule 12)
→ sad + dh + (i→ī) + dha (rule 15)
→ sad + (dh + ī) + dha (rule 11)
→ saddhīdha

snp1.10#7.1

✅

anāgārehi cūbhayaṃ

🚹③⨂(anāgāra) 🔼(cūbhayaṃ)
by homeless wanderer | as well as

ca + ubhayaṃ
→ (c +a) + (u) + bhayaṃ (rule 10)
→ c + (a + u) + bhayaṃ (rule 12)
→ c + (u→ū) + bhayaṃ (rule 15)
→ (c + ū) + bhayaṃ (rule 11)
→ cūbhayaṃ

snp3.9#40.2

Counter examples

⛔️

pañcahupāli aṅgehi samannāgato

⚧③⨂(pañca) 🚹⓪⨀(upāli) 🚻③⨂(aṅga) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata)
with five | Upāli| | with limb | endowed with

pañcahi + upāli
→ pañca + (h + i) + (u) + pāli (rule 10)
→ pañca + h + (i + u) + pāli (rule 12)
→ pañca + (h + u) + pāli (rule 11)
→ pañcahupāli

dn4#13.10

⛔️

natthaññaṃ kiñci

▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚻①⨀(añña) 🚻①⨀(kaci)
there is not | another | something

natthi + aññaṃ
→ nat + (th + i) + (a) + ññaṃ (rule 10)
→ nat + th + (i + a) + ññaṃ (rule 12)
→ nat + (th + a) + ññaṃ (rule 11)
→ natthaññaṃ

16 [R18] And (when following vowel elided), previous (vowel becomes long)

𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 (pubbo ca) vidhi apavāda

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A vowel, when the following vowel has been elided, occasionally becomes long.

Pubbo ca saro parasaralope kate kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti.

𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑀭𑀮𑁄𑀧𑁂 𑀓𑀢𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

पुब्बो च सरो परसरलोपे कते क्वचि दीघं पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

kiṃ sūdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ

su + idha
→ (s + u) + (i) + dha (rule 10)
→ s + (u + i) + dha (rule 13)
→ s + (u→ū) + dha (rule 16)
→ (s + ū) + dha (rule 11)
→ sūdha

snp1.10#6.1

✅

sādhūti paṭissuṇitvā

🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🔼(iti) 🔼(paṭissuṇitvā)
auspicious | like this | having agreed

sādhu + iti
→ sā + (dh + u) + (i) + ti (rule 10)
→ sā + dh + (u + i) + ti (rule 13)
→ sā + dh + (u→ū) + ti (rule 16)
→ sā + (dh + ū) + ti (rule 11)
→ sādhūti

dn23#6.19

Counter example

⛔️

itissa muhuttampi

🔼(iti) ⏯🤟⨀(assa) 🚹②⨀(muhutta) 🔼(api)
like this | will be | moment | just

iti + assa
→ i + (t + i) + (a + s) + sa (rule 10)
→ i + t + (i + a) + s + sa (rule 13)
→ i + (t + i + s) + sa (rule 11)
→ itissa

pli-tv-bi-pm#224.1

17 [R19] (Occasionally, previous syllable) ending with e, replace with “y”

𑀬𑀫𑁂𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 (yamedantassādeso) vidhi apavāda

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When (previous syllable) ends with “e”, followed by another vowel, the “e” is replaced with “y”.

Ekārassa antabhūtassa sare pare kvaci yakārādeso hoti.

𑀏𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

एकारस्स अन्तभूतस्स सरे परे क्वचि यकारादेसो होति।

Examples

✅

adhigato kho myāyaṃ dhammo

🚹①⨀(adhigata) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(dhamma)
achieved | indeed | by me | this | character

me + ayaṃ
→ (m + e) + (a) + yaṃ (rule 10)
→ m + (e→y + a) + yaṃ (rule 17)
→ m + (y + a→ā) + yaṃ (rule 15)
→ m + (y + ā) + yaṃ (rule 11)
→ myāyaṃ

dn14#3.4.5

✅

tyāhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ

🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔵⏯👆⨀(vadati)
you | I | thus | will speak

te + ahaṃ
→ (t + e) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
→ t + (e→y + a) + haṃ (rule 17)
→ t + (y + a→ā) + haṃ (rule 15)
→ t + (y + ā) + haṃ (rule 11)
→ tyāhaṃ

mn3#3.4

✅

tyāssa pahīnā honti

🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚹①⨂(pahīna) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti)
they | of this | given up | are

te + assa
→ (t + e) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ t + (e→y + a) + ssa (rule 17)
→ t + (y + a→ā) + ssa (rule 15)
→ t + (y + ā) + ssa (rule 11)
→ tyāssa

mn111#8.2

Counter example

⛔️

ne’nāgatā, iti nettha

🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(anāgata) 🔼(iti) 🔼(nettha)
those | not present | like this | not in this case

ne + anāgata
→ (n + e) + (a) + nāgata (rule 10)
→ n + (e + a) + nāgata (rule 13)
→ (n + e) + nāgata (rule 11)
→ nenāgata

18 [R20] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “o” or “u” ending, (replace with) “v”

𑀯𑀁 𑀑𑀤𑀼𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 (vaṃ odudantānaṃ) vidhi apavāda

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    space:2
    
      After("v")
      class After post
      
    
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When (previous syllable) ends with “o” or ”u”, followed by another vowel, the “o” or “u” is replaced with “v”.

Okārukārānaṃ antabhūtānaṃ sare pare kvaci vakārādeso hoti.

𑀑𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀼𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀯𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

ओकारुकारानं अन्तभूतानं सरे परे क्वचि वकारादेसो होति।

Examples

✅

atha khvassa

🔼(atha kho) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
after that | of this

kho + assa
→ (kh + o) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ kh + (o→v + a) + ssa (rule 18)
→ kh + (v + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ khvassa

sn22.89#12.3

✅

svassa hoti

🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
that | of this | is

so + assa
→ (s + o) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ s + (o→v + a) + ssa (rule 18)
→ s + (v + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ svassa

mn117#9.1

✅

bahvābādho

🚹①⨀(bahvābādha)
sickly

bahu + ābādho
→ ba + (h + u) + (ā) + bādho (rule 10)
→ ba + h + (u→v + ā) + bādho (rule 18)
→ ba + (h + v + ā) + bādho (rule 11)
→ bahvābādho

mn85#56.7

✅

vatthvettha vihitaṃ niccaṃ cakkhāpāthamāgacchati

vatthu + ettha
→ vat + (th + u) + (e + t) + tha (rule 10)
→ vat + th + (u→v + e) + t + tha (rule 18)
→ vat + (th + v + e + t) + tha (rule 11)
→ vatthvettha

Counter examples

⛔️

cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā

🚹①⨂(catu) 🚹①⨂(ima) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(dhamma)
four | these | bhikkhave | teachings

cattāro + ime
→ cattā + (r + o) + (i) + me (rule 10)
→ cattā + r + (o + i) + me (rule 13)
→ cattā + (r + o) + me (rule 11)
→ cattārome

an4.189#1.1

⛔️

kinnumāva samaṇiyo

🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(nu mā va) 🚹①⨀(samaṇiya)
who | ? | do not | like | a monastic

kiṃ + nu + imā
→ kiṃ + (n + u) + (i) + mā (rule 10)
→ kiṃ + n + (u + i) + mā (rule 13)
→ kiṃ + (n + u) + mā (rule 11)
→ kinnumā

pli-tv-bi-pm#28.2

19 [R22] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “ti”, (replace with) “c”

𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 (sabbo canti) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["sabbo ti"] space:2 caṃ space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
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The entire “ti” sound/consonant, when followed by another vowel, occasionally becomes “c”.

Sabbo (icceso) tisaddo byañjano sare pare kvaci cakāraṃ pappoti.

𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 (𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀲𑁄) 𑀢𑀺𑀲𑀤𑁆𑀤𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀘𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

सब्बो (इच्चेसो) तिसद्दो ब्यञ्जनो सरे परे क्वचि चकारं पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

iccetaṃ kusalaṃ

🔼(iti etaṃ) 🚻①⨀(kusala)
like this | thus | wholesome

iti + etaṃ
→ i + (ti→c) + (e) + taṃ (rule 19)
→ i + (c→cc) + (e) + taṃ (rule 28)
→ i + (cc + e) + taṃ (rule 11)
→ iccetaṃ

mn125#4.4

✅

iccassa vacanīyaṃ

🔼(iti) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(vacanīya)
like this | of this | should be said

iti + assa
→ i + (ti→c) + (a) + ssa (rule 19)
→ i + (c→cc) + (a) + ssa (rule 28)
→ i + (cc + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ iccassa

dn15#2.2

✅

(paccuttaritvā)

🔼(paccuttaritvā)
having come out

pati + uttaritvā
→ pa + (ti→c) + (u) + ttaritvā (rule 19)
→ pa + (c→cc) + u + ttaritvā (rule 28)
→ pa + (cc + u) + ttaritvā (rule 11)
→ paccuttaritvā

sn1.20#1.4

✅

paccāharati

▶️🤟⨀(paccāharati)
brings back

pati + aharati
→ pa + (ti→c) + (a) + harati (rule 19)
→ pa + (c→cc) + a + harati (rule 28)
→ pa + cc + (a->ā) + harati (rule 15)
→ pa + (cc + ā) + harati (rule 11)
→ paccāharati

pli-tv-pvr1.2#10.2

Counter example

⛔️

itissa muhuttampi

🔼(iti) ⏯🤟⨀(assa) 🚹②⨀(muhutta) 🔼(api)
like this | will be | moment | just

iti + assa
→ i + (t + i) + (a + s) + sa (rule 10)
→ i + t + (i + a) + s + sa (rule 13)
→ i + (t + i + s) + sa (rule 11)
→ itissa

pli-tv-bi-pm#224.1

20 [R27] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “dha”, (replace with) “d”

𑀤𑁄 𑀥𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 (do dhassa ca)² vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["dhassa ca"] space:2 do space space space

  
    space
  
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“Dha”, followed by another vowel, occasionally is replaced with “d”.

Dhaiccetassa sare pare kvaci dakārādeso hoti.

𑀥𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

धैच्चेतस्स सरे परे क्वचि दकारादेसो होति।

Example

✅

ekamidāhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ

🚻①⨀(eka) 🔼(idha) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(samaya)
one | here | I | bhikkhave | occasion

idha + ahaṃ
→ i + (dha→d) + (a) + haṃ (rule 20)
→ i + d + (a→ā) + haṃ (rule 15)
→ i + (d + ā) + haṃ (rule 11)
→ idāhaṃ

dn14#3.29.1

Counter example

⛔️

idheva (me) maraṇaṃ bhavissati

🔼(idheva) 🚻①⨀(maraṇa) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati)
right here | death | will become

idha + eva
→ i + (dh + a) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ i + dh + (a + e) + va (rule 12)
→ i + (dh + e) + va (rule 11)
→ idheva

mn82#7.22

Additional

Instead of “v”, “dha” is occasionally replaced with “h”.

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Example

✅

sāhu dassana mariyānaṃ

🔼(sāhu) 🚻①⨀(dassana) 🚹⑥⨂(ariya)
excellent | appearance of | Buddha

sādhu
→ sā + (dh→h) + u (rule 20)
→ sā + (h + u) (rule 11)
→ sāhu

dhp206

Additional

Additional substitutions:

d → t
t → ṭ
t → dh
tt → tr
g → t
r → l
y → j
v → bb
y → k
j → y
t → k
tt → cc
p → ph
k → kh

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block:operation1:4
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  class Next1 context


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  class Next4 context


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  class Next5 context


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  space



  space

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    Before6["r"]
    class Before6 pre
  
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  Before6--"ādesa"-->After6
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  class Next6 context


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  Before7--"ādesa"-->After7
end

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  class Next7 context


  space


  space



  space

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    class Before8 pre
  
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  Before8--"ādesa"-->After8
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  class Next8 context


  space


  space



  space

block:operation9:4
  columns 4
  
    Before9["y"]
    class Before9 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After9["k"]
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  Before9--"ādesa"-->After9
end

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  class Next9 context


  space


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  space

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  space

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  class Next11 context


  space


  space



  space

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  space:2
  
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  Before12--"ādesa"-->After12
end

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  class Next12 context


  space


  space



  space

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    class Before13 pre
  
  space:2
  
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  Before13--"ādesa"-->After13
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  class Next13 context


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  space

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Additional examples

✅

d → t: sugato

🔼(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(da) 🔼(yathā) 🚹①⨀(sugata)
“ta” | of “d” | for example | fortunate one

su + gado
→ su + ga + (d→t + o) (rule 20)
→ sugato

an8.86#3.1

✅

t → ṭ: dukkaṭaṃ

🚻①⨀(dukkaṭa)
wrong action

dukkataṃ
→ dukka + (t→ṭ + a + ṃ) (rule 20)
→ dukkaṭaṃ

dn11#83.10

✅

t → dh: gandhabbo

🚹①⨀(gandhabba)
demigod

gantabbo
→ gan + (t→dh + a) + bbo (rule 20)
→ gandhabbo

dn20#10.9

✅

tt → tr: atrajo

🚹①⨀(atraja)
born from oneself

attajo
→ at + (tt→tr + a) + jo (rule 20)
→ atrajo

bv10#18.4

✅

g → t: kulūpako

🚹①⨀(kulūpaka)
one who approaches families

kulūpago
→ kulūpa + (g→k + o) (rule 20)
→ kulūpako

mn22#13.26

✅

r → l: mahāsālo

🚹①⨀(mahāsāla)
having immense wealth

mahāsāro
→ mahāsā (r→l + o) (rule 20)
→ mahāsālo

an5.40#1.1

✅

y → j: gavajo

🚹①⨀(gavaja)
species of ox

gavayo
→ gava + (y→j + o) (rule 20)
→ gavajo

ja535#76.1

✅

v → bb: kubbato

🚹④⨀(kubbanta)
for one doing

kuvato
→ ku + (v→bb + a) + to (rule 20)
→ kubbato

an3.57#9.2

✅

y → k: sake

🚹②⨂(saka)
one’s own

saye
→ sa + (y→k +e) (rule 20)
→ sake

dn12#7.1

✅

j → y: niyaṃputtaṃ

🚻①⨀(niya) 🚻①⨀(putta)
one’s own | child

nijaṃputtaṃ
→ ni + (j→y + a) + ṃputtaṃ (rule 20)
→ niyaṃputtaṃ

kp9#7.1

✅

t → k: niyako

🚹①⨀(niyaka)
one’s own

niyato
→ niya + (t→k + o) (rule 20)
→ niyako

dn16#2.8.4

✅

tt → cc: bhacco

🚹①⨀(bhacca)
dependant

bhatto
→ bha ++ (tt→cc + o) (rule 20)
→ bhacco

dn2#8.1

✅

p → ph: nipphatti

🚺①⨀(nipphatti)
success

nippatti
→ nip + (p→ph + a) + tti (rule 20)
→ nipphatti

ne13#3.3

✅

k → kh: nikkhamati

▶️🤟⨀(nikkhamati)
leaves

nikkamati
→ nik + (k→kh + a) + mati (rule 20)
→ nikkhamati

dn14#1.25.1

21 [R21] Rarely, (previous) phoneme with “i” becomes “y”

𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁄 𑀬𑀁 𑀦𑀯𑀸 (ivaṇṇo yaṃ navā)³ vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space ivaṇṇo space:2 yaṃ space navā space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("i")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("y")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
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    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"navā"\]
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Rarely, the “i” phoneme, followed by another vowel, is replaced with “y”.

Pubbo ivaṇṇo sare pare yakāraṃ pappoti navā.

𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀯𑀸𑁇

पुब्बो इवण्णो सरे परे यकारं पप्पोति नवा।

Examples

✅

paṭisanthāravutyassa

🔼(paṭisanthāravutyassa)
one should have a friendly disposition

vutti + assa
→ vut + (t + i) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ vut + t + (i→y) + a + ssa (rule 21)
→ vut + (t + y + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ vutyassa

dhp376

✅

sabbā vityānubhūyate

🚺①⨀(sabba) 🚺①⨀(vitti) 🔼(anu) | 🔵▶️🤟⨀(bhūyati)
all | joy | following | is becoming

vitti + anu
→ vit + (t + i) + (a) + nu (rule 10)
→ vit + t + (i→y) + a + nu (rule 21)
→ vit + t + y + (a→ā) + nu (rule 15)
→ vit + (t + y + ā) + nu (rule 11)
→ vityānu

Counter examples

⛔️

pañcahaṅgehi samannāgato

⚧③⨂(pañca) 🚻③⨂(aṅga) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata)
with 5 | with limbs | endowed with

pañcahi + aṅgehi
→ pañca + (h + i) + (a + ṅ) + gehi (rule 10)
→ pañca + h + (i + a) + ṅ + gehi (rule 12)
→ pañca + (h + a + ṅ) + gehi (rule 11)
→ pañcahaṅgehi

mn85#56.17

⛔️

muttacāgī anuddhato

🚺①⨀(mutti) 🚺①⨀(cāgī) 🚹①⨀(anuddhata)
freely | donates | not arrogant

mutti + cāgī
→ mut + (t + i) + (c + ā) + gī (rule 10)
→ mut + t + (i→a + c) + ā + gī (rule 27)
→ mut + (t + a) + (c + ā) + gī (rule 11)
→ muttacāgī

22 [R28] (Rarely,) previous (long vowel followed by) “eva” becomes “riva”, and previous (vowel) becomes short

𑀏𑀯𑀸𑀤𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀭𑀺 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 (evādissa ri pubbo ca rasso)⁴ vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["pubbo evādissa"] space:2 x2["ri ca rasso"] space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara,eva")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("rassa,riva")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"navā"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Rarely, after another (long) vowel followed by “eva”, “e” becomes “ri”, and previous vowel becomes short.

Saramhā parassa evassa ekārassa ādissa rikāro hoti, pubbo ca saro rasso hoti navā.

𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀏𑀯𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀏𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀆𑀤𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀭𑀺𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺, 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀯𑀸𑁇

सरम्हा परस्स एवस्स एकारस्स आदिस्स रिकारो होति, पुब्बो च सरो रस्सो होति नवा।

Examples

✅

yathariva vasudhātalañca sabbaṃ

🔼(yathariva) 🚺①⨀(vasudhā) 🚻①⨀(tala) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨀(sabba)
just as | earth level | and | entire

yathā + eva
→ yath + (ā→a) + (e→ri) + va (rule 22)
→ ya + (th + a) + ri + va (rule 11)
→ yathariva

dn29#27.3

✅

tathariva guṇavā supūjaniyo

🔼(tathariva) 🚹①⨀(guṇavant) 🔼(su) 🚹①⨀(pūjaniya)
like this | one who is virtuous | well | worthy of veneration

tathā + eva
→ tath + (ā→a) + (e→ri) + va (rule 22)
→ ta + (th + a) + ri + va (rule 11)
→ tathariva

Counter examples

⛔️

yathā eva

🔼(yathā) 🔼(eva)
like | only

No sandhi.

⛔️

tathā eva

🚹①⨂(tatha) 🔼(eva)
true | only

No sandhi.

Most translations interpret sarā as plural in case ① but I have chosen to interpret this as singular in case ⑤. ↩︎
The ca is not intended to be an option marker, but is probably intended as a continuation or extension of the previous rule. In any case, the commentary indicates the relevant option marker is kvaci. ↩︎
navā is generally interpreted by most translations (and also other grammatical books) to be an alternative to kvaci, to cancel out kvaci in the preceeding rule, however, I have decided to interpret it as a more restrictive form of optionality, hence have translated it as “rarely”. In any case, the vutti for rule 22 continues the use of navā as the applicable option marker, hence I believe it has a different meaning than kvaci. ↩︎
I have interpreted ca not as an option marker but an intention to signify two operations are included in this rule: a transformation of eva into riva as well as a shortening of the preceeding long vowel. The relevant option marker is navā inherited from the previous rule, which is made clear in the vutti. ↩︎

3.3 - 1.3 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Tatiyakaṇḍa) - Consonant Sandhi

This section describes byañjanasandhi (when a word ending with a vowel is joined to a word ending with a consonant).

23 [R26] vowel + consonant: original form

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀧𑀓𑀢𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 (sarā pakati byañjane) vidhi utsarga

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space sarā pakati:2 space byañjane space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("(sara)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Vowel, followed by another consonant, retains original form.

Sarā kho byañjane pare pakatirūpāni honti.

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀓𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸𑀦𑀺 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे पकतिरूपानि होन्ति।

Examples

✅

manopubbaṅgamā dhammā

🚹①⨂(manopubbaṅgama) 🚹①⨂(dhamma)
led by mind | nature

mano + pubbaṅgamā
→ manopubbaṅgamā
(no sandhi)

dhp1

✅

pamādo maccuno padaṃ

🚹①⨀(pamāda) 🚹⑥⨀(maccu) 🚻①⨀(pada)
carelessness | of death | way

(no sandhi)

dhp21

✅

tiṇṇo pāraṅgato ahu

🚹①⨀(tiṇṇa) 🚹①⨀(pāraṅgata) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
crossed over | reached the other shore | became

(no sandhi)

an4.5#4.1

24 [R35] (vowel +) vowel, occasionally (: original form)

𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 (sare kvaci) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space space:2 space sare kvaci space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("(sara)")
      class After post0
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Vowel followed by another vowel occasionally retains original form.

Sarā kho sare pare kvaci pakatirūpāni honti.

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀧𑀓𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸𑀦𑀺 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरा खो सरे परे क्वचि पकतिरूपानि होन्ति।

Example

✅

ko imaṃ pathaviṃ vicessati

🚹①⨀(ka) 🚺②⨀(ima) 🚺②⨀(pathavī) ⏭🤟⨀(vicessati)
who | this | earth | understand

(no sandhi)

dhp44

Counter Example

⛔️

appassutāyaṃ puriso

🚹①⨀(appassuta) 🚹①⨀(purisa)
ignorant | person

appassuto + ayaṃ
→ appassu + (t + o) + (a) + yaṃ (rule 10)
→ appassu + t + (~~o + a) + yaṃ (rule 12)
→ appassu + t + (a→ā) + yaṃ (rule 15)
→ appassu + (t + ā) + yaṃ (rule 11)
→ appassutāyaṃ

dhp146

25 [R37] (vowel + consonant, vowel becomes) long (occasionally)

𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 (dīghaṃ) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space dīghaṃ:2 space space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("sara (dīghaṃ)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"dīghaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Vowel, followed by another consonant, occasionally becomes long.

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci dīghaṃ papponti.

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि दीघं पप्पोन्ति।

Examples

✅

sammā dhammaṃ vipassato

🔼(samma) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🚹⑥⨀(vipassanta)
friend | nature | seeing deeply into

samma + dhammaṃ
→ samm + (a→ā) + dhammaṃ (rule 25)
→ sammādhammaṃ

dhp360

✅

evaṃ gāme munī care

🔼(evaṃ) 🚹②⨂(gāma) 🚹①⨂(muni) 🚹②⨂(cara)
thus | village | sage | wandering

muni + care
→ mun + (i→ī) + care (rule 25)
→ munīcare

dhp44

✅

khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā

🚺①⨀(khanti) 🚻①⨀(parama) 🚹①⨀(tapa) 🚹①⨂(titikkha)
patience | highest | religious practice | enduring

khanti + paramaṃ
→ khant (i→ī) + paramaṃ (rule 25)
khantīparamaṃ

dhp179

Counter Examples

⛔️

idha modati pecca modati

🔼(idha) ▶️🤟⨀(modati) 🔼(pecca) ▶️🤟⨀(modati)
here | is glad | after death | is glad

(no sandhi)

dhp11

⛔️

patilīyati

▶️🤟⨀(patilīyati)
withdraws from

pati + līyati
(no sandhi)

sn8.2#3.3

⛔️

paṭihaññati

▶️🤟⨀(paṭihaññati)
is struck

paṭi + haññati (no sandhi)

mn130#17.1

26 [R38] (vowel + consonant, vowel becomes) short (occasionally)

𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀁 (rassaṃ) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space rassaṃ:2 space space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("sara (rassaṃ)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"rassaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Vowel, followed by another consonant, occasionally becomes short.

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci rassaṃ papponti.

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि रस्सं पप्पोन्ति।

Examples

✅

bhovādināma so hoti

🚹①⨀(bhovādī) 🔼(nāma) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
Brahman | certainly | he | is

bhovādī + nāma
→ bhovād + (ī→i) + nāma (rule 26)
→ bhovādināma

mn98#11.3

✅

bhovādināma so hoti

🚹①⨀(bhovādī) 🔼(nāma) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
Brahman | certainly | he | is

bhovādī + nāma
→ bhovād + (ī→i) + nāma (rule 26)
→ bhovādināma

mn98#11.3

✅

yathābhāvi guṇena so

🔼(yathā) 🚹①⨀(bhāvī) 🚹③⨀(guṇa) 🚹①⨀(ta)
like | predestined | by virtue | that

yathā + bhāvi
→ yath (ā→a) + bhāvi (rule 26)
→ yathabhāvi

Counter Examples

⛔️

sammāsamādhi

🚹①⨀(sammāsamādhi)
right mental composure

sammā + samādhi
(no sandhi)

dn6#14.5

⛔️

sammāsamādhi

🚹①⨀(sammāsamādhi)
right mental composure

sammā + samādhi
(no sandhi)

dn6#14.5

⛔️

sāvittī chandaso mukhaṃ

🚺①⨂(sāvitti) 🚹⑥⨀(chandas) 🚻①⨀(mukha)
Sāvittī (sun god) | of metre | opening

sāvittī + chandaso
(no sandhi)

mn92#26.2

⛔️

upanīyati jīvitamappamāyu

▶️🤟⨀(upanīyati) 🚻⓪⨀(jīvita) 🚹①⨀(appamāyu)
is lead to the end | existence | short-lived

jīvita + appamāyu
→ jīvita + (m)+ appamāyu (rule 35)
→ jīvitamappamāyu

sn1.3#2.1

27 [R39] (vowel + consonant, vowel is) elided, replaced by “a” (occasionally)

𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 (lopañca tatrākāro) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space lopañca:2 tatrākāro space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("a")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Vowel, followed by another consonant, occasionally becomes elided. In the place of the completed elision, the letter “a” is inserted.

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ papponti. Tatra ca lope kate akārāgamo hoti.

𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭 𑀘 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑁂 𑀓𑀢𑁂 𑀅𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि लोपं पप्पोन्ति। तत्र च लोपे कते अकारागमो होति।

Examples

✅

sa sīlavā

🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(sīlava)
that | Sīlava

so + sīlavā
→ (s + o) + (s + ī) + lavā (rule 10)
→ s + (oa + s) + ī + lavā (rule 27)
→ (s + a) + (s + ī) + lavā (rule 11)
→ sasīlavā

dhp84

✅

sa paññavā

🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(paññava)
he | intelligent

so + paññavā
→ (s + o) + (p + a) + ññavā (rule 10)
→ s + (oa + p) + a + ññavā (rule 27)
→ (s + a) + (p + a) + ññavā (rule 11)
→ sapaññavā

dhp84

✅

esa dhammo sanantano

🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(dhamma) 🚹①⨀(sanantana)
this | doctrine | everlasting

eso + dhammo
→ e + (s + o) + (dh + a) + mmo (rule 10)
→ e + s + (oa + dh) + a + mmo (rule 27)
→ e + (s + a) + (dh + a) + mmo (rule 11)
→ sasīlavā

mn128#6.20

✅

sa ve kasāvamarahati

🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(ve) 🚻①⨀(kasāva) ▶️🤟⨀(arahati)
that | truly | brown | is suitable

so + ve
→ (s + o) + (v + e) (rule 10)
→ s + (oa + v) + e (rule 27)
→ (s + a) + (v + e) (rule 11)
→ save

thag17.1#22.4

✅

sa mānakāmopi bhaveyya

🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(mānakāmopi) ⏯🤟⨀(bhavati)
he | who is proud | will be

so + mānakāmopi
→ (s + o) + (m + ā) + nakāmopi (rule 10)
→ s + (oa + m) + ā + nakāmopi (rule 27)
→ (s + a) + (m + ā) + nakāmopi (rule 11)
→ samānakāmopi

✅

sa ve muni jātibhayaṃ adassi

🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(ve) 🚹①⨀(muni) 🚻①⨀(jātibhaya) ⏮🤟⨀(adassi)
that | truly | sage | danger of rebirth | has seen

so + ve
→ (s + o) + (v + e) (rule 10)
→ s + (oa + v) + e (rule 27)
→ (s + a) + (v + e) (rule 11)
→ save

snp1.12#3.3

Counter Examples

⛔️

so muni

🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(muni)
that | sage

so + muni
(no sandhi)

sn4.6#4.2

⛔️

eso dhammo padissati

🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(dhamma) ▶️🤟⨀(padissati)
this doctrine | is seen

eso + dhammo
(no sandhi)

mn139#13.36

⛔️

na so kāsāvamarahati

🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(kāsāvamarahati)
no | he | is worthy of the monk’s robe

so + kāsāvamarahati
(no sandhi)

dhp7

28 [R40] (vowel + consonant), next (consonant) doubled appropriately

𑀧𑀭 𑀤𑁆𑀯𑁂𑀪𑀸𑀯𑁄 𑀞𑀸𑀦𑁂 (para dvebhāvo ṭhāne) vidhi apavāda

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From vowel, next consonant is doubled appropriately.

Saramhā parassa byañjanassa dvebhāvo hoti ṭhāne.

𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀤𑁆𑀯𑁂𑀪𑀸𑀯𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀞𑀸𑀦𑁂𑁇

सरम्हा परस्स ब्यञ्जनस्स द्वेभावो होति ठाने।

Examples

✅

idhappamādo

🔼(idha) 🚹①⨀(pamāda)
here | negligence

idha + pamādo
→ i + (dh + a) + (p + a) + mādo (rule 10)
→ i + dh + (a + p→pp) + a + mādo (rule 28)
→ i + (dh + a) + (pp + a) + mādo (rule 11)
→ idhappamādo

✅

purisassa jantuno

🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚹⑥⨀(jantu)
of person | of being

purisa + sa
→ puri + (s + a) + (s + a) (rule 10)
→ puri + s + (a + s→ss) + a (rule 28)
→ puri + (s + a) + (ss + a) (rule 11)
→ purisassa

✅

pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi

🚺②⨀(pabbajjā) ⏭👆⨀(kittayati)
renunciation | I declare

pa + bajjaṃ
→ (p + a) + (b + a) + jjaṃ (rule 10)
→ p + (a + b→bb) + a + jjaṃ (rule 28)
→ (p + a) + (bb + a) + jjaṃ (rule 11)
→ pabbajjaṃ

snp3.1#1.1

✅

cātuddasi

🚺⓪⨀(cātuddasī)
fourteenth day of lunar fortnight

cātu + dasi
→ cā + (t + u) + (d + a) + si (rule 10)
→ cā + t + (u + d→dd) + a + si (rule 28)
→ cā + (t + u) + (dd + a) + si (rule 11)
→ cātuddasi

mn4#20.3

✅

pañcaddasi

🚺⓪⨀(pañcaddasī) fifteenth day of lunar fortnight pañca + dasi → pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 10)
→ pañ + c + (a + d→dd) + a + si (rule 28)
→ pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 11)
→ pañcaddasi

mn83#3.3

✅

pañcaddasi

🚺⓪⨀(pañcaddasī) fifteenth pañca + dasi → pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 10)
→ pañ + c + (a + d→dd) + a + si (rule 28)
→ pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 11)
→ pañcaddasi

mn83#3.3

✅

abhikkantataro cando

🚹①⨀(abhikkantatara) 🚹①⨀(canda)
more brilliant than | moon

abhi + kantataro
→ abhi + kantataro
→ abh + (i) + (k + a +n) + tataro (rule 10)
→ abh + (i + k→kk) + a +n + tataro (rule 28)
→ abh + (i) + (kk + a +n) + tataro (rule 11)
→ abhikkantataro

mn79#16.3

Counter Example

⛔️

idha modati pecca modati

🔼(idha) ▶️🤟⨀(modati) 🔼(pecca) ▶️🤟⨀(modati)
here | is glad | after death | is glad

(no sandhi)

dhp11

29 [R42] (vowel + ) voiced or unvoiced group (consonant), first and third letters (doubled appropriately)

𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑁂 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀸 (vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā) vidhi apavāda

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In a consonant following a vowel, the consonant prior in sequence within the group (voiced or unvoiced) corresponding to the third and first letters in that group, are doubled appropriately.

Vagge kho pubbesaṃ byañjanānaṃ ghosāghosabhūtānaṃ saramhā yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiyapaṭhamakkharā dvebhāvaṃ gacchanti ṭhāne.

𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑁂 𑀔𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁂𑀲𑀁 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀬𑀣𑀸𑀲𑀗𑁆𑀔𑁆𑀬𑀁 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀤𑁆𑀯𑁂𑀪𑀸𑀯𑀁 𑀕𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀞𑀸𑀦𑁂𑁇

वग्गे खो पुब्बेसं ब्यञ्जनानं घोसाघोसभूतानं सरम्हा यथासङ्ख्यं ततियपठमक्खरा द्वेभावं गच्छन्ति ठाने।

Examples

✅

eseva cajjhānapphalo

🔼(eseva ca) 🚻⓪⨀(jhāna) ⏮🤘⨀(phali)
just this | jhāna | bore fruit

ca + jhāna + phalo
→ (c + a) + (jh + ā) + (n + a) + (ph + a) + lo (rule 10)
→ c + (a + jh→jjh) + ā + n + (a + ph→pph) + a + lo (rule 29)
→ (c + a) + (jjh + ā) + (n + a) + (pph + a) + lo (rule 11)
→ cajjhānapphalo

Note: the consonant “jh” is the fourth (voiced) consonant in the “c” group of letters (ca cha ja jha ña), so the consonant prior to it in the group is the “j” consonant (third consonant in the group). This is inserted prior to “jh” creating a doubling of “j”: “jj”. Similarly, the “ph” consonant is the second (unvoiced) consonant in the “p” group of letters (pa pha ba bha ma), which results in a doubling of “p” (the first consonant in the group).

✅

yatraṭṭhitaṃ nappasaheyya maccu

🚻①⨀(yatraṭṭhita) ⏯🤟⨀(nappasahati) 🚹①⨀(maccu)
where remaining | does not overpower | death

yatra + ṭhita
→ ya + (tr + a) + (ṭh + i) + taṃ (rule 10)
→ ya + tr + (a + ṭh→ṭṭh) + i + taṃ (rule 29)
→ ya + (tr + a) + (ṭṭh + i) + taṃ (rule 11)
→ yatraṭṭhitaṃ

Note: the consonant “ṭh” is the second (unvoiced) consonant in the “ṭ” group of letters (ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa), so the consonant prior to it in the group is the “ṭ” consonant (first consonant in the group). This is inserted prior to “ṭh” creating a doubling of “ṭ”: “ṭṭ”.

dn22#6.1

✅

sele yathā pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito

🚹②⨂(sela) 🔼(yathā) 🚹⑦⨀(pabbatamuddha) 🚹①⨀(ṭhita)
rock | as per | on top of mountain | standing

pabbatamuddhani + ṭhito
→ pabbatamuddha + (n + i) + (ṭh + i) + to (rule 10)
→ pabbatamuddha + n + (i + ṭh→ṭṭh) + i + to (rule 29)
→ pabbatamuddha + (n + i) + (ṭṭh + i) + to (rule 11)
→ pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito

dn14#3.7.2

✅

cattāriṭṭhānāni naro pamatto

🚻①⨂(catu) 🚻①⨂(ṭhāna) 🚹①⨀(nara) 🚹①⨀(pamatta)
four | grounds | man | careless

cattāri + ṭhānāni
→ cattā (r +i) + (ṭh + ā) + nāni (rule 10)
→ cattā r +(i + ṭh→ṭṭh) + ā + nāni (rule 29)
→ cattā (r +i) + (ṭṭh + ā) + nāni (rule 11)
→ cattāriṭṭhānāni

Counter Example

⛔️

idha cetaso daḷhaṃ gaṇhāti thāmasā

🔼(idha) 🚹⑥⨀(cetas) 🚹②⨀(daḷha) ▶️🤟⨀(gaṇhāti) 🚹③⨀(thāmas)
here | of intention | steady | seizes | with strength

idha + cetaso + daḷhaṃ
(no sandhi)

dhp94

3.4 - 1.4 𑀘𑀢𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Catutthakaṇḍa) - Niggahita Sandhi

This section describes niggahitasandhi (when a niggahita is joined to another letter).

30 [R58] “aṃ” before consonant (remains) niggahita

𑀅𑀁𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 (aṃbyañjane niggahitaṃ) vidhi utsarga

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Niggahita before other consonant remains as “aṃ”.

Niggahitaṃ kho byañjane pare aṃ iti hoti.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀁 𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

निग्गहितं खो ब्यञ्जने परे अं इति होति।

Examples

✅

evaṃ vutte

🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(vutta)
thus | said

evaṃ + vutte
(no sandhi)

snp1.7#3.1

✅

taṃ sādhūti paṭissuṇitvā

🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🔼(iti) 🔼(paṭissuṇitvā)
that | auspicious | like this | having agreed

taṃ + sādhūti
(no sandhi)

31 [R49] Optionally, (niggahita changes to) end consonant in group, before (consonant in that) group

𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀁 𑀯𑀸 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑁂 (vaggantaṃ vā vagge) vidhi apavāda

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Following a consonant existing in a group, the niggahita becomes the end consonant in that group.

Vaggabhūte byañjane pare niggahitaṃ kho vaggantaṃ vā pappoti.

𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀪𑀽𑀢𑁂 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀁 𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

वग्गभूते ब्यञ्जने परे निग्गहितं खो वग्गन्तं वा पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

tanniccutaṃ

🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(ni) 🚻①⨀(cuta)
that | out | died

taṃ + ni + cutaṃ
→ (ta + ṃ) + (n + i) + (c + u) + taṃ (rule 10)
→ ta + (ṃ→n + n) + i + c + u + taṃ (rule 31)
→ ta + n + n + i + (c→cc + u) + taṃ (rule 28)
→ (ta + n) + (n + i) + (cc + u) + taṃ (rule 11)
→ tanniccutaṃ

n is the last consonant in the group starting with “t” (ta tha da dha na)

✅

dhammañcare sucaritaṃ

🚻①⨀(dhamma) 🔵▶️👆⨀(carati) 🚻①⨀(sucarita)
dhamma | I practice | moral

dhammaṃ + care
→ dham + (ma + ṃ) + (c + a) + re (rule 10)
→ dham + ma + (ṃ→ñ + c) + a + re (rule 31)
→ dham + (ma + ñ) + (c + a) + re (rule 11)
→ dhammañcare

ñ is the last consonant in the group starting with “c” (ca cha ja jha ña)

✅

cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ

🚻①⨀(cirappavāsī) 🚻①⨀(purisa)
who is long absent from home | person

ciraṃ + pavāsīṃ
→ ci + (r + a + ṃ) + (p +a) + vāsīṃ (rule 10)
→ ci + r + a + (ṃ→m + p) + a + vāsīṃ (rule 31)
→ ci + r + a + (m→p + p) + a + vāsīṃ (rule 35)
→ ci + (r + a + p) + (p +a) + vāsīṃ (rule 11)
→ cirappavāsiṃ

m is the last consonant in the group starting with “p” (pa pha ba bha ma)

dhp217

✅

santantassa manaṃ hoti

🚻①⨀(santa) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(mana) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
of that calm | having such a mind | is

santaṃ + tassa
→ san + (t + a + ṃ) + (t + a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ san + t + a + (ṃ→n + t) + a + ssa (rule 31)
→ san + (t + a + n) + (t + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ santantassa

n is the last consonant in the group starting with “t” (ta tha da dha na)

✅

taṅkāruṇikaṃ

🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(kāruṇika)
that | compassionate

taṃ + kāruṇikaṃ
→ (ta + ṃ) + (k + ā) + ruṇikaṃ (rule 10)
→ (ta + (ṃ→ṅ + k) + ā + ruṇikaṃ (rule 31)
→ (ta + ṅ) + (k + ā) + ruṇikaṃ (rule 11)
→ taṅkāruṇikaṃ

ṅ is the last consonant in the group starting with “k” (ka kha ga gha ṅa)

✅

evaṅkho bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ

🔼(evaṃ kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(sikkhitabba)
thus | indeed | bhikkhave | should be learned

evaṃ + kho
→ e + (v + a + ṃ) + (kh + o) (rule 10)
→ e + v + a + (ṃ→ṅ + kh) + o (rule 31)
→ e + (v + a + ṅ) + (kh + o) (rule 11) → evaṅkho

ṅ is the last consonant in the group starting with “k” (ka kha ga gha ṅa)

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By not taking this optional rule, the niggahita is replaced with the letter “l”.

Vāggahaṇenaniggahitaṃ kho lakārādeso hoti.

𑀯𑀸𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀮𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

वाग्गहणेननिग्गहितं खो लकारादेसो होति।

Example

✅

pulliṅgaṃ

🚹②⨀(pulliṅga)
masculine gender

puṃ + liṅgaṃ
→ (p +u +ṃ) + (l + i) + ṅgaṃ (rule 10)
→ p +u +(ṃ→l + l) + i + ṅgaṃ (rule 31)
→ (p +u +l) + (l + i) + ṅgaṃ (rule 11)
→ pulliṅgaṃ

Counter Example

⛔️

na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu

🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(kamma) 🚻①⨀(kata) 🚹①⨀(sādhu)
no | that | karma | completed | excellent

(no sandhi)

32 [R50] (Optionally, niggahita followed by) “e” or “h” (becomes) “ñ”

𑀏𑀳𑁂 𑀜𑀁 (ehe ñaṃ) vidhi apavāda

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Optionally, the niggahita, followed by “e” or “h”, becomes “ñ”.

Ekārahakāre pare niggahitaṃ kho ñakāraṃ pappoti vā.

𑀏𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀳𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀜𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

एकारहकारे परे निग्गहितं खो ञकारं पप्पोति वा।

Examples

✅

paccattaññeva parinibbāyissāmi

🚻①⨀(paccatta) 🔼(eva) ⏭👆⨀(parinibbāyati)
individual | just | completely quenched

paccattaṃ + eva
→ paccat + (t + a + ṃ) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ paccat + t + a + (ṃ→ñ + e) + va (rule 32)
→ paccat + t + (a + ñ→ññ) + e + va (rule 28)
→ paccat + (t + a + ñ) + (ñ + e) + va (rule 11)
→ paccattaññeva

✅

taññevettha paṭipucchissāmi

🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(eva) 🔼(ettha) ⏭👆⨀(paṭipucchati)
that just | here | asks about

taṃ + eva + ettha
→ (t + a + ṃ) + (e) + (v + a) + (e) + ttha (rule 10)
→ t + a + (ṃ→ñ + e) + v + a + e + ttha (rule 32)
→ t + (a + ñ→ññ) + e + v + a + e + ttha (rule 28)
→ t + a + ñ + ñ + e + v + (a + e) + ttha (rule 12)
→ (t + a + ñ) + (ñ + e) + (v + e) + ttha (rule 11)
→ taññevettha

dn2#34.8

✅

evañhi vo bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ

🔼(evaṃ hi vo) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(sikkhitabba)
thus | certainly | surely | bhikkhave | should be practised

evaṃ + hi
→ e + (v + a + ṃ) + (h + i) (rule 10)
→ e + v + a + (ṃ→ñ + h) + i (rule 32)
→ e + (v + a + ñ) + (h + i) (rule 11)
→ evañhi

mn21#19.15

✅

tañhi tassa musā hoti

🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(hi) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🔼(musā) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
that | surely | of that | lie | is

taṃ + hi
→ (t + a + ṃ) + (h + i) (rule 10)
→ t + a + (ṃ→ñ + h) + i (rule 32)
→ (t + a + ñ) + (h + i) (rule 10)
→ tañhi

Counter Examples

⛔️

evametaṃ abhiññāya

🔼(evaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🚺③⨀(abhiñña)
thus | this | with direct knowledge

evaṃ + etaṃ
→ e + (v + a + ṃ) + (e) + taṃ (rule 10)
→ e + v + a + (ṃ→m + e) + taṃ (rule 34)
→ e + (v + a + m) + (e) + taṃ (rule 11)
→ evametaṃ

snp5.15#4.3

⛔️

evaṃ hoti subhāsitaṃ

🔼(evaṃ) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻①⨀(subhāsita)
thus | is | well spoken

(no sandhi)

33 [R50] (Optionally, niggahita) and “y” (becomes “ñ”)

𑀲𑀬𑁂 𑀘 (saye ca) vidhi apavāda

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Optionally, the niggahita, followed by “y”, together with “y” becomes “ñ”.

Niggahitaṃ kho yakāre pare saha yakārena ñakāraṃ pappoti vā.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀲𑀳 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂𑀦 𑀜𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

निग्गहितं खो यकारे परे सह यकारेन ञकारं पप्पोति वा।

Examples

✅

saññogo

🚹①⨀(saññoga)
attachment

saṃ + yogo
→ (s + a + ṃ) + (y + o) + go (rule 10)
→ s + a + (ṃ + y)→ñ + o + go (rule 33)
→ s + (a + ñ→ññ) + o + go (rule 28)
→ (s + a + ñ) + (ñ + o) + go (rule 11)
→ saññogo

✅

saññuttaṃ

🚻①⨀(saññutta)
tied

saṃ + yuttaṃ
→ (s + a +ṃ) + (y + u) + ttaṃ (rule 10)
→ s + a + (ṃ + y)→ñ + u + ttaṃ (rule 33)
→ s + (a + ñ→ññ) + u + ttaṃ (rule 28)
→ (s + a +ñ) + (ñ + u) + ttaṃ (rule 11)
→ saññuttaṃ

thag16.2#16.1

Counter Examples

⛔️

saṃyogo

🚹①⨀(saṃyoga)
attachment

(no sandhi)

⛔️

saṃyuttaṃ

🚻①⨀(saṃyutta)
tied

(no sandhi)

34 [R52] (Optionally, niggahita) before vowel (becomes) “m” or “d”

𑀫𑀤𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑁂 (madā sare) vidhi apavāda

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Optionally, the niggahita before a vowel is replaed with “m” or “d”.

Niggahitassa kho sare pare makāradakārādesā honti vā.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

निग्गहितस्स खो सरे परे मकारदकारादेसा होन्ति वा।

Examples

✅

tamahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ

🚻①⨀(ta) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(brūti) 🚹②⨀(brāhmaṇa)
that | I | call | brahman

taṃ + ahaṃ
→ (t + a + ṃ) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
→ t + a + (ṃ→m + a) + haṃ (rule 34)
→ (t + a + m) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
→ tamahaṃ

snp3.9#32.1

✅

etadavoca satthā

🔼(etaṃ) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) 🚹①⨂(sattha)
thus | said | master

etaṃ + avoca
→ e + (t + a +ṃ) + (a) + voca (rule 10)
→ e + t + a + (ṃ→d + a) + voca (rule 34)
→ e + (t + a +d) + (a) + voca (rule 11)
→ etadavoca

dn16#4.3.2

Counter Examples

⛔️

akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ

⏮🤟⨀(akkocchi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(avadhi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ)
verbally abused | me | beat | me

(no sandhi)

mn128#6.9

⛔️

ajini maṃ ahāsi me

⏮🤟⨀(ajini) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(ahāsi) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)
robbed | me | stole | me

(no sandhi)

35 [R34] (Optionally) “y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r” or “l” inserted (before vowel)

𑀬 𑀯 𑀫 𑀤 𑀦 𑀢 𑀭 𑀮𑀸 𑀘𑀸𑀕𑀫𑀸 (ya va ma da na ta ra lā cāgamā) vidhi apavāda

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Optionally, “y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r”, “ḷ” are inserted before a vowel.

Sare pare yakāro vakāro makāro dakāro nakāro takāro rakāro lakāro ime āgamā honti vā.

𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀯𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀦𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀢𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀭𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀮𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀇𑀫𑁂 𑀆𑀕𑀫𑀸 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

सरे परे यकारो वकारो मकारो दकारो नकारो तकारो रकारो लकारो इमे आगमा होन्ति वा।

Examples

✅

nayimassa vijjā

🔼(na) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚺①⨀(vijjā)
no | of this | knowledge

na + imassa
→ na + (y) + imassa (rule 35)
→ nayimassa

✅

yathayidaṃ cittaṃ

⏹🤘⨂(yāti) 🔼(idaṃ) 🚻①⨀(citta)
travel | this | mind | mind

yatha + idaṃ
→ yatha + (y) + idaṃ (rule 35)
→ yathayidaṃ

an1.1#2.1

✅

migī bhantā vudikkhati

🚺①⨀(migī) 🚺①⨀(bhanta) ▶️🤟⨀(udikkhati)
doe | swerving | perceive

bhantā + udikkhati
→ bhantā + (v) + udikkhati (rule 35)
→ bhantāvudikkhati

✅

sittā te lahu messati

🚺①⨀(sitta) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚺①⨀(lahu) ⏭🤟⨀(eti)
emptied | by you | fast | becomes

lahu + essati
→ lahu + (m) + essati (rule 35)
→ lahumessati

dhp366

✅

asittā te garu messati

🚺①⨀(asitta) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚺①⨀(garu) ⏭🤟⨀(eti)
nonemptied | by you | heavy | becomes

garu + essati
→ garu + (m) + essati (rule 35)
→ garumessati

✅

asso bhadro kasāmiva

🚹①⨀(assa) 🚹①⨀(bhadra) 🚹⓪⨀(kasanta) 🔼(iva)
horse | fortunate | ploughing | like

kasā + iva
→ kasā + (m) + iva (rule 35)
→ kasāmiva

dhp138

✅

sammadaññā vimuttānaṃ

🚺①⨀(sammadaññā) 🚹⑥⨂(vimutta)
complete understanding | of liberation

sammā + aññā
→ sammā + (d) + aññā (rule 35)
→ sammadaññā

dhp54

✅

manasādaññā vimuttānaṃ

🚹③⨀(manas) 🚹③⨀(añña) 🚹⑥⨂(vimutta)
with mind | awakening | of liberation

manasā + aññā
→ manasā + (d) + aññā (rule 35)
→ manasādaññā

✅

attadatthamabhiññāya

🚹⓪⨀(attadattha) 🚺③⨀(abhiñña)
one own’s benefit | with direct knowledge

attadattha + abhiññāya
→ attadattha + (m) + abhiññāya (rule 35)
→ attadatthamabhiññāya

✅

ciraṃnāyati

🚻①⨀(cira) 🚻①⨀(āyati)
long time | future

ciraṃ + āyati
→ ciraṃ + (n) + āyati (rule 35)
→ ciraṃnāyati

✅

ito nāyati

🚹①⨀(ita) 🚺①⨀(āyati)
from now | future

ito + āyati
→ ito + (n) + āyati (rule 35)
→ itonāyati

✅

yasmātiha bhikkhave

🚹⑤⨀(ya) 🔼(iha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu)
from what | here | bhikkhave

yasmā + iha
→ yasmā + (t) + iha (rule 35)
→ yasmātiha

✅

tasmātiha bhikkhave

🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🔼(iha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu)
from that | here | bhikkhave

tasmā + iha
→ tasmā + (t) + iha (rule 35)
→ tasmātiha

dn16#3.50.3

✅

ajjatagge pāṇupetaṃ

🔼(ajjatagge) 🚹②⨀(pāṇupeta)
from today onwards | until death

ajja + agga + e
→ ajja + (t) + agga + e (rule 35)
→ ajjatagge

dn5#28.5

✅

āraggeriva sāsapo

🚻⑦⨀(āragga) 🔼(iva) 🚹①⨀(sāsapa)
in pin point | like | mustard seed

āragge + iva
→ āragge + (r) + iva (rule 35)
→ āraggeriva

mn98#11.24

✅

sāsaporiva āraggā

🚹①⨀(sāsapa) 🔼(iva) 🚻③⨀(āragga)
mustard seed | like | with pin-point

sāsapo + iva
→ sāsapo + (r) + iva (rule 35)
→ sāsaporiva

mn98#11.49

✅

chaḷabhiññā

🚹①⨂(chaḷabhiñña)
having six higher knowledges

cha + abhiññā
→ cha + (ḷ) + abhiññā (rule 35)
→ chaḷabhiññā

thig11.1#5.3

✅

saḷāyatanaṃ

🚻①⨀(saḷāyatana)
six sense fields

sa + āyatana
→ sa + (ḷ) + āyatana (rule 35)
→ saḷāyatanaṃ

dn14#2.18.33

Counter Examples

⛔️

evaṃ mahiddhiyā esā

🔼(evaṃ) 🚺①⨀(maha) 🚺③⨀(iddhi) 🚺①⨀(eta)
thus | great | with psychic power | this

mahā + iddhiyā
→ ma + (h + ā) + (i) + ddhiyā (rule 10) → ma + h + (ā + i) + ddhiyā (rule 12)
→ ma + (h + i) + ddhiyā (rule 11)
→ mahiddhiyā

⛔️

akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ

⏮🤟⨀(akkocchi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(avadhi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ)
verbally abused | me | beat | me

(no sandhi)

mn128#6.9

⛔️

ajini maṃ ahāsi me

⏮🤟⨀(ajini) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(ahāsi) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)
robbed | me | stole | me

(no sandhi)

⛔️

ajeyyo anugāmiko

🚹①⨀(ajeyya) 🚹①⨀(anugāmika)
invincible | follower

(no sandhi)

kp8#8.2

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By using the word “ca” in this rule, “m” becomes “p”.

Caggahaṇena idheva makārassa pakāro hoti.

𑀘𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀇𑀥𑁂𑀯 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

चग्गहणेन इधेव मकारस्स पकारो होति।

Example

✅

cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ

🚻①⨀(cirappavāsī) 🚻①⨀(purisa)
who is long absent from home | person

dhp217

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(Similarly,) “k” becomes “d”.

Kakārassa ca dakāro hoti.

𑀓𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

ककारस्स च दकारो होति।

Example

✅

sadatthapasuto siyā

🚹①⨀(sadatthapasuta) ⏯🤟⨀(siyā)
intent on one’s own benefit | will be

sa + kattha + pasuto
→ sa + (k→d) attha + pasuto (rule 35)
→ sadatthapasuto

dhp166

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(Similarly,) “d” becomes “t”.

Dakārassa ca takāro hoti.

𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 𑀢𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

दकारस्स च तकारो होति।

Example

✅

sugato

🚹①⨀(sugata)
well gone

sugado
→ suga + (d + o) (rule 35)
→ sugato

36 [R47] Occasionally, (insertion of) “o” before consonant

𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀑 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 (kvaci o byañjane) vidhi apavāda

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Occasionally, there is insertion of “o” before consonant.

Byañjane pare kvaci okārāgamo hoti.

𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀑𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि ओकारागमो होति।

Examples

✅

atippago kho tāva sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ

atippago + kho???

Note: this appears to be an invalid example as it is assuming the joining of atippag(a) + kho, using application on this rule and rule 12, however atippaga is not found in the dictionary but atippago is found in the Tipiṭaka.

✅

parosahassaṃ

🚻①⨀(parosahassa)
more than 1000

para + sahassaṃ
→ pa + (r + a) + (s + a) + hassaṃ (rule 10)
→ pa + r + a + (o) + s + a + hassaṃ (rule 36)
→ pa + r + (a + o) + s + a + hassaṃ (rule 12)
→ pa + (r + o) + (s + a) + hassaṃ (rule 11)
→ parosahassaṃ

dn3#1.5.6

Counter Examples

⛔️

etha passathimaṃ lokaṃ

▶️🤘⨂(eti) ⏹🤘⨂(passati) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(loka)
come you all | must lok | this | world

passatha + imaṃ
→ passa + (th + a) + (i) + maṃ (rule 10)
→ passa + th + (a + i) + maṃ (rule 12)
→ passa + (th + i) + maṃ (rule 11)
→ passathimaṃ

⛔️

andhabhūto ayaṃ loko

🚹①⨀(andhabhūta) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(loka)
blind | this | world

andha + bhūto
(no sandhi)

dhp173

37 [R57] And niggahita (is occasionally inserted before consonant)

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀜𑁆𑀘 (niggahitañca) vidhi apavāda

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Occasionally, a niggahita is inserted before a vowel or consonant.

Niggahitañcāgamo hoti sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺𑁇

निग्गहितञ्चागमो होति सरे वा ब्यञ्जने वा परे क्वचि।

Examples

✅

cakkhuṃudapādi

🚻①⨀(cakkhu) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi)
eye | arose

cakkhu + udapādi
→ cakkhu + (ṃ) + udapādi (rule 37)
→ cakkhuṃudapādi

dn14#2.19.6

✅

avaṃsiro

🚹①⨀(avaṃsira)
head down

ava + siro
→ ava + (ṃ) + siro (rule 37)
→ avaṃsiro

✅

yāvañcidha bhikkhave purimaṃ jātiṃ sarāmi

jāti + sarāmi
→ jāti + (ṃ) + sarāmi (rule 37)
→ jātiṃsarāmi

✅

aṇuṃthūlāni sabbaso

🔼(anu) 🚻①⨂(thūla) 🔼(sabbaso)
after | massive | altogether

aṇu + thūlāni
→ aṇu + (ṃ) + thūlāni (rule 37)
→ aṇuṃthūlāni

dhp261

✅

manopubbaṅgamā dhammā

🚹③⨀(manopubbaṅgama) 🚹③⨀(dhamma)
led by mind | by nature

mano + pubba + gama
→ mano + pubba + (ṃ) + gama (rule 37)
→ mano + pubba + (ṃ→ṅ + g) + ama (rule 31)
→ mano + pub + (b + a + ṅ) + (g + a) + ma (rule 11)
→ manopubbaṅgamā

dhp1

Counter Examples

⛔️

idheva naṃ pasaṃsanti

🔼(idheva) 🚻①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨂(pasaṃsati)
right here | that | praise

idha + eva
→ i + (dh + a) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ i + dh + (a + e) + va (rule 12)
→ i + (dh + e) + va (rule 11)
→ idheva

sn3.25#10.3

⛔️

pecca sagge pamodati

🔼(pecca) 🚹⑦⨀(sagga) ▶️🤟⨀(pamodati)
after death | in heaven | is happy with

(no sandhi)

sn3.25#10.4

⛔️

na hi etehi yānehi

🔼(nahi) 🚹③⨂(eta) 🚻③⨂(yāna)
certainly not | by this | by carriage

(no sandhi)

dhp321

⛔️

gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ

⏯🤟⨀(gacchati) 🚹②⨀(agata) 🚹②⨀(disa)
will go | not gone | enemy

(no sandhi)

dhp321

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By using the word “ca” in this rule, “vi” becomes “pa”.

Caggahaṇena visaddassa ca pakāro hoti.

𑀘𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀤𑁆𑀤𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

चग्गहणेन विसद्दस्स च पकारो होति।

Examples

✅

pacessati / vicessati

⏭🤟⨀(pacessati)
will understand

vicessati vā.
⏭🤟⨀(vicessati)
will understand

38 [R53] Occasionally, elision (of niggahita) before vowel

𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 (kvaci lopaṃ) vidhi apavāda

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Occasionally, the niggahita before a vowel is elided.

Niggahitaṃ kho sare pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

निग्गहितं खो सरे परे क्वचि लोपं पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

tāsāhaṃ santike

🚻⑥⨂(ta) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(santika)
of that | I | near

tāsaṃ + ahaṃ
→ tāsa (ṃ) + ahaṃ (rule 38)
→ tā + (s + a) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
→ tā + s + (a + a) + haṃ (rule 12)
→ tā + (s + a) + haṃ (rule 11)
→ tāsāhaṃ

mn85#56.4

✅

vidūnaggamiti

🚹⑥⨂(vidū) 🚻①⨀(agga) 🔼(iti)
of wise men | foremost | and so

vidūnaṃ + aggaṃ + iti
→ vidūna + (ṃ) + aggaṃ + iti (rule 38)
→ vidū + (n + a) + (a) + g + (g + a + ṃ) + (i) + ti (rule 10)
→ vidū + n + (a + a) + g + g + a + ṃ + i + ti (rule 12)
→ vidū + n + a + g + g + a + (ṃ→m + i) + ti (rule 34)
→ vidū + (n + a) + g + (g + a) + (m + i) + ti (rule 11)
→ vidūnaggamiti

Counter Example

⛔️

ahameva nūna bālo etamatthaṃ viditvāna

🔼(ahameva) 🔼(nūna) 🚹①⨀(bāla) 🔼(etamatthaṃ) 🔼(viditvāna)
I am just | could it be | foolish | this meaning | having known

ahaṃ + eva
→ a + (h + a + ṃ) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ a + h + a + (ṃ→m + e) + va (rule 34)
→ a + h + a + (m + e) + va (rule 11)
→ ahameva

39 [R54] And (occasionally, elision of niggahita) before consonant

𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂𑀘 (byañjaneca) vidhi apavāda

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  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Occasionally, the niggahita before a consonant is elided.

Niggahitaṃ kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

निग्गहितं खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि लोपं पप्पोति।

Examples

✅

ariyasaccānadassanaṃ

🚻①⨀(ariyasaccānadassana)
understanding the noble truths

ariyasaccānaṃ + dassana
→ ariyasaccāna + (ṃ) + dassana (rule 39)
→ ariyasaccānadassanaṃ

✅

etaṃ buddhānasāsanaṃ

🚻①⨀(eta) 🚻①⨀(buddhānasāsana)
this | Buddhas’ teaching

buddhānaṃ + sāsana
→ buddhāna + (ṃ) + sāsana (rule 39)
→ buddhānasāsanaṃ

dn14#3.28.9

Counter Examples

⛔️

etaṃ maṅgalamuttamaṃ

🚻①⨀(eta) 🚻①⨀(maṅgala) 🚻①⨀(uttama)
this | blessing | best

maṅgalaṃ + uttamaṃ
→ maṅga + (l + a + ṃ) + (u) + ttamaṃ (rule 10)
→ maṅga + l + a + (ṃ→ m + u) + ttamaṃ (rule 34)
→ maṅga + l + a + (m + u) + ttamaṃ (rule 11)
→ maṅgalamuttamaṃ

snp2.4#3.4

⛔️

taṃ vo vadāmi bhaddante

🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(vo) ▶️👆⨀(vadati) 🚹②⨂(bhaddanta)
that | truly | I say | to venerable

(no sandhi)

40 [R55] Optionally, next vowel (after niggahita is elided)

𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀭𑁄 (paro vāsaro) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["paro vāsaro"] space:2 space space space space

  
    Previous["niggahita"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Optionally, phoneme following niggahita is elided.

Niggahitamhā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

निग्गहितम्हा परो सरो लोपं पप्पोति वा।

Examples

✅

bhāsitaṃ abhinandunti

🚻①⨀(bhāsita) ⏮🤟⨂(abhinandi) 🔼(iti)
speech | they were pleased with | like this

abhinanduṃ + iti
→ abhinan + (d + u + ṃ) + (i) + ti (rule 10)
→ abhinan + d + u + (ṃ + i) + ti (rule 40)
→ abhinan + d + u + (ṃ→n + i) + ti (rule 34)
→ abhinan + (d + u + n) + ti (rule 11)
→ abhinandunti

dn1#3.74.5

✅

uttattaṃva

🚻①⨀(uttatta) 🔼(iva)
shining | like

uttattaṃ + iva
→ uttat + (t + a + ṃ) + (i) + va (rule 10)
→ uttat + t + a + (ṃ + i) + va (rule 40)
→ uttat + (t + a + ṃ) + va (rule 11)
→ uttattaṃva

✅

yathābījaṃva

🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(bīja) 🔼(iva)
as per | seed | like this

yathā + bījaṃ + iva
→ yathā + bī + (j + a + ṃ) + (i) + va (rule 10)
→ yathā + bī + j + a + (ṃ + i) + va (rule 40)
→ yathā + bī + (j + a + ṃ) + va (rule 11)
→ yathābījaṃva

✅

yathābījaṃva

🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(dhañña) 🔼(iva)
as per | crop | like this

yathā + dhaññaṃ + iva
→ yathā + dhañ + (ñ + a + ṃ) + (i) + va (rule 10)
→ yathā + dhañ + ñ + a + (ṃ + i) + va (rule 40)
→ yathā + dhañ + (ñ + a + ṃ) + va (rule 11)
→ yathādhaññaṃva

Counter Examples

⛔️

ahameva nūna bālo

🔼(ahameva) 🔼(nūna) 🚹①⨀(bāla)
I am just | could it be | foolish

ahaṃ + eva
→ a + (h + a + ṃ) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ a + h + a + (ṃ→m + e) + va (rule 34)
→ a + h + a + (m + e) + va (rule 11)
→ ahameva

⛔️

tadahosi

🚻①⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
that | was

(no sandhi)

41 [R55] And (after vowel is elided following niggahita) consonant is detached

𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁄 𑀘 𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁄𑀕𑁄 (byañjano ca visaññogo) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space byañjano visaññogo:2 space space ca space

  
    Previous["niggahita~~sara~~"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("byañjanax2")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("byañjana")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"visaññogo"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"ca"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Note: Byañjano is not a valid vibhatti ending for byañjana, in here I am interpreting it as byañjane (⑦) followed by application of rule 36 followed by rule 12).

When vowel following niggahita is elided, if (next) consonant is a double consonant, it becomes single consonant.

Niggahitamhā parasmiṃ sare lutte yadi byañjano sasaññogo visaññogo hoti.

𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀫𑀺𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀬𑀤𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁄 𑀲𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁄𑀕𑁄 𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁄𑀕𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

निग्गहितम्हा परस्मिं सरे लुत्ते यदि ब्यञ्जनो ससञ्ञोगो विसञ्ञोगो होति।

Examples

✅

evaṃsa te āsavo

🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🤘⑥⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹①⨀(āsava)
thus | of this | of you | discharge

evaṃ + assa
→ e + (v + a + ṃ) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ e + v + a + (ṃ + a) + ssa (rule 40)
→ e + v + a + ṃ + (ss→s) + a (rule 41)
→ e + (v + a + ṃ) + (s + a) (rule 11)
→ evaṃsa

mn2#12.3

✅

pupphaṃsā uppajji

🚺①⨀(pupphaṃsā) ⏮🤟⨀(uppajji)
fertile period | arose

pupphaṃ + assā
→ pup + (ph + a + ṃ) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ pup + ph + a + (ṃ + a) + ssa (rule 40)
→ pup + ph + a + ṃ + (ss→s) + a (rule 41)
→ pup + (ph + a + ṃ) + (s + a) (rule 11)
→ pupphaṃsā

Counter Example

⛔️

evamassa vidūnaggamiti

🔼(evamassa) 🚹⑥⨂(vidū) 🚻①⨀(agga) 🔼(iti)
thus to him | of wise men | highest | like this

evaṃ + assa
→ e + (v + a + ṃ) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ e + v + a + (ṃ→m + a) + ssa (rule 34)
→ e + v + a + (m + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ evamassa

block-beta
  columns 8
  

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("byañjanax2")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("byañjana")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

By employing the word “ca”, when there are three consonants, double consonants together with “y”, there is elision (of double consonant into single consonant).

Caggahaṇena tiṇṇaṃ byañjanānamantare ye sarūpā, tesampi lopo hoti.

𑀘𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀢𑀺𑀡𑁆𑀡𑀁 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀫𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀭𑁂 𑀬𑁂 𑀲𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸, 𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀫𑁆𑀧𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

चग्गहणेन तिण्णं ब्यञ्जनानमन्तरे ये सरूपा, तेसम्पि लोपो होति।

Examples

✅

agyāgāraṃ

🚻①⨀(agyāgāra)
room for keeping the sacred fire

aggi + agāraṃ
→ ag + (g + i) + (a) + gāraṃ (rule 10)
→ ag + g + (i→y) + a + gāraṃ (rule 21)
→ a + (gg→g) + y + a + gāraṃ (rule 41)
→ a + (g + y + a) + gāraṃ (rule 11)
→ agyāgāraṃ

dn3#2.3.11

✅

paṭisanthāravutyassa

🔼(paṭisanthāravutyassa)
one should be cordial by nature

paṭisanthāra + vutti + assa
→ paṭisanthāra + vut + (t + i) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
→ paṭisanthāra + vut + t + (i→y) + a + ssa (rule 21)
→ paṭisanthāra + vu + (tt→t + y) + a + ssa (rule 41)
→ paṭisanthāra + vu + (t + y + a) + ssa (rule 11)
→ paṭisanthāravutyassa

dhp366

3.5 - 1.5 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Pañcamakaṇḍa) - VuttaSandhi

This section describes vuttasandhi (when letters are elided or augmented to obey metrical rules or where there are multiple operations).

42 [R32] Occasionally, there is insertion of “g” after “putha” before vowel

𑀕𑁄𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀼𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 (gosare puthassāgamo kvaci) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
puthassa space āgamo:2 go sare kvaci space

  
    Previous["putha"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before(" ")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("g")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"āgama"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
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Occasionally, in a word ending with “putha” followed by a vowel, “g” is inserted (in between).

Puthaiccetassa ante sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti.

𑀧𑀼𑀣𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀕𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

पुथैच्चेतस्स अन्ते सरे परे क्वचि गकारागमो होति।

Example

✅

puthage va

🚹①⨀(puthu) 🔼(eva)
broad | even

puthu + eva
→ pu + (th + u) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ pu + (th + (u + e) + va (rule 12)
→ pu + th + a + (g) + e + va (rule 42)
→ pu + (th + a) + (g + e) + va (rule 11)
→ puthageva

(invalid example?)

43 [R33] (Occasionally, the) ending of “pā” is shortened (together with insertion of “g”)

𑀧𑀸𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 (pāssa canto rasso) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["pāssa canto"] rasso:2 space space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("pā")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("pag")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"āgama"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Occasionally, in a word ending with “pā” followed by a vowel, “g” is inserted (in between), and the end vowel is shortened.

Pāiccetassa ante sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti, anto ca saro rasso hoti.

𑀧𑀸𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀕𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺, 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

पाइच्चेतस्स अन्ते सरे परे क्वचि गकारागमो होति, अन्तो च सरो रस्सो होति।

Example

✅

pageva vutyassa

🔼(pageva) 🚺⓪⨀(vutti) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
all the more | of this way of life

pā + eva
→ (p +ā) + (e) + va (rule 10)
→ p +(ā→ag + e) + va (rule 43)
→ (p +a) + (g + e) + va (rule 11)
→ pageva

Counter Example

⛔️

pā eva vutyassa

🔼(pā eva) 🚺⓪⨀(vutti) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
all the more | of this way of life

(no sandhi)

44 [R24] “abbh” (from) “abhi”

𑀅𑀩𑁆𑀪𑁄 𑀅𑀪𑀺 (abbho abhi) vidhi utsarga

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space abhi space:2 abbho space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("abhi")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("abbh")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

“abhi” followed by vowel is replaced by “abbh”.

Abhiiccetassa sare pare abbhādeso hoti.

𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀩𑁆𑀪𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अभिइच्चेतस्स सरे परे अब्भादेसो होति।

Examples

✅

abbhudīritaṃ

🔼(abhi) 🚻①⨀(udīrita)
highly | mentioned

abhi + udīritaṃ
→ (abhi→abbh) + udīritaṃ (rule 44)
→ abbhudīritaṃ

✅

abbhuggacchati

🔼(abhi) ▶️🤟⨀(uggacchati)
highly | rises

abhi + uggacchati
→ (abhi→abbh) + uggacchati (rule 44)
→ abbhuggacchati

dn16#1.23.6

45 [R25] “ajjh” (from) “adhi”

𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀛𑁄𑀅𑀥𑀺 (ajjhoadhi) vidhi utsarga

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space adhi space:2 ajjho space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("adhi")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("ajjh")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

“adhi” followed by vowel is replaced by “ajjh”.

Adhiiccetassa sare pare ajjhādeso hoti.

𑀅𑀥𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अधिइच्चेतस्स सरे परे अज्झादेसो होति।

Examples

✅

ajjhokāse

🚹⑦⨀(ajjhokāsa)
in open air

adhi + okāse
→ (adhi→ajjh) + okāse (rule 45)
→ ajjhokāse

sn17.8#1.5

✅

ajjhāgamā

🔵⏮🤟⨀(ajjhāgami)
found

adhi + āgamā
→ (adhi→ajjh) + āgamā (rule 45)
→ ajjhāgamā

Note: CSCD misspells this example.

mn14#5.5

46 [R26] Optionally, the (above two rules) do not apply before “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”)

𑀢𑁂 𑀦 𑀯𑀸 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁂 (te na vā ivaṇṇe) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space te na:2 space ivaṇṇe vā space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("abhi,adhi")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("(abhi,adhi)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["i,ī"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Optionally, “abhi” and “adhi” before the “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”) do not become “abbh” and “ajjh”.

Te ca kho abhiadhiiccete ivaṇṇe pare abbho ajjhoitivuttarūpā na honti vā.

Note: CSCD misspells “na” as “naṃ”.

𑀢𑁂 𑀘 𑀔𑁄 𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀅𑀥𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑁂 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀩𑁆𑀪𑁄 𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀛𑁄𑀇𑀢𑀺𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸 𑀦 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

ते च खो अभिअधिइच्चेते इवण्णे परे अब्भो अज्झोइतिवुत्तरूपा न होन्ति वा।

Examples

✅

abhicchitaṃ

🔼(abhi) + 🚻①⨀(icchita)
desired

(no sandhi)

✅

adhīritaṃ

🔼(adhi) + 🚻①⨀(īrita)
uttered

(no sandhi)

Counter Examples

⛔️

abbhīritaṃ

🔼(abhi) 🚻①⨀(īrita)
highly | moved

abhi + īritaṃ
→ (abhi→abbh) + īritaṃ (rule 44)
→ abbhīritaṃ

⛔️

ajjhiṇamutto

🔼(adhi) 🚻①⨀(iṇamutta)
towards | free from debt

adhi + iṇamutto
→ (adhi→ajjh) + iṇamutto (rule 45)
→ ajjhiṇamutto

47 [R23] “ati” not (replaced with) “c” (before “i” phoneme)

𑀅𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘𑀦𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 (atissa canatassa)¹ vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space atissa space:2 cantassa space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("ati")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("(ati)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["i,ī"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

The “ti” of word “ati” is not replaced with “c” (rule 19) when followed by “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”).

Atiiccetassa antabhūtassa tisaddassa ivaṇṇe pare “sabbo cantī"ti vuttarūpaṃ na hoti.

Note: CSCD incorrectly spells rule 19

𑀅𑀢𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀢𑀺𑀲𑀤𑁆𑀤𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 “𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀻"𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀁 𑀦 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अतिइच्चेतस्स अन्तभूतस्स तिसद्दस्स इवण्णे परे “सब्बो चन्ती"ति वुत्तरूपं न होति।

Examples

✅

atīsigaṇo

🔼(ati) 🚹①⨀(isi) 🚹①⨀(gaṇa)
too | sage | with group

ati + isi + gaṇo
→ a + (t + i) + (i) + si + gaṇo (rule 10)
→ a + t + (i + i) + si + gaṇo (rule 12)
→ a + t + (i→ī) + si + gaṇo (rule 15)
→ a + (t + ī) + si + gaṇo (rule 11)
→ atīsigaṇo

✅

atīritaṃ

🚻①⨀(atīrita)
not tested

ati + īritaṃ
→ a + (t + i) + (ī) + ritaṃ (rule 10)
→ a + t + (i + ī) + ritaṃ (rule 12)
→ a + (t + ī) + ritaṃ (rule 11)
→ atīritaṃ

Counter Example

⛔️

accantaṃ

🚻①⨀(accanta)
final

ati + antaṃ
→ a + (ti→c) + (a) + ntaṃ (rule 19)
→ a + (c→cc) + (a) + ntaṃ (rule 28)
→ a + (cc + a) + ntaṃ (rule 11)
→ accantaṃ

sn5.3#5.1

48 [R43] Occasionally, “pati” becomes “paṭi”

𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀧𑀝𑀺 𑀧𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 (kvaci paṭi patissa) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space patissa space:2 paṭi space kvaci space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("pati")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("paṭi")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Occasionally, “pati” followed by vowel or consonant is replaced by “paṭi”.

Patiiccetassa sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci paṭiādeso hoti.

𑀧𑀢𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀧𑀝𑀺𑀆𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

पतिइच्चेतस्स सरे वा ब्यञ्जने वा परे क्वचि पटिआदेसो होति।

Examples

✅

paṭaggi dātabbo

🚹①⨀(paṭaggi) 🚹①⨀(dātabba)
counter fire | should be given

pati + aggi
→ (pati→paṭi) + (a) + ggi (rule 48)
→ paṭaggi

✅

paṭihaññati

▶️🤟⨀(paṭihaññati)
is struck

pati + haññati
→ (pati→paṭi) + (h) + aññati (rule 48)
→ paṭihaññati

mn130#17.1

Counter Examples

⛔️

paccantimesu janapadesu

🚹⑦⨂(paccantima) 🚹⑦⨂(janapada)
in outlying | in countries

pati + antimesu
→ pa + (ti→c) + (a) + ntimesu (rule 19)
→ pa + (c→cc) + (a) + ntimesu (rule 28)
→ pa + (cc + a) + ntimesu (rule 11)
→ paccantimesu

dn33#3.2.60

⛔️

patilīyati

▶️🤟⨀(patilīyati)
withdraws from

pati + līyati
(no sandhi)

an7.49#2.3

⛔️

patirūpadesavāso ca

🚹①⨀(patirūpadesavāsa) 🔼(ca)
living in a suitable place | and

pati + rūpadesavāso
(no sandhi)

49 [R44] (Occasionally, the end of) “putha” becomes “u” before consonant

𑀧𑀼𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀼 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 (puthassu byañjane) vidhi utsarga

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space puthassa space:2 u byañjane space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("putha")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("puthu")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vikāra"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

The end vowel of “putha” followed by consonant becomes “u”.

Puthaiccetassa anto saro byañjane pare ukāro hoti.

𑀧𑀼𑀣𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀉𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

पुथैच्चेतस्स अन्तो सरो ब्यञ्जने परे उकारो होति।

Examples

✅

puthujjano

🚹①⨀(puthujjana)
common man

putha + jano
→ puth + (a→u) + jano (rule 49)
→ puthujjano

dn1#1.7.1

✅

puthubhūtaṃ

🚻①⨀(puthubhūta)
widely spread

putha + bhūtaṃ
→ puth + (a→u) + bhūtaṃ (rule 49)
→ puthubhūtaṃ

dn16#3.8.16

block-beta
  columns 8
  

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("aputha")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("u")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vikāra"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

By exception the end vowel of a word, even when not “putha”, becomes “u”.

Antaggahaṇena aputhassāpi sare pare antassa ukāro hoti.

𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀅𑀧𑀼𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸𑀧𑀺 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀉𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अन्तग्गहणेन अपुथस्सापि सरे परे अन्तस्स उकारो होति।

Example

✅

manuññaṃ

🚻①⨀(manuñña)
beautiful

mano + ñaṃ
→ ma + (n + o) + (ñ + a + ṃ) (rule 10)
→ ma + n + (o→u) + ñ + a + ṃ (rule 49)
→ ma + n + u + (ñ→ññ) + a + ṃ (rule 28)
→ ma + (n + u) + (ññ + a + ṃ) (rule 11)
→ manuññaṃ

dn17#2.13.2

50 [R45] (Occasionally, the end vowel of) “ava” (becomes) “o” (before consonant)

𑀑 𑀅𑀯𑀲𑁆𑀲 (o avassa) vidhi apavāda

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space avassa space:2 o space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("ava")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("avo")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vikāra"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Occasionally, the end vowel of “ava” followed by consonant becomes “o”.

Avaiccetassa byañjane pare kvaci okāro hoti.

𑀅𑀯𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀑𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अवैच्चेतस्स ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि ओकारो होति।

Example

✅

andhakārena onaddhā

🚹③⨀(andhakāra) 🚹⑤⨀(onaddha)
with darkness | enveloped with

ava + naddhā
→ (ava→o) + naddhā (rule 50)
→ onaddhā

an4.50#12.1

Counter Example

⛔️

avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ

⏹🤟⨀(avasussati) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ)🚻⑦⨀(sarīra) 🚻①⨀(maṃsalohita)
dries up | for me | in body | flesh and blood

(no sandhi)

sn21.3#3.6

51 [R32] Further application of previous euphonic grammatical rules

𑀅𑀦𑀼𑀧𑀤𑀺𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀬𑁄𑀕𑀢𑁄 (anupadiṭṭhānaṃ vuttayogato) paribhāsā vidhyaṅga

The previous rules of vowel sandhi, consonant sandhi and miscellaneous sandhi should also be applied to upasagga (prefixes) and nipāta (particles) following the stated order.

Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ upasagganipātānaṃ sarasandhīhi byañjanasandhīhi vuttasandhīhi ca yathāyogaṃ yojetabbaṃ.

𑀅𑀦𑀼𑀧𑀤𑀺𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀉𑀧𑀲𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀦𑀺𑀧𑀸𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀻𑀳𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀻𑀳𑀺 𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀻𑀳𑀺 𑀘 𑀬𑀣𑀸𑀬𑁄𑀕𑀁 𑀬𑁄𑀚𑁂𑀢𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀁𑁇

अनुपदिट्ठानं उपसग्गनिपातानं सरसन्धीहि ब्यञ्जनसन्धीहि वुत्तसन्धीहि च यथायोगं योजेतब्बं।

Examples (before vowels)

✅

pāpanaṃ

🚻①⨀(pāpana)
attaining
pa + √ap + *e + ana

dhp261

✅

parāyaṇaṃ

🚻①⨀(parāyaṇa)
destined
parā + √i + *aṇa

sn43.44#1.3

✅

upāyanaṃ

🚻①⨀(upāyana)
tribute
upa + ā + √i

dn1#1.23.2

✅

upāhanaṃ

🚹②⨀(upāhana)
sandals
upa + ā + √nah + a

✅

nyāyogo

🔼(ni) 🚹①⨀(āyoga)
without devotion
ni + ā + √yuj + *e + a

✅

nigupadhi

🔼(ni) 🚹①⨀(upadhi)
without attachment
ni + upa + √dhā

✅

anubodho

🚹①⨀(anubodha)
knowledge
anu + √budh + *a

an7.66#14.5

✅

duvūpasantaṃ

🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(upasanta)
difficulty calming
du + upa + √sam + ta

✅

suvūpasantaṃ

🔼(su) 🚻①⨀(upasanta)
easy calming
su + upa + √sam + ta

✅

dvālayo

🔼(du) 🚹①⨀(ālaya)
bad attachment
du + ā + √lī + *a

✅

svālayo

🔼(su) 🚹①⨀(ālaya)
good attachment
su + ā + √lī + *a

✅

durākhyātaṃ

🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(ākhyāta)
wrongly proclaimed
du + ā + √khyā + ta

✅

svākhyāto

🚹①⨀(svākhyāta)
well proclaimed
su + ā + √khyā + ā

dn16#2.9.6

✅

udīritaṃ

🚻①⨀(udīrita)
uttered
ud + √īr + ita

ud4.8#19.3

✅

samuddiṭṭhaṃ

🚻①⨀(samuddiṭṭha)
explained
saṃ + ud + √dis + ta

✅

viyaggaṃ

🔼(vi) 🚻①⨀(agga)
very highest
vi + aggaṃ

✅

vijjhaggaṃ

🔼(vi adhi) 🚻①⨀(agga)
very highest
vi + adhi + aggaṃ

✅

byaggaṃ

↩️👆⨀(byaggā)
departed
vi + a + √gam + ā

✅

avayāgamanaṃ

🔼(ava) 🚻①⨀(āgamana)
lower arrival
ava + ā + √gam + ana

✅

anveti

▶️🤟⨀(anveti)
follows
anu + √i + a + ti

✅

anupaghāto

🚹①⨀(anupaghāta)
not hurtful
na + upa + √ghaṭ + *a

mn103#10.2

✅

anacchariyaṃ

🚻①⨀(anacchariya)
natural
na + acchara + iya

dn16#2.8.1

✅

pariyesanā

🚺①⨀(pariyesanā)
searching
pari + √es + anā

dn15#18.3

✅

parāmāso

🚺①⨀(pariyesanā)
searching
pari + √es + anā

sn22.46#2.3

Examples (before consonants)

✅

pariggaho

🚹①⨀(pariggaha) surrounding pari + √gah + a

dn15#9.1

✅

paggaho

🚹①⨀(paggaha)
effort
pa + √gah + a

dn33#1.9.28

✅

pakkamo

🚹①⨀(pakkama)
initial effort
pa + √kam + a

✅

pakkamo

🚹①⨀(parakkama)
continued effort
parā + √kam + a

✅

nikkamo

🚹①⨀(nikkama)
endurance
nī + √kam + a

✅

nikkasāvo

🚹①⨀(nikkama)
endurance
nī + √kam + a

ud1.4#4.2

✅

nillayanaṃ

🔼(ni) 🚹⑥⨀(laya)
without clinging
ni + √lī + *a

✅

dullayanaṃ

🔼(du) 🚹⑥⨀(laya)
bad clinging
du + √lī + *a

✅

dumbhikkhaṃ

🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(bhikkha)
wrong begging
du + √bhikkh + a

✅

dubbuttaṃ

🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(bhikkha)
wrong begging
du + √bhikkh + a

dn1#1.25.2

✅

sandiṭṭhaṃ

🚻①⨀(sandiṭṭha)
well-pronounced
saṃ + √dis + ta

✅

duggaho

🚹①⨀(duggaha)
taking hold of wrongly
du+√gah + a

✅

viggaho

🚹①⨀(viggaha)
quarrel
vi + √gah + a

dn13#8.8

✅

niggato

🚹①⨀(niggata)
gone out
nī + √gam + ta

✅

abhikkamo

🚹①⨀(niggata)
gone out
nī + √gam + ta

dn2#10.12

✅

paṭikkamo

🚹①⨀(paṭikkama)
recession
pati + √kam + a + a

sn22.88#3.1

All remaining (rules) should be applied.

Sesā sabbe yojetabbā.

𑀲𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁂 𑀬𑁄𑀚𑁂𑀢𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀸𑁇

सेसा सब्बे योजेतब्बा।

CSCD incorrectly spells “canatassa” as “cantassa” ↩︎

𑀓𑀘𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀬𑀦 (Kaccāyana)

1 - Introduction

Context

The structure of Kaccāyana

The structure of a sutta

Types of suttas

Megarules

Ghost metarules

Usage of rūḷhī

Types of vidhi (operation)

Structure of a vidhi (operation)

Other available translations

Motivation

References

2 - Summary

3 - 1. 𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀓𑀧𑁆𑀧 (Sandhikappa)

3.1 - 1.1 𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Paṭhamakaṇḍa) - Definitions

1 [R1] Meaning from recognition of akkhara (sounds, or letters)

2 [R2] 41 akkhara starting with a

Applicability

3 [R3] (From akkhara) eight ending with “o”: sara (vowel)

Applicability

4 [R4] 3 short vowels: rassa

Applicability

5 [R5] Other (vowels) are dīgha (long)

Applicability

6 [R6] Remaining (letters) are byañjanā (consonants)

Applicability

7 [R9] vagga: 5 by 5 (consonants) ending with ma

Applicability

8 [R10] aṃ: niggahita

Applicability

9 [R11] Other grammatical terms used

Applicability

10 [R12] Detach vowel from preceeding/succeeding (phonemes, to create) vowelless (consonants)

11 [R14] Connect next if applicable

3.2 - 1.2 𑀤𑀼𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Dutiyakaṇḍa) - Vowel Sandhi

12 [R13] Vowel, before vowel, is elided

13 [R15] Optionally, next (vowel) not of the same type (following a vowel is elided)

14 [R16] Occasionally, when (previous vowel) elided, following vowel becomes different

15 [R17] (Occasionally, when previous vowel elided, following vowel becomes) long

16 [R18] And (when following vowel elided), previous (vowel becomes long)

17 [R19] (Occasionally, previous syllable) ending with e, replace with “y”

18 [R20] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “o” or “u” ending, (replace with) “v”

19 [R22] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “ti”, (replace with) “c”

20 [R27] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “dha”, (replace with) “d”

Additional

Additional

21 [R21] Rarely, (previous) phoneme with “i” becomes “y”

22 [R28] (Rarely,) previous (long vowel followed by) “eva” becomes “riva”, and previous (vowel) becomes short

3.3 - 1.3 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Tatiyakaṇḍa) - Consonant Sandhi

23 [R26] vowel + consonant: original form

24 [R35] (vowel +) vowel, occasionally (: original form)

25 [R37] (vowel + consonant, vowel becomes) long (occasionally)

26 [R38] (vowel + consonant, vowel becomes) short (occasionally)

27 [R39] (vowel + consonant, vowel is) elided, replaced by “a” (occasionally)

28 [R40] (vowel + consonant), next (consonant) doubled appropriately

29 [R42] (vowel + ) voiced or unvoiced group (consonant), first and third letters (doubled appropriately)

3.4 - 1.4 𑀘𑀢𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Catutthakaṇḍa) - Niggahita Sandhi

30 [R58] “aṃ” before consonant (remains) niggahita

31 [R49] Optionally, (niggahita changes to) end consonant in group, before (consonant in that) group

32 [R50] (Optionally, niggahita followed by) “e” or “h” (becomes) “ñ”

33 [R50] (Optionally, niggahita) and “y” (becomes “ñ”)

34 [R52] (Optionally, niggahita) before vowel (becomes) “m” or “d”

35 [R34] (Optionally) “y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r” or “l” inserted (before vowel)

36 [R47] Occasionally, (insertion of) “o” before consonant

37 [R57] And niggahita (is occasionally inserted before consonant)

38 [R53] Occasionally, elision (of niggahita) before vowel

39 [R54] And (occasionally, elision of niggahita) before consonant

40 [R55] Optionally, next vowel (after niggahita is elided)

41 [R55] And (after vowel is elided following niggahita) consonant is detached

3.5 - 1.5 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Pañcamakaṇḍa) - VuttaSandhi

42 [R32] Occasionally, there is insertion of “g” after “putha” before vowel

43 [R33] (Occasionally, the) ending of “pā” is shortened (together with insertion of “g”)

44 [R24] “abbh” (from) “abhi”

45 [R25] “ajjh” (from) “adhi”

46 [R26] Optionally, the (above two rules) do not apply before “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”)

47 [R23] “ati” not (replaced with) “c” (before “i” phoneme)

48 [R43] Occasionally, “pati” becomes “paṭi”

49 [R44] (Occasionally, the end of) “putha” becomes “u” before consonant

1 [R1] Meaning from recognition of `akkhara` (sounds, or letters)

2 [R2] 41 `akkhara` starting with `a`

4 [R4] 3 short vowels: `rassa`

5 [R5] Other (vowels) are `dīgha` (long)

6 [R6] Remaining (letters) are `byañjanā` (consonants)

7 [R9] `vagga`: 5 by 5 (consonants) ending with `ma`

8 [R10] `aṃ`: `niggahita`