English Resources

• 1: English in EBNF
• 2: Lowth: A Short Introduction To English Grammar: With Critical Notes
• 3: Kerl: A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language
• 4: Evolution of English Grammar

1 - English in EBNF

Grammatical levels

@startebnf
grammar = { sentence  (* unit of language *) }- ;

sentence = { clause (* word or phrase forming all or part of sentence *) }- ;
clause = { phrase (* group of words based on headword *) }- ;
phrase = { word (* self contained units of meaning *) }- ;
word = { morpheme (* lowest unit of language that can convey meaning *) }- ;
@endebnf

block-beta
columns 6
  sentence[["Sentence"]] s("The children watched a television programme
  while their mother made the tea."):5
  space:6
  clause[["Clause"]] c1("The children watched a television programme"):4 c2("their mother made the tea")
  c1-->s
  c2-->s
  space:6
  phrase[["Phrase"]] p1("The children"):2 p2("watched") p3("a television programme") space
  p1-->c1
  p2-->c1
  p3-->c1
  space:6
  word[["Word"]] w1("The") w2("children") space:3
  w1-->p1
  w2-->p1
  space:6
  morpheme[["Morpheme"]] m1("child") m2("ren") space:3
  m1-->w2
  m2-->w2

Words

@startebnf
word = content_word (* words that carry the meaning of the sentence *) |
  structure_word (* words that hold the sentence together *) ;
content_word =
  noun (* eg. "children" *) | 
  verb (* eg. "watched" *) |
  adjective (* eg. "green" *) |
  adverb (* eg. "slowly" *) ;
structure_word =
  pronoun (* eg. "they" *) |
  conjunction (* eg. "while" *) |
  preposition (* eg. "beside" *) |
  determiner (* eg. "the" *) ;
@endebnf

Types of Clauses

@startebnf
clause = declarative (* making statements*) |
  interrogative (* asking questions *) |
  imperative (* making commands and requests *) |
  exclamative (* making exclamations *) ;
@endebnf

Clause patterns

@startebnf
clause = Subject (* about X *), Predicate (* What about X? *);
clause = (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*hesitated*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*stabbed*) , Object (*Polonius*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*was*)  , Complement (*solitary*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*gave*) , indirect_object (*people*)  , direct_object (*surprises*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*drove*) , Object (*Ophelia*) , Complement (*mad*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*went*) , Adverbial (*away*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*put*) , Object (*the sword*) , Adverbial (*down*) ) ;
predicate = Verb , ( Object , [Complement | Adverbial] | Complement | (indirect_object , direct_object) | Adverbial ) ;
Subject = noun |
  pronoun |
  noun_phrase ;
  (* topic *)
Verb = action | state | link (* to Complement or Adverbial *) ;
  (* develop the Subject *)
Object = noun |
  pronoun |
  noun_phrase ;
  (* person, thing or idea affected by action of Verb *)
Complement = noun |
  pronoun |
  noun_phrase |
  adjective |
  adjective_phrase ;
  (* refers to Subject *)
@endebnf

Note: verb and Verb are not the same. verb is a type of word, Verb is part of a clause (along with Subject and Object).

Nouns

@startebnf
(* person, thing, idea *)
noun = proper_noun (* people, places or things *) |
  common_noun | gerund (* Verbal noun *);
common_noun = countable_noun (* have singular and plural forms *) |
  uncountable_noun (* abstract ideas, or things considered in the mass *) ;
@endebnf

Pronouns

@startebnf
(* reference to noun phrase, general idea or nothing ("dummy Subject") *)
pronoun = personal_pronoun (* reference to previous or upcoming noun phrase *) |
  possessive_pronoun (* belong to person or thing referred to *) |
  reflexive_pronoun (* Subject and Object are the same *) |
  demonstrative_pronoun (* reference by distance *) |
  indefinite_pronoun (* reference, general to vague *) |
  interrogative_pronoun (* used in questions *) |
  relative_pronoun (* used to form relative clauses *) ;
@endebnf

Personal and Possessive pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

@startebnf
interrogative_pronoun = "who" | "whom" | "whose" | "which" | "what" ;
@endebnf

Relative Pronouns

@startebnf
relative_pronoun = ((interrogative_pronoun | "where") , ["ever"]) |
  "that" | "why" ;
@endebnf

Noun phrases

@startebnf
noun_phrase = {determiner (* give headword definition *)} ,
  {premodifier (* give more information *)} ,
  headword (* noun *) ,
  {postmodifier} (* give more information *) ;
determiner = ("a" | "and" | "the") |
  possessive_determiner |
  indefinite_pronoun |
  demonstrative_pronoun |
  "no" |
  "such" |
  portion (* eg. "half" , "one third" *) |
  number (* eg. "two", "three" *) |
  ordinal (* eg. "second", "third" *) |
  selection (* eg. "other", "last", "next" *) |
  quantity (* eg. "many", "few" *) |
  amount (* eg. "little", "much" *) ;
premodifier = adjective | noun | gerund ;
postmodifier = prepositional_phrase (* qualifies headword *) |
  relative_clause (* mini sentences that provide more information to Subject *) ;
prepositional_phrase = preposition , (noun | pronoun | gerund | noun_phrase) ;
preposition = "about" | "with" | "to" | "for" | "down" | ?etc.? ;
relative_clause = relative_pronoun , clause ;
@endebnf

Adjectives

@startebnf
(* modifies and gives noun definition, by providing more information*)
adjective = attributive (* before noun *) |
  predicative (* after Verb like "be" *) ;
adjective = ([graded] , qualitative_adjective) | classifying_adjective ;
graded = "fairly" | "extremely" | ?etc.? ;
classifying_adjective = "annual" | "nuclear" | "actual" | ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Qualitative adjectives

Types of verbs

@startebnf
verb = main_verb | primary_auxillary_verb | modal_auxillary_verb ;
main_verb = transitive_verb | intransitive_verb | linking_verb ;
transitive_verb = "get" | "create" | ?etc.? ;
  (* can be used in active or passive sentences *)
intransitive_verb = "arrive" | "exist" | ?etc.? ;
linking_verb = "be" | "seem" | "appear" | "become" | "look" | ?etc.? ;
primary_auxillary_verb = "be" | "have" | "do" ;
modal_auxillary_verb = "will" | "may" | "can" | "might" | "could" | ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Verb forms

References

Seely, 2001

John Seely, Oxford Everyday Grammar, Oxford University Press (2001)

2 - Lowth: A Short Introduction To English Grammar: With Critical Notes

Grammar

Grammar is the Art of rightly expressing our thoughts by Words.

@startebnf
grammar = letter | syllable | word | sentence ;
letter = vowel | consonant ;
vowel = "a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u" | "y" | "w" ;
diphthong = (vowel , {vowel}-) | "w" ;
consonant = "j" | "v" | mute | semi_vowel | "x" (* double consonant *) | "z" (*thicker "s" *) | "h" (* aspiration *) ;
mute = "b" | "c" | "d" | "g" | "k" | "p" | "q" | "t" ;
semi_vowel = "l" | "m" | "n" | "r" | "f" | "s" ;
articulate_sound = vowel | diphthong | (consonant , (vowel | diphthong)) ;
(* the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech *)
word = {articulate_sound}- ;
sentence = {word}- ;
@endebnf

Sorts of words, or parts of speech

@startebnf
word = article (* prefixed to substantives, when they are common names of things, to point them out, and to shew how far their signification extends *) |
  noun (* being the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion *) |
  pronoun (* standing instead of the noun *) |
  adjective (* added to the noun to express the quality of it *) |
  verb (* word by way of eminence, signifying to be, to do, or to suffer *) |
  adverb (* added to verbs, and also to adjectives and other adverbs, to express some circumstance belonging to them *) |
  preposition (* put before nouns and pronouns chiefly, to connect them with other words, and to shew their relation to them *) |
  conjunction (* connecting sentences together *) |
  interjection (* thrown in to express the affection of the speaker, though unnecessary with respect to the construction of the sentence *) ;
article = ("a" (* used in a vague sense to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate *) | "an" (* before a vowel or a silent h *) ) |
  "the" (* determines what particular thing is meant *) ;
noun = proper_noun | common_noun ;
pronoun = personal_pronoun | pronominal_adjective ;
pronominal_adjective = definitive | indefinite | relative | interrogative | reciprocal ;
adjective = positive | comparative | superlative ;
verb = active (* Action *) | passive (* Passion, or a Suffering, or the receiving of an Action *) | neuter (* Being, or a state or condition of being *) ;
@endebnf

Noun / Pronoun

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
class noun {
  number
  gender
  case
}
noun::number<--number
noun::gender<--gender
noun::case<--case
class pronoun {
  person
  number
  gender
  case
}
pronoun::person<--person
pronoun::number<--number
pronoun::gender<--gender
pronoun::case<--case
class first implements person
class second implements person
class third implements person
class singular implements number
class plural implements number
class masculine implements gender
class feminine implements gender
class neuter implements gender
class nominative implements case
class genitive implements case
class possessive implements case
class objective implements case
@enduml

Verb

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
class verb {
  person
  number
  time
  mode
}
verb::person<--person
verb::number<--number
verb::time<--time
verb::mode<--mode
time <|-- indefinite
time <|-- definite
class first implements person
class second implements person
class third implements person
class singular implements number
class plural implements number
class present implements indefinite
class past implements indefinite
class future implements indefinite
class present_imperfect implements definite
class present_perfect implements definite
class past_imperfect implements definite
class past_perfect implements definite
class future_imperfect implements definite
class future_perfect implements definite
class indicative implements mode
class imperative implements mode
class subjunctive implements mode
class infinitive implements mode
class participle implements mode
@enduml

Preposition

@startebnf
preposition = "out" | "in" | "through" | "under" | "by" | "to" | "from" | "of" |
  ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Conjunction

@startebnf
conjunction = copulative (* to connect, or to continue, the Sentence *) | disjunctive (* to express Opposition of meaning in different degrees*) ;
copulative = "and" (* an addition *) |
  "if" (* a supposition, or condition *) |
  "as" |
  "because" (* a cause *) |
  "then" (* a motive *) |
  "that" |
  "therefore" (* an inference *) |
  ?etc.? ;
disjunctive = "as" | "or" | "but" | "than" | "although" | "unless" |
  ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Interjection

@startebnf
vocative = "o" , noun ;
@endebnf

3 - Kerl: A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language

Traditional English grammar, described using UML class diagrams.

pg. 59:

The Grammar of a language shows how its words are formed, modilied, and arranged, to express thoughts, either in speaking or in writing, according to established usage.

Words

letter

a character that denotes one or more of the elementary sounds of language.

syllable

a letter, or two or more combined, pronounced as one unbroken sound.

word

a syllable, or two or more combined, used as the sign of some idea.

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  letter <|-- vowel
  letter <|-- consonant
  word <|-- monosyllable
  word <|-- dissyllable
  word <|-- trisyllable
  word <|-- polysyllable
  word *-- letter
  monosyllable *-- syllable
  dissyllable *-- syllable
  trisyllable *-- syllable
  polysyllable *-- syllable
  syllable *-- letter
@enduml

Word formation

Words classified according as they are formed, or not formed, from one another:

primitive word

not formed from another

derivative word

formed from another

compound word

composed of two or more others

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  word <|-- primitive
  word <|-- derivative
  word <|-- compound
@enduml

Parts of speech

noun

denote name of object

pronoun

a word that supplies the place of a noun.

article

a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied.

adjective

to express the quality, condition, or circumstance of object

verb

to express action, or state of existence

adverbs

to describe their actions, or to show the nature or degree of their qualities

prepositions

to express their positions or relations to one another

conjunctions

to continue the discourse, or to connect its parts

interjections

to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up suddenly within me.

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  word <|-- noun
  word <|-- pronoun
  word <|-- article
  word <|-- adjective
  word <|-- verb
  word <|-- preposition
  word <|-- conjunction
  word <|-- interjection
@enduml

Sentence formation

subject

denotes that of which something is said or affirmed.

predicate

denotes what is said or affirmed.

A simple subject has but one nominative to which the predicate refers ; a compound subject has more than one.

A simple predicate has but one finite verb referring to the subject ; a compound predicate has more than one.

phrase

two or more words rightly put together, but not making a proposition.

proposition

a subject combined with its predicate.

clause

any one of two or more propositions which together make a sentence.

sentence

a thought expressed by words.

A simple sentence contains but one proposition.

A compound sentence contains two or more clauses.

discourse

any series of properly related sentences, expressing continuous thought.

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  discourse *-- sentence
  sentence o-- simple
  sentence o-- compound
  simple *-- proposition
  compound *-- clause
  proposition o-- subject
  proposition o-- predicate
  clause *-- proposition
@enduml

Noun / Pronoun

proper noun

an individual name.

common noun

a generic name.

pronoun

a word that supplies the place of a noun.

personal pronoun

one of a class of pronouns whose chief use is, to distinguish the different persons.

relative pronoun

one that makes its clause dependent on another clause.

interrogative pronoun

one used to ask a question.

compound pronoun

a simple pronoun with self, selves, ever, so, or soever, annexed to it ; or it is a pronoun consisting of two words.

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
noun<|-- personal_noun
noun<|-- common_noun
@enduml

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
pronoun<|-- personal_pronoun
pronoun<|-- relative_pronoun
pronoun<|-- interrogative_pronoun
pronoun<|-- compound_pronoun
@enduml

Properties of nouns and pronouns

masculine gender

denotes males.

feminine gender

denotes females.

common gender

denotes either males or females, or both.

neuter gender

denotes neither males nor females.

first person

denotes the speaker.

second person

represents an object as spoken to.

third person

represents an object as spoken of.

singular number

denotes but one.

plural number

denotes more than one.

collective noun

a noun denoting, in the singular form, more than one object of the same kind.

nominative case

the case of a noun or pronoun to which a predicate directly refers, or used independently or absolutely.

possessive case

denotes possession.

objective case

the case of a noun or pronoun used as the object of a verb or preposition.

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
class noun {
  number
  gender
  case
}
noun::number<--number
noun::gender<--gender
noun::case<--case
class pronoun {
  person
  number
  gender
  case
}
pronoun::person<--person
pronoun::number<--number
pronoun::gender<--gender
pronoun::case<--case
class first implements person
class second implements person
class third implements person
class singular implements number
class plural implements number
class masculine implements gender
class feminine implements gender
class common implements gender
class neuter implements gender
class nominative implements case
class possessive implements case
class objective implements case
@enduml

Article

definite article

shows that some particular object or objects are meant.

indefinite article

shows that no particular one of the kind is meant.

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
article<|-- definite
article<|-- indefinite
class the implements definite
class a implements indefinite
class an implements indefinite
note bottom of a : Before words beginning with a consonant
note bottom of an : Before words beginning with a vowel

@enduml

Adjective

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
adjective <|-- descriptive
descriptive <|-- participial
adjective <|-- definite
definite <|-- pronominal
definite <|-- numeral
pronominal <|-- demonstrative
pronominal <|-- indefinite
pronominal <|-- distributive
numeral <|-- cardinal
numeral <|-- ordinal
class beautiful implements descriptive
class twinkling implements participial
class this implements demonstrative
class any implements indefinite
class each implements distributive
class one implements cardinal
class first implements ordinal
@enduml

Degrees of comparison

4 - Evolution of English Grammar

Introduction

Traditional grammar has its origins in the principles formulated by the scholars of Ancient Greece and Rome. (Valeika, 2003, p. 8)

Prescriptive grammar

Early English grammars were modelled after Latin grammar, and were prescriptive (concerned with rules for the correct use of English). One of the earliest, and well-known, example of this is (Lowth 1762) which states in p. x:

The principal design of a Grammar of any Language is to teach us to express ourselves with propriety in that Language, and to be able to judge of every phrase and form of construction, whether it be right or not. The plain way of doing this, is to lay down rules, and to illustrate them by examples. But besides shewing what is right, the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong.

The notion of “right” and “wrong” is based on Latin, and therefore does not necessarily describe English as it was commonly used.

According to (Valeika, 2003, p. 12):

… prescriptive grammar could be characterized by the following features:

1. Patterning after Latin in classifying words into word classes and establishing grammatical categories;
2. Reliance on meaning and function in definitions;
3. Approach to correctness: the standards of correctness are logic, which was identified with Latin, and the past.
4. Emphasis on writing rather than speech.

References

Lowth 1762

Robert Lowth, A Short Introduction To English Grammar: With Critical Notes, London: J. Hughs (1762)

Valeika 2003

Laimutis Valeika, Janina Buitkienė, An Introductory Course in Theoretical English Grammar, Vilnius Pedagogical University, Department of English Philology (2003)