1. Sandhi kaṇḍa

Saññā (Representation)

2. Akkharāpādayo ekacattālīsaṃ (41 letters)

Akkharāpi akārādayo ekacattālīsaṃ suttantopakārā. Taṃ yathā-a ā-i ī-u ū-e o, ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ-iti.

The letters beginning with ‘a’ are forty-one, useful for the suttas. They are as follows: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, o, ka, kha, ga, gha, ṅa, ca, cha, ja, jha, ña, ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ḍha, ṇa, ta, tha, da, dha, na, pa, pha, ba, bha, ma, ya, ra, la, va, sa, ha, ḷa, aṃ.

3. Tatthodantāsarā aṭṭha (8 vowels ending with “o”)

Tattha akkharesu okārantā aṭṭha sarā nāma. Tattheti vattate.

The first 8 letters ending with “o” are called “sarā” (vowels).

4. Lahumattā tayo rassā (3 short vowels)

Tattha saresu lahumattā a, i, u iti tayo rassā.

The three metrically light vowels are called “rassā” (short): a, i, u.

5. Aññe dīghā (other vowels are long)

Tattha saresu rassehaññe dīghā.

Saṃyogato pubbe eo rassā ivoccante, anantarā byañjanā saṃyogo. Ettha, seyyo, oṭṭho, sotthi.

The other vowels are metrically heavy and called “dīghā” (long).

“E” and “o: before conjunct consonant clusters and double consonants are articulated short.

• seyyo
• oṭṭho
• sotthi

6. Sesā byañjanā (The rest are consonants)

Sare ṭhapetvā sesā kādayo niggahītantā byañjanā.

The rest of the letters, beginning with “ka”, are “byañjanā” (consonants).

7. Vaggā pañcapañcaso mantā (Five groups of 5 ending with “ma”)

Byañjanānaṃ kādayo makārantā pañcapañcaso akkharavanto vaggā.

There are 5 groups of 5 letters, beginning with “ka” and ending with “ma”.

• “ka”-group

  𑀓

  ka /k/

  𑀔

  kha /kʰ/

  𑀕

  ga /ɡ/

  𑀖

  gha /ɡʱ/

  𑀗

  ṅa /ŋ/
• “ca”-group

  𑀘

  ca /c/

  𑀙

  cha /cʰ/

  𑀚

  ja /ɟ/

  𑀛

  jha /ɟʱ/

  𑀜

  ña /ɲ/
• “ṭa”-group

  𑀝

  ṭa /ʈ/

  𑀞

  ṭha /ʈʰ/

  𑀟

  ḍa /ɖ/

  𑀠

  ḍha /ɖʱ/

  𑀡

  ṇa /ɳ/
• “ta”-group

  𑀢

  ta /t̪/

  𑀣

  tha /t̪ʰ/

  𑀤

  da /d̪/

  𑀥

  dha /d̪ʱ/

  𑀦

  na /n/
• “pa”-group

  𑀧

  pa /p/

  𑀨

  pha /pʰ/

  𑀩

  ba /b/

  𑀪

  bha /bʱ/

  𑀫

  ma /m/

8. Vaggānaṃ paṭhamadutiyā so cāghoso. Ḷantāññe ghosā. (voiced and unvoiced consonants)

Ghosāghosasaññā ca ‘‘parasamaññā payoge’’ti saṅgahītā. Evaṃ liṅga, sabbanāma, pada, upasagga, nipāta, taddhita, ākhyāta, kammappavacanīyādisaññā ca.

The first and second letters in each group, and “sa”, are “āghosa” (unvoiced, or surds). The remaining letters until “ḷa” are “ghosa” (voiced, or sonants).

These terms (āghosa and ghosa) are adopted from Sanskrit grammar in accordance with Kaccāyana’s “parasamaññā payoge” rule, as are other terms such as:

• liṅga (grammatical gender)
• sabbanāma (pronoun)
• pada (word)
• upasagga (prefix)
• nipāta (particle)
• taddhita (derived word)
• ākhyāta (verb)
• kammappavacanīyādisaññā (other words representing actions)

9. Aṃiti niggahītaṃ (“aṃ” is niggahīta or “nasal consonant”)

Aṃiti akārato paraṃ yo bindu sūyate, taṃ niggahītaṃ nāma.

Bindu cūḷāmaṇākāro, niggahītanti vuccate.

Kevalassā ppayogattā, akāro sannidhīyate.

The “dot” that is above the letter “𑀅” (“a”) - written as “𑀅𑀁” (aṃ) is called the niggahīta or “nasal consonant”. The “dot” represents a small jewel, and is pronounced as a nasalised “stop”. The niggahīta (ṃ) usually follows the letter “a” (“𑀅”), that is why the letter is written as “a” with a dot (“𑀅𑀁”).

10. A, kavagga, hā kaṇḍajā, i, cavagga, yā tālujā, u, pavaggā oṭṭhajā, ṭavagga, ra, ḷā muddhajā, tavagga, la, sā dantajā, e kaṇṭhatālujo, o kaṇṭhoṭṭhajo, vo dantoṭṭhajo (Pronunciation)

Sarasandhi (Vowel sandhi)

Loka aggoityasmiṃ ‘‘pubbamadhoṭhita massaraṃ sarena viyojaye’’ti pubbabyañjanaṃ sarato puthakkātabbaṃ.

For example, loka + aggo (best in the world):

• Before succeeding word, detach vowel from (vowel-less) consonant, in accordance to Kaccāyana’s “pubbaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ sarena viyojaye” rule: lo + (k + a) + aggo
• Vowel should be separated before consonant: lok + a + (a + g) + go

11. Sarā sare lopaṃ (elide vowel before vowel)

Anantare sare pare sarā lopaṃ papponti.

‘‘Naye paraṃ yutte’’ti assaro byañjano parakkharaṃ netabbo lokaggo.

• Elide vowel before another vowel: lok + (a + a) + ggo
• The vowel-less consonant should be joined to the next vowel, in accordance to Kaccāyana’s “naye paraṃ yutte” rule: lo + (k + a) + ggo
• Final result: lokaggo

Saretyasmiṃ opasilesiko kāsasattamī, tato vaṇṇakālabyavadhāne kāriyaṃ na hoti. Yathā-maṃ ahā sīti, ‘‘pamādamanuyuñjantī’’tyādigāthāyaṃ ‘janā appamāda’nti ca. Evaṃ sabbasandhīsu.

There is no elision of a vowel + niggahīta, or after a metrical pause which prohibit the application of sandhi.

Examples:

• maṃ + ahāsi (no elision as vowels are separated by “ṃ”)

• in the verse starting with “pamādamanuyuñjanti” (Dhp 26):

  pamādamanuyuñjanti bālā dummedhino janā |
  appamādañca medhāvi dhanaṃ seṭṭhaṃ’va rakkhati ||

  No vowel is elided between janā + appamādañca due to metrical pause. Thus for all sandhis.

Anantaraṃ parassa sarassa lopaṃ vakkhati, tasmānena pubbassa lopo ñāyati, teneva sattamīniddiṭṭhassa paratāpi gamyate.

Regarding the elision following another vowel, the elision of the previous vowel is understood because of the use of the 7th (locative) case for “sare”.

Saretyadhikāro. Pana ime pana imetīha-sarā lopaṃ itveva.

For the next rule concerning vowels, consider elision of vowel for the example of pana + ime

12. Vā paro asarūpo (or, next dissimilar vowel is elided)

Asamānarūpāsaramhā paro saro vā lupyate, paname, panime.

As the vowels are dissimilar, either vowel can be elided:

• pana + ime = paname
• pana + ime = panime

Bandhussa iva, na upetītīdha –

And now let’s consider the example of bandhussa + iva.

13. Kvacāsavaṇṇaṃ lutte (optionally, substitution after elision)

Sare lutte parasarassa kvaci asavaṇṇo hotīti i u iccetesaṃ ṭhānāsannā e o. Bandhusseva. Nopeti.

After elision of previous vowel, the next vowel is sometimes changed to a different vowel, i.e. “i” and “u” becomes “e” and “o”:

• bandhussa + iva = bandhuss + (a + i) + va = bandhuss + (i→e) + va = bandhusseva
• na + upeti = n + (a + u) + peti = n + (u→o) + peti = nopeti

Tatra ayaṃ, yāni idha, bahu upakāraṃ, saddhā idha, tathā upamantyetasmiṃ –

Consider the following examples:

• tatra + ayaṃ
• yāni + idha
• bahu + upakāraṃ
• saddhā + idha
• tathā + upamaṃ

14. Dīghaṃ (next vowel becomes long)

Sare lutte paro saro kvaci ṭhānāsannaṃ dīghaṃ yāti. Tatrāyaṃ, yānīdha, bahūpakāraṃ, saddhīdha, tathūpamaṃ.

After elision of previous vowel, the next vowel is sometimes lengthened:

Examples:

• tatra + ayaṃ = tatr + (a + a) + yaṃ = tatr + (a→ā) + yaṃ = tatrāyaṃ
• yāni + idha = yān + (i + i) + dha = yān + (i→ī) + dha = yānīdha
• bahu + upakāraṃ = bah + (u + u) + pakāraṃ = bah + (u→ū) + pakāraṃ = bahūpakāraṃ
• saddhā + idha = saddh + (ā + i) + dha = saddh + (i→ī) + dha = saddhīdha
• tathā + upamaṃ = tath + (ā + u) + pamaṃ = tath + (u→ū) + pamaṃ = tathūpamaṃ

Kiṃsu idhetyatra –

Consider example kiṃsu + idha.

15. Pubbo ca (also, the previous vowel becomes long)

Sare lutte pubbo ca kvaci dīghaṃ yāti. Kiṃ sūdha.

After (optional) elision of (next) vowel, the previous vowel is sometimes lengthened:

• kiṃsu + idha = kiṃs + (u + i) + dha = kiṃs + (u→ū) + dha = kiṃsūdha

Te ajja, te ahaṃtettha –

Consider examples te + ajja and te + ahaṃ.

16. Yamedantassādeso (ending “e” is replaced with “y”)

Sare pare antassa ekārassa kvaci yo ādeso hoti, tyajja, ‘‘dīgha’’nti byañjane pare kvaci dīgho, tyāhaṃ.

“e” ending followed by another vowel is sometimes replaced by “y”, and sometimes the next vowel before consonant is also lengthened, in accordance with Kaccāyana’s “dīgha” rule.

• te + ajja = t + (e→y + a) + jja = tyajja
• te + ahaṃ = t + (e→y + a→ā) + haṃ = tyāhaṃ

Kvacīti kiṃ. Nettha.

What does “sometimes” mean? There are exceptions to the rule.

• na + ettha = n + (a + e) + ettha = nettha (rule not applied)

So assa, anu etityettha –

Consider examples so + assa and anu + eti.

17. Vamodudantānaṃ (ending “o” and “u” is replaced with “v”)

Sare pare anto kārukārānaṃ kvaci vo ādeso hoti. Svassa, anveti.

“o” and “u” ending followed by another vowel is sometimes replaced with “v”.

• so + assa = s + (o→v + a) + ssa = svassa
• anu + eti = an + (u→v + e) + ti = anveti

Kvacīti kiṃ. Tayassu, sametāyasmā.

Exceptions:

• tayo + assu = tay + (o + a) + ssu = tayassu (rule not applied)
• sametu + āyasmā = samet + (u + ā) + yasmā = sametāyasmā (rule not applied)

Idha ahaṃ tīdha –

Consider example idha + ahaṃ.

18. Do dhassa ca. (also, “d” from “dh”)

Sare pare dhassa kvaci do hoti. Dīghe – idāhaṃ. Kvacīti kiṃ. Idheva. Cakārena byañjanepi, idha bhikkhave.

“dh” ending followed by another vowel is sometimes replaced with “d”.

• idha + ahaṃ = idh + (a + a) + haṃ = i + (dh→d + a→ā) + haṃ = idāhaṃ

Exceptions:

• idha + eva = idh + (a + e) + va = idheva (rule not applied)

The replacement may occur even if “dha” is followed by a consonant letter.

• idha + bhikkhave = i + (dha→da) bhikkhave = idabhikkhave

Pati antaṃ, vutti assetīha –

Consider examples pati + antuṃ, and vutti + assa.

19. Ivaṇṇo yannavā (occasionally, “i”-vaṇṇa is replaced with “y”)

Sare pare ivaṇṇassa yo navā hoti. Kata yakārassa tissa ‘‘sabbo cantī’’ti kvaci cādese ‘‘paradvebhāvo ṭhāne’’ti sarato parabyañjanassa ṭhānāsannavasā dvittaṃ. Paccantaṃ, vutyassa.

“i”-vaṇṇa (“i” and “ī”) followed by another vowel is occasionally replaced with “y”. Sometimes, after “ti” is changed to “y”, “ty” becomes “c” (based on Kaccāyana’s “sabbo canti” rule), next consonant following vowel can be doubled (based on Kaccāyana’s “paradvebhāvo ṭhāne” rule).

• pati + antuṃ = pa + (ti→ty→c→cc + a) + ntaṃ = paccantaṃ
• vutti + assa = vut + (ti→y + a) + ssa = vutyassa

Navāti kiṃ. Paṭaggi,

Exception:

• pati + aggi = pat + (i + a) ++ ggi (rule not applied) = pa + (t→ṭ) + aggi = paṭaggi

Ettha ‘‘kvaci paṭi patisse’’ti patissa paṭi, vaṇṇaggahaṇaṃ sabbattha rassadīgha saṅgahaṇatthaṃ.

Here, following Kaccāyana’s “kvaci paṭi patisse” rule, “t” becomes “ṭ”, Using the term “vaṇṇa” refers to both short and long versions of a phoneme.

Yathā evetīha –

Consider example yathā + eva.

20. Evādissa ri pubbo ca rasso (start of “eva” replaced with “ri”, and shortening of previous vowel)

Sarato parassa evassādiekāro rittaṃ navā yāti. Pubbo ca ṭhānāsannaṃ rassaṃ. Yathariva. Yatheva.

Occasionally, the “e” of “eva” following vowel is changed to “ri”. The previous vowel is shortened.

• yathā + eva = yath + (ā→a + e→ri) + va = yathariva
• yathā + eva = yath + (ā + e) + va = yatheva (rule not applied)

Na imassa, ti aṅgikaṃ, lahu essati, attha atthaṃ, ito āyati, tasmā iha, sabbhi eva, cha abhiññā, putha eva, pā evatīha vā tveva –

Consider examples:

• na + imassa
• ti + aṅgikaṃ
• lahu + essati
• attha + atthaṃ
• ito + āyati
• tasmā + iha
• sabbhi + eva
• cha + abhiññā
• putha + eva
• pā + eva

21. Ya va ma da na ta ra ḷā cāgamā. (insertion of “y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r”, “ḷ”, “c”, “g”)

Sare pare yādayo āgamā vā honti, cakārena go ca. Nayimassa, tivaṅgikaṃ, lahumessati, attadatthaṃ, itonāyati, tasmātiha, sabbhireva, chaḷabhiñā, puthageva, ‘‘rassa’’nti byañjane pare kvaci rasso. Pageva.

“y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r”, “ḷ” can be inserted following a vowel. “c” and “g” also. The vowel before the insertion can sometimes be shortened.

• na + imassa = n + (a + y + i) + massa = nayimassa
• ti + aṅgikaṃ = t + (i + v + a) + ṅgikaṃ = tivaṅgikaṃ
• lahu + essati = lah + (u + m + e) + ssati = lahumessati
• attha + atthaṃ = atth + (a + d + a) + tthaṃ = attadatthaṃ
• ito + āyati = it + (o + n + ā) + yati = itonāyati
• tasmā + iha = tasm + (ā + t + i) + ha = tasmātiha
• sabbhi + eva = sabbh + (i + r + e) + va = sabbhireva
• cha + abhiññā = ch + (a + l + a) + bhiññā = chaḷabhiñā
• putha + eva = puth + (a + g + e) + va = puthageva
• pā + eva = p + (ā→a + g + e) + va = pageva

Vāti kiṃ. Cha abhiññā, putha eva, pā eva.

Ettha ‘‘sare kvacī’’ti sarānaṃ pakati hoti, sassarūpameva, na vikārotyattho.

Exceptions:

• cha abhiññā (no sandhi insertion)
• putha eva (no sandhi insertion)
• pā eva (no sandhi insertion)

According to Kaccāyana “sare kvaci” rule, sometimes there is no morphological transformation of original vowels.

Abhi uggatotyatra

Consider example of “abhi” + “uggato”.

22. Abbho abhi (“abbh” from “abhi”)

‘‘Abbho abhī’’ti abhissa abbho. Abbhuggato.

According to Kaccāyana “Abbho abhi” rule, “abhi” can become “abbh”

• abhi + uggato = abh + (i→h) + uggato = abbhuggato

Byañjanasandhi (Consonant sandhi)

Byañjanetyadhikāro. Kvacītveva. So bhikkhu, kacci nu tvaṃ, jānema tantīha –

The following rules sometimes apply for consonants at start of word to be joined to previous word.

Consider examples:

• so + bhikkhu
• kacci + nu + tvaṃ
• jānema + taṃ

23. Lopañca tatrākāro (elision, then insertion of “a” in place)

Byañjane pare sarānaṃ kvaci lopohoti, tatra lutte ṭhāne akārāgamo, cakārena okārukārāpi. Sabhikkhu kaccino tvaṃ, jānemu taṃ.

Vowel is sometimes elided if followed by consonant, and in place of the elision “a” is inserted. Instead of “a”, “o” and “u” can also be inserted.

• so + bhikkhu = s + (o→a) + bhikkhu = sabhikkhu
• kacci + nu + tvaṃ = kacci + n + (u→o) + tvaṃ = kaccino tvaṃ
• jānema + taṃ = jānem + (a→u) + taṃ = jānemu taṃ

Kvacīti kiṃ, somuni.

Exception:

• so + muni = somuni (no rule applied)

Ughoso , ākhātantīha – dvebhāve ṭhāne itveva.

Consider examples (duplication in place):

• u + ghoso
• ākhātaṃ

24. Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā. (in “vagga” “ghosa/āghosa” 3rd and 1st)

Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ catutthadutiyānaṃ tabbagge tatiyapaṭhamā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ yutte ṭhāne, ugghoso, rasse akkhātaṃ.

Within a “vagga” (consonant group), the third letter (of the group) replaces voiced consonants, and the first letter replaces unvoiced consonants, in their respective positions when appropriate. This rule applies to aspiration and when a short vowel is indicated.

• u + ghoso = u + g + ghoso = ugghoso
• ā + khātaṃ = ā→a + k + khātaṃ = akkhātaṃ

Para sahassaṃ, atippakhotīha

Consider examples:

• para + sahassaṃ
• atippa + kho

25. kvaci o byañjane (sometimes “o” before consonant)

‘‘kvaci o byañjane’’ti okārāgamo. Parosahassaṃ. Gāgame ca, atippagokho.

In accordance to Kaccāyana rule “kvaci o byañjane”, in some cases, the vowel ‘o’ is inserted before a consonant.

Examples:

• para + sahassaṃ = par + (a + o) + sahassaṃ = parosahassaṃ (“more than a thousand”)
• atippa + kho = atippa + (g + o) + kho = atippagokho (after insertion of “g” in accordance to rule 21 (“Ya va ma da na ta ra ḷā cāgamā”)

Ava naddhātyatra

Consider transformation of “ava”.

26. o avasse (“o” from “ava”)

‘‘o avasse’’ti kvaci avassa o. Onaddhā.

According to Kaccāyana rule “o avasse”, “ava” is sometimes changed to “o”

Example:

• ava + naddhā = (ava→o) + naddhā = onaddhā

Kvacīti kiṃ. Avasussatu.

Exception:

• ava + sussatu = avasussatu (no rule applied)

Niggahītasandhi (Niggahita Sandhi)

Niggahītantyadhikāro . Kiṃ kato, saṃ jāto, saṃ ṭhito, taṃ dhanaṃ, taṃ mittantiha –

This is the section on words ending with niggahīta.

Consider examples:

• kiṃ + kato
• saṃ + jāto
• saṃ + ṭhito
• taṃ + dhanaṃ
• taṃ + mittaṃ

27. Vaggantaṃ vā vagge. (sometimes, end of “vagga” from ṃ before “vagga”)

Vaggabyañjane pare bindussa tabbagganto vā hoti. Kiṅkato, sañjāto, saṇṭhito, tandhanaṃ, tammittaṃ.

When a word ending in niggahīta (ṃ) is followed by a consonant of one of the five consonant groups (vagga), the niggahīta may optionally be changed to the nasal consonant of that group (the letter with the “dot” in that group).

Examples:

• kiṃ + kato = ki + (ṃ→ṅ + k) + ato = kiṅkato
• saṃ + jāto = sa + (ṃ→ñ + j) + āto = sañjāto
• saṃ + ṭhito = sa + (ṃ→ṇ + ṭ) + hito = saṇṭhito
• taṃ + dhanaṃ = ta + (ṃ→n + d) + hanaṃ = tandhanaṃ
• taṃ + mittaṃ = ta + (ṃ→m + m) + ittaṃ = tammittaṃ

Vāti kiṃ. Na taṃ kammaṃ.

Exception:

• na + taṃ + kammaṃ = nataṃkammaṃ (rule is not applied)

Vākāreneva le lo ca. Pulliṅgaṃ.

Similarly, “ṃ” can become “l” before another “l”

Example:

• puṃ + liṅgaṃ = pu (ṃ→l + l) + iṅgaṃ = pulliṅgaṃ

Vātyadhikāro . Evaṃ assa, etaṃ avocetīha –

Optional governing rule for examples:

• evaṃ + assa
• etaṃ + avoca

28. Madā sare. (“m” and “d” before vowels)

Sare pare binduno ma dā vā honti. Evamassa, etadavoca.

When a vowel follows a niggahita, sometimes the niggahita can be changed to “m” or “d”

Examples:

• evaṃ + assa = eva + (ṃ→m + a) + ssa = evamassa
• etaṃ + avoca = eta + (ṃ→d + a) + voca = etadavoca

Vāti kiṃ. Maṃ ajini.

Exception:

• maṃ + ajini (rule not applied)

Taṃ eva, taṃ hītīha –

Examples:

• taṃ + eva
• taṃ + hi

29. Eheñaṃ. (from “e”, “h” to “ñ”)

Ekāre, he ca pare binduno ño vā hoti. Dvitte – taññeva, tameva. Tañhi, taṃ hi.

When ’e’ or ‘he’ follows the niggahita (“ṃ”), it may optionally be changed to (potentially doubled) “ñ”.

Examples:

• taṃ + eva = ta + (ṃ→ññ + e) + va = taññeva
• taṃ + hi = ta + (ṃ→ñ + h) + i = tañhi

Exceptions:

• taṃ + eva = ta + (ṃ→m + e) + va = tameva
• taṃ + hi = taṃhi (rule not applied)

Saṃyogotīha –

Consider example “saṃ + yogo”.

30. Saye ca. (and with “y”)

Yakāre pare tena saha binduno ño vā hoti. Dvitte – saññogo, saṃyogo.

And for “y” - when niggahita (“ṃ”) is before “y”, it may optionally be changed to (potentially doubled) “ñ”.

Example:

• saṃ + yogo = sa + (ṃ→ññ + y) + ogo = saññogo

Exception:

• saṃ + yogo = saṃyogo (rule not applied)

Cakkhu aniccaṃ, ava sirotīha - āgamo, kvacitveva.

Consider examples - optional insertion of “ṃ”:

• cakkhu aniccaṃ
• ava siro

31. Niggahītañca. (and niggahitaṃ)

Sare, byañjane vā pare kvaci bindvāgamo hoti. Cakkhuṃaniccaṃ, avaṃsiro.

Sometimes, a niggahita (“ṃ”) is inserted before a following vowel or consonant.

• cakkhu + aniccaṃ = cakkh + (u + ṃ + a) + niccaṃ = cakkhuṃaniccaṃ
• ava + siro = av + (a + ṃ + s) + iro = avaṃsiro

Vidūnaṃ aggaṃ, tāsaṃ ahaṃtīha –

Consider examples:

• vidūnaṃ + aggaṃ
• tāsaṃ + ahaṃ

32. Kvaci lopaṃ (sometimes elision)

‘‘Kvaci lopaṃ’’ti sare bindulopo, vidūnaggaṃ. Dīghetāsāhaṃ.

According to Kaccāyana’s rule “Kvaci lopaṃ”, the niggahita (“ṃ”) before a vowel is sometimes elided (and the vowel can also be lengthened).

Examples:

• vidūnaṃ + aggaṃ = vidūna + (ṃ + a) + ggaṃ = vidūnaggaṃ
• tāsaṃ + ahaṃ = tāsa + (ṃ + a→ā) + haṃ = tāsāhaṃ

Buddhānaṃ sāsanaṃ, saṃ rāgotīha –

Consider examples:

• buddhānaṃ + sāsanaṃ
• saṃ + rāgo

33. Byañjane ce (if consonant)

‘‘Byañjane ce’’ti bindulopo, buddhānasāsanaṃ. Dīghesārāgo.

According to Kaccāyana’s rule “Byañjane ce”, the niggahita (“ṃ”) before a consonant is sometimes elided (and the prior vowel can also be lengthened).

• buddhānaṃ + sāsanaṃ = buddhāna + (ṃ + s) + āsanaṃ = buddhānasāsanaṃ
• saṃ + rāgo = s + (a→ā + ṃ + r) + āgo = sārāgo

Bījaṃ ivetīha –

Consider example “bījaṃ ive”.

34. Paro vā saro. (or next vowel)

Binduto paro saro vā lupyate, bījaṃva.

The next vowel following a niggahita (ṃ) is optionally elided.

• bījaṃ + iva = bīja + (ṃ + i) + va = bījaṃva

Evaṃ assetīha –

Consider example “evaṃ assa”.

35. Byañjano ca visaññogo. (and detached consonant)

Binduto pare sare lutte saṃyogo byañjano vinaṭṭhasaṃyogo hotīti pubbasalopo. Evaṃsa.

After a vowel following a niggahita (ṃ) is elided, the attached consonant that has become unattached is dropped.

• evaṃ + assa = eva + (ṃ + a + s) + sa = evaṃsa

Vomissaka sandhī (Combination sandhi)

36. Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ vuttayogato. (besides those seen, apply combinations)

Idhāniddiṭṭhā sandhayo vuttānusārena ñe yyā, yathā – yadi evaṃ, bodhi aṅgātīha – yādese iminā suttena dayakārasaṃyogassa jo, dhayakārasaṃyogassa jho, dvitte – yajjevaṃ, bojjhaṅgā.

For unexplained sandhi conjunctions not previously seen, eg.:

• yadi + evaṃ
• bodhi + aṅgā

Apply whichever appropriate previously stated rules, eg.:

1. “d” attached to “y” becomes “j”
2. “dh” attached to “y” becomes “jh”

together with doubling:

• yadi + evaṃ = ya + (d→j + i + e) + vaṃ = yajjevaṃ
• bodhi + aṅgā = bo + (dh→jh + i + a) + ṅgā = bojjhaṅgā

37. Asadisasaṃyoge ekasarūpatā ca. (and dissimilar conjunctions becomes similar)

Pari esanātīha – yādese rakārassa yo, payyesanā.

Example: in “pari + esanā”, “r” becomes “y”:

• pari + esanā = pari + y + esanā (by rule 21 “ya va ma da na ta ra ḷā cāgamā”) = pa (r→y + i + y + e) + sanā = payyesanā

Translate the following Pali grammatical rule into English:

38. Vaṇṇānaṃ bahuttaṃ, viparītatā ca. (and various substitutions, reversals)

Sarati, iti eva, sā itthī, busaṃ eva, bahu ābādho, adhi abhavi, sukhaṃ, dukkhaṃ, jīvotīha –

Consider examples:

• √sar + a + ti
• iti + eva
• sā + itthī
• busaṃ + eva
• bahu + ābādho
• adhi abhavi
• sukhaṃ
• dukkhaṃ
• jīvo

Māgamo sakāre akārassa u ca, sumarati.

After “ma” is added after “sa”, previous “a” becomes “u”:

• √sar + a + ti = s + (a→u + ma) + rati = sumarati

Issa vo, itveva.

“i” becomes “v”:

• iti + eva = it + (i→v + e) + va = itveva

Paralope ākārassa o, sotthī.

When the next letter is elided, “ā” becomes “o”:

• sā + itthī = s + (ā→o + i) + tthī = sotthī

Mādese , pubbadīghe ca ekārassa i. Busāmiva.

When “m” is substituted and the preceding vowel is lengthened, “e” becomes “i”:

• busaṃ + eva = bus (a→ā + ṃ→m + e) + va = busāmiva

Vādese havakāravipariyayo. Bavhābādho.

When “v” is substituted, “h” and “v” are reversed:

• bahu + ābādho = bah + (u→v) + ābādho = ba + (hv→vh) + ābādho = bavhābādho

Adhissa kvaci addho, dīghe-addhābhavi.

Sometimes “adhi” becomes “addh”, with lengthening of following vowel:

• adhi + abhavi = (adhi→addh + a→ā) + bhavi = addhābhavi

Binduno, okārassa ca e. Sukhe, dukkhe, jīve.

“aṃ” and “o” becomes “e”:

• sukhaṃ = sukh + (aṃ→e) = sukhe
• dukkhaṃ = dukkh + (aṃ→e) = dukkhe
• jīvo = jīv + (o→e) = jīve

39. Radānaṃ ḷo (“r” and “d” replaced by “ḷ’)

paṭibodho, pariḷāho.

Examples:

• pari + bodho = pa + (r→ḷ) + i + bodho = paḷibodho
• pari + dāho = pari + (d→ḷ) + āho = pariḷāho

40. Sare, byañjane vā pare binduno kvaci mo. (Sometimes “ṃ” can become “ma” before a vowel or consonant.)

Mama abhāsi, buddhama saraṇaṃ, pubbe mo paraṃ na netabbo ayuttattā.

Examples:

• maṃ + bhāsi = ma + (ṃ→ma) + bhāsi = mamabhāsi
• buddhaṃ + saraṇaṃ = buddha + (ṃ→ma) + saraṇaṃ = buddhamasaraṇaṃ

pubbe mo paraṃ na netabbo ayuttattā

Exception: previous “m” should not be joined to next syllable if it’s inappropriate

41. Binduto parasarāna maññassaratāpi. (after an “ṃ” change to another letter, the following vowel can also change to another vowel)

Taṃ iminā, evaṃ imaṃ, kiṃ ahaṃ tīha-issa a. Tadaminā.

Issa u, akārassa ca e, bindulopādo. Evumaṃ, kehaṃ.

Examples:

• taṃ + iminā = ta + (ṃ→d + i→a) + minā = tadaminā
• evaṃ + imaṃ = eva + (ṃ→v + i→u) + maṃ = evumaṃ
• kiṃ + ahaṃ = k + (i + ṃ + a→e) + haṃ = kehaṃ

42. Vākyasukhuccāraṇatthaṃ, chandahānitthañca vaṇṇalopopi. (For ease of pronunciation in sentences and to maintain meter in verses, phonemes can be dropped)

Paṭisaṅkhāya yonisotīha – pubbayalopo, paṭisaṅkhāyoniso.

Example:

• paṭisaṅkhāya + yoniso = paṭisaṅkhā + (ya) + yoniso = paṭisaṅkhāyoniso

43. Alābūnityādo akāralopo. (eg. “alābūni”, the initial ‘a’ can be dropped)

Lābūni sīdanti, silā plavanti.

Examples:

• alābūni + sīdanti = a + lābūni + sīdanti = lābūni sīdanti
• silā plavanti

44. Vutyabhedāya vikāropi. (Changes can also occur to avoid breaking metrical rules)

Akaramhase tetyādo sakāre garuno ekārassa iminā lahuakāro, akaramhasa te kiccaṃ.

Example, the long “e” in “se” should become short “a”:

• akaramhase te = akaramhas + (e→a) + te = akaramhasa te

45. Akkharaniyamo chandaṃ, garulahuniyamo bhave vutti. (The arrangement of letters forms meter, and the pattern of heavy and light syllables forms rhythm.)

Dīgho, saṃyogādipubbo rasso ca garu, lahu tu rasso. Yathā- ā, assa, aṃ, a.

A long vowel or a short vowel followed by a conjunct consonant is heavy; a short vowel is light.

Examples:

• ā (heavy)
• assa (heavy + light)
• aṃ (heavy)
• a (light)

46. Evamaññāpi viññeyyā, saṃhitā tantiyā hitā. (Other sandhi rules should be understood as beneficial connections to the text.)

Saṃhitāti ca vaṇṇānaṃ, sannidhabyavadhānato.

These connections between symbols are for euphonic agreement.