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Documentation

This is the main section of the website, and covers my notes and summaries of key concepts from the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) and also Pāli as a language. It also contains references to other resources such as websites, books, and other learning aids.

1 - Overview

Background and various articles not related to learning Pāli or the Pāli canon.

This website documents my journey reading and studying Buddhist texts, primarily from the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) but also supplementary books and articles. My intent is to rely as much on the original Pāli terms and text where possible, and only rely on English translations as an interim aid to understanding. It also includes some notes on the Pāli language itself.

1.1 - My Journey along the aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo

Brief history of how I was introduced to Buddhism and my progress to date

Chris Tham at Nan Tien temple 2014

Early Childhood

My childhood is not important so I will mostly skip the details. Some have remarked to my parents that they sense an aura of spirituality in me even when I was young, that I had what some called “an old soul.” I was not aware that I was different in any way, except I had a very strong sense of curiosity and loved learning new things and exploring places.

My parents were agnostic, so I was not brought up with a strong sense or awareness of religion. My mother said (many years later) she avoided taking me to visit places of worship or participate in religious ceremonies as she said someone (a monk? a soothsayer?) once told her I had a strong mind and may anger gods and deities with my presence.

Discovery of Buddhism

When I was in my early teens, we visited Singapore and an uncle took us to a Buddhist temple. I can’t remember any details about the temple or any religious ceremony we may have attended, but my uncle gave me a book called “What Buddhists Believe” by Dr K Sri Dhammananda. Out of curiosity, I started reading the book that night and could not put it down until I finished.

Suddenly, everything made sense to me. I had previously been exposed to Christianity and Islam, but didn’t understand why there was so much suffering and inequality in the world if there was a Creator. It did not seem fair to me that some are born rich and privileged but others seem to suffer their entire lives.

I was also curious that often events and circumstances seemed to favour me naturally. I did well in school without trying very hard. I was popular and got along well with people. Things seem to fall into place that benefit me or propel me forward in life, and reflecting back I seem to have been gifted with good fortune for most of my life. Even setbacks often turn out to be beneficial in hindsight, painful though they may be at the time. It almost seemed unfair, as if I was somehow “cheating” and would need to pay back for it eventually.

At the same time, there were quite a few occasions that broke the pattern, when I did not not get what I wanted no matter how hard I wished for it. And it seemed the more I crave for it, the less likely it would occur. Over time, I’ve learnt to contain these intense disappointments, and to accept that I should not wish or desire too hard or it may never happen.

I was already starting to ponder mortality, my own and others around me, and whether there was existence or continuation of life beyond death. I started craving and half wishing for an eternal soul, and worried that people I love will one day no longer be here, and things I love will be taken away from me. I started developing a sense of detachment and refrained from being too closely connected and perhaps loving too much.

So, the core concepts of Buddhism appealed greatly to me. They seemed to naturally answer all the questions I had, and the book did a great job explaining these concepts in a clear and easy to understand manner.

By the end of the book, I had convinced myself that I want to be a Buddhist. I remember having a long conversation with my father the day after sharing my joy and enthusiasm. I must have been quite evangelical, because I convinced him to read the book, and he also agreed with me that it made a lot of sense and we should both be Buddhists.

Sometime later, I also convinced my best friend in school, so I had a core set of people around me that were interested in Buddhism, gaining wisdom, and following the Noble Eightfold Path. However, I had no desire to join the Sangha and devote the rest of my life towards attaining nibbāna. I was not ready to renounce a normal life, and from the perspective of a teenager still in school, it did not seem like a practical choice and certainly not one that I thought my parents would approve or support.

Adulthood

My interest in Buddhism faded as I continued my life journey, and other things took priority. Finishing school, then university, getting married, working, enjoying life and sensual pleasures, doing what people normally do and what society expects me to do just seemed like the path of least resistance.

Although I still remembered my interest in Buddhism, and had a desire to one day study the dhamma, and perhaps even learning Pali, I just did not have the time. Furthermore, it was difficult getting access to the Tipiṭaka, and many sections (including the Abhidhamma) have not been translated to English, and certainly not in book form.

For years, I would pester anyone I know visiting India or Sri Lanka to purchase Buddhism books for me, so I ended up amassing a collection that I have never read (until recently).

More recently, however, modern technology platforms and social media have reminded me that the Buddhist concepts of dukkha and tanhā are more relevant than ever. We are encouraged to become addicted to mindlessly consuming content that never truly satisfies, and develop wrong views about ourselves and others that result in more suffering. I became aware, with increasing dismay and horror, that technology panders to and amplifies our lowest desires and cravings. We have become obsessed with body image, what others think, giving ourselves to hedonistic pleasures, and not caring about anything other than instant gratification.

Retirement

In the last few years, I have gradually pulled myself from an active working life. I stopped working just before the COVID19 pandemic started in 2020. My original intention was to enjoy the rest of my life pursuing the things and activities that interested me, such as traveling, eating good food, watching movies, listening to music, and also indulging in my hobbies such as photography, music, art. My focus was to live each day of my life in happiness, doing the things I enjoy.

At the same time, I was also harbouring an ambition to make something that was meaningful. I was initially thinking of perhaps building and selling an app, and I had spent some time learning how to code and design web sites and apps.

I was also making sure I was financially secure and able to live the rest of our lives without worrying about money or covering our living expenses. I had gradually stopped being interested in accumulating wealth or assets. In hindsight, I was slowly renouncing from worldly pleasures and cares without even realising it.

It occurred to me recently that perhaps it was an opportune time to resume my journey in studying dhamma. To my surprise, recent years have made core Buddhist texts much more accessible and the resources for studying them are easily obtainable.

Both my parents died, within months of each other, in 2021. Both of them died at peace, calm, and accepting, and without any suffering. In the last few years of their lives, they certainly seem to have progressed in their own journeys towards nibbāna and realisation. They seem more contented, happy with each other, and ridding themselves of the craving and suffering of their younger days. I like to think that perhaps both of them became Arahats moments before they died, and that they have finally unbound themselves from the endless cycle of sāmsara and reached the ultimate destination. I can only hope that I, too, can reach there before I die, and this website documents the remainder of my progress in that journey.

1.2 - My Approach to studying Buddhavacana

My summary of what I have learnt to date

Introduction

This is my current approach to studying the core teachings of the Buddha (buddhavacana). I do not vouch for the truth of the contents or that I have accurately represented the Buddha’s intention or the meaning of what he taught. I may revise the content from time to time as my understanding improves.

It is created out of a need to document my learning progress, that I can reference from time to time to refresh my understanding.

Specifically, this is not an article intended to guide or teach others. In reading this article, you acknowledge that you are interested in understanding my current perspective, and it is not a recommendation or an exhortation for you.

Translations from Pali quoted in this article are either from the original author that I have sourced the citation from, or my own translation. Over time, I intend to replace all translations so that they are my own.

From Mahāparinibbānasutta DN 16 PTS 2.72–2.168:

2.26.1 Tasmātihānanda, attadīpā viharatha attasaraṇā anaññasaraṇā, dhammadīpā dhammasaraṇā anaññasaraṇā.
So Ānanda, live as your own island, your own refuge, with no other refuge. Let the teaching be your island and your refuge, with no other refuge.

Sources

My current understanding is based on reading the Tipiṭaka (the Three Baskets of the Buddhist canon) as published in various translations and in Pāli on SuttaCentral and by reading the following books (not necessarily in this order):

I do not completely agree with the contents of the above books, since they represent different opinions and views of the respective authors. However, I do recommend reading them and each of them have influenced me in some way.

The Buddha and Buddhism

I believe the Buddha was a real person (even though his social background and life details are hard to prove). He was born in Lumbini sometime in the 5th century BCE from the Gotama clan of the Shakya tribe, in present-day Nepal, and spent his life living and travelling around the Ganges Plain, near the modern Nepal–India border.

According to Pāsarāsisutta MN 26 PTS 1.161–1.175, as a young man he started to question the nature of existence, of being born and subject to the negative consequences of life such as growing old, falling sick, dying, sorrow. He started to search for a path out of these consequences. He renounced and became an ascetic and followed the practices of various teachers. He eventually concluded these teachings did not lead to satisfactory answers.

He ultimately discovered the answers himself and attained Perfect Enlightenment (sammāsambodhi).

Out of compassion for other living beings, he taught a way for others to achieve enlightenment. This is classified as a soteriology, or a “doctrine of salvation” so that others can follow in his footsteps and free themselves from the burden of “suffering” and “rebirth.”

It would appear the Buddha’s teachings were successful - thousands of people became enlightened as a result of his teachings and became arahant (enlightened beings) in his lifetime.

The Buddha’s teachings spread throughout much of Asia along trading routes. Even today the Buddha’s teachings is highly appealing to many people, and there has been a surge of interest in the last century or so from industrialised and developed countries.

Although it originated as a philosophy and soteriology, today Buddhism is regarded as a religion (the fourth most popular in the world1, with approximately 500 million adherents).

However, as a percentage of the world population, Buddhism is a declining religion, with the number of adherents expect to reduce from 7.1% of the world population in 2010 to 5.2% by 2050.

Buddhism is a rapidly growing religion in Australia since the 1980s and now represents about 2.4% of Australia’s population2 based on the 2021 census but the growth has been primarily due to immigration.

What language did the Buddha teach in?

The Buddha probably taught in a variety of languages common in the Indian subcontinent at the time (both Indo-Aryan and indigeneous). These languages may or may not have included Pāli.

It is unclear whether Pāli is an actual language or whether it is an amalgamation or synthesis of various dialects and languages, or even whether it is a “constructed” language (like Esperanto) designed to represent his teachings and has never been spoken as an actual language of his times. Pali appears to be heavily based upon and is a simplified version of Sanskrit, and it is generally classified as a “Prakrit” (a language originally derived from Sanskrit).

The earliest versions of his teachings have been preserved in the Pāli language in the Tipiṭaka. It is possible that only some teachings have been preserved, and perhaps only those that were originally taught in Pāli or have been translated into Pāli.

For the rest of this article, Pāli words are highlighted using a monospaced font (as an example buddho meaning “the one who understood” but also “The Buddha” expressed in nominative form). In rare occasions, Sanskrit words are used, these are highlighted with a ‘[S]’ suffix (for example Ṛg Veda[S]).

To truly understand Buddhism, it is best to read the Tipiṭaka in Pāli. Although there are many good translations to English of most of the contents of the Tipiṭaka (with the exception of parts of the Abhidhamma), Bhikkhu Bodhi notes in the Preface to The Connected Discourses of the Buddha p. 12:

To attempt to translate Pāli into a modern Western language rooted in a conceptual framework far removed from the “thought world” of the ancient suttas is also bound to involve some degree of distortion. The only remedy against this, perhaps, is to recommend to the reader the study of Pāli and the reading of the material in the original. Unlike English, or even Sanskrit, Pāli is a highly specialized language with only one major sphere of application — the Buddha’s teachings — and thus its terminology is extremely precise, free from intrusive echoes from other domains of discourse. It is also rich in nuances, undertones, and conceptual interconnections that no translation can ever succeed in replicating.

What did the Buddha teach?

When printed, the Pali Tipiṭaka usually takes up about 45 volumes, so clearly it will be almost impossible to condense the entirety of the Buddha’s teachings into a few paragraphs.

Most introductory books on Buddhism tend to focus on the earliest discourses, which are typically:

Some people also like the following later discourses:

Some of you may have noticed I have excluded the Dhammapada, a very popular collection of inspirational verses, from the above list. Since I am interested in getting as close as possible to understanding what the Buddha actually taught, I find the Dhammapada problematic. First of all, it is a late collection, and almost certainly composed after the Buddha died. It can also be ambiguous in meaning and intent and difficult to parse in parts. There are significant variations in the various versions of Dhammapada or it’s equivalents across the canonical collections. And finally, not all of the Dhammapada may have been Buddhist in intent, as some contents appear to be aligned with non-Buddhist text, eg. the Mahabharatha, so it seems likely the Dhammapada is a collection of verse sourced from many places, and may not always reflect the Buddha’s teachings. Von Wilhelm Rau has done an analysis of parallels between the Dhammapada and other texts, including non-Buddhist texts, in Bemerkungenund Nicht-Buddhisti-Schesanskrit-Parallelenzum Pāli-Dhammapada, from Jñānamuktāvalī, International Academy of Indian Culture, New Dehli (1963).

The awakening of the Buddha, plus the first three discourses, can be summarised into a single diagram:

graph TB
  subgraph cattāriariyasaccāni[cattāri ariyasaccāni]
    classDef truth fill:cyan
    dukkhaṁ(((dukkhaṁ))):::truth
    dukkhasamudayaṁ(((dukkhasamudayaṁ))):::truth
    dukkhanirodhaṁ(((dukkhanirodhaṁ))):::truth
    dukkhanirodhagāminīpaṭipadā(((dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā))):::truth
    dukkhaṁ -.-> dukkhasamudayaṁ
    dukkhasamudayaṁ -.-> dukkhanirodhaṁ
    dukkhanirodhaṁ -.-> dukkhanirodhagāminīpaṭipadā
  end
  style cattāriariyasaccāni fill:azure
  subgraph ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo[ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo]
    direction LR
    classDef right fill:LightGreen
    sammādiṭṭhi([sammādiṭṭhi]):::right
    sammāsaṅkappo([sammāsaṅkappo]):::right
    sammāvācā([sammāvācā]):::right
    sammākammanto([sammākammanto]):::right
    sammāājīvo([sammāājīvo]):::right
    sammāvāyāmo([sammāvāyāmo]):::right
    sammāsati([sammāsati]):::right
    sammāsamādhi([sammāsamādhi]):::right
    sammādiṭṭhi -.- sammāsaṅkappo
    sammāsaṅkappo -.- sammāvācā
    sammāvācā -.- sammākammanto
    sammākammanto -.- sammāājīvo
    sammāājīvo -.- sammāvāyāmo
    sammāvāyāmo -.- sammāsati
    sammāsati -.- sammāsamādhi
    sammāsamādhi -.- sammādiṭṭhi
  end
  style ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo fill:PaleGreen
  subgraph pañcupādānakkhandhā
    classDef mass fill:pink
    saṅkhārakkhandho{{saṅkhārakkhandho}}:::mass
    viññāṇakkhandho{{viññāṇakkhandho}}:::mass
    rūpakkhandho{{rūpakkhandho}}:::mass
    saññākkhandho{{saññākkhandho}}:::mass
    vedanākkhandho{{vedanākkhandho}}:::mass
  end
  style pañcupādānakkhandhā fill:MistyRose
  rūpakkhandho --- nāmarūpaṁ
  vedanākkhandho --- vedanā
  saññākkhandho --- saḷāyatanaṁ
  saññākkhandho --- phasso
  saṅkhārakkhandho --- saṅkhārā
  viññāṇakkhandho --- viññāṇaṁ
  subgraph paṭiccasamuppādo
    avijjā>avijjā]
    saṅkhārā>saṅkhārā]
    viññāṇaṁ>viññāṇaṁ]
    nāmarūpaṁ>nāmarūpaṁ]
    saḷāyatanaṁ>saḷāyatanaṁ]
    phasso>phasso]
    vedanā>vedanā]
    taṇhā>taṇhā]
    upādānaṁ>upādānaṁ]
    bhavo>bhavo]
    jāti>jāti]
    jarāmaraṇaṁ>jarāmaraṇaṁ]
    avijjā --> saṅkhārā
    saṅkhārā --> viññāṇaṁ
    subgraph sabbaṁādittaṁ
      viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
      nāmarūpaṁ --> viññāṇaṁ
      nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
      viññāṇaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
      saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
      phasso --> vedanā
      vedanā --> taṇhā
      taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
      upādānaṁ --> viññāṇaṁ
    end
    style sabbaṁādittaṁ fill:LavenderBlush
    upādānaṁ --> bhavo
    subgraph saṃsāra
      bhavo --> jāti
      jāti --> jarāmaraṇaṁ
      jarāmaraṇaṁ --> bhavo
    end
    style saṃsāra fill:GhostWhite
  end
  style paṭiccasamuppādo fill:ivory
  dukkhaṁ -.-> pañcupādānakkhandhā
  dukkhasamudayaṁ -.-> paṭiccasamuppādo
  paṭiccasamuppādo -.-> dukkhanirodhaṁ
  dukkhanirodhagāminīpaṭipadā -.-> ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo
  upādānaṁ -.-> pañcupādānakkhandhā
  pañcupādānakkhandhā -.-> dukkhaṁ
  pañcupādānakkhandhā -.-> aniccaṁ
  pañcupādānakkhandhā -.-> anatta
  aniccaṁ((aniccaṁ))
  anatta((anatta))

A rather freeform interpretation of the above diagram follows:

We are ignorant (avijjā). Ignorant of Life, The Universe, and Everything. We start out life as new born babies, unconscious, unaware, barely perceiving our surroundings.

Because, or as a result of, our ignorance, we make non optimal decisions and choices (saṅkhārā). The accumulation of these decisions and choices result in an emerging consciousness (viññāṇaṁ).

Our consciousness is “constructed” - it is created (or “caused”) by the results of all the previous choices, decisions, intentions that we’ve made in the past.

Let’s examine how this consciousness has been constructed by exploring a cycle or chain of processes. Just like new born babies, all living things start with no awareness and no consciousness.

But we react to our surroundings. Even single celled organisms have receptors that are sensitive to their environment, and can detect changes in temperature, light and nutrient availability. These receptors trigger a series of signalling pathways that can cause the cell to move towards or away from certain stimuli, or change shape or behaviour.

In the same way, we have sense organs that perceive the environment. Gradually we are aware of forms, the form of our own body, and other forms external to the body. We build a virtual representation of forms in our mind (saññā), and name them (nāmarūpaṁ). By “naming” forms, we conceptualise them and develop symbolic “tokens” of them (and through this, our grasp of language develops). Awareness of our own form give rise to consciousness, and similarly consciousness makes us aware of that which is us, and that which is not us. Hence viññāṇaṁ and nāmarūpaṁ are mutually dependent on each other.

We perceive forms through our senses (saḷāyatanaṁ) and through our senses we experience the world around us (phasso). From this experience, we start developing feelings (vedanā) - we like some experiences or forms, and we dislike or are indifferent to other experiences or forms. We develop cravings (taṇhā) for experiences and forms that we like, and aversions to experiences and forms we don’t like, and these cravings and aversions influence or “fuel” future decisions or choices (upādānaṁ), that ultimately the “fuel” feed into our consciousness, and so the cycle repeats.

It is a vicious cycle that feeds on itself and will not end unless there is a way to break out of the cycle. The driving forces fueling the cycle are referred to as the Five Masses of Fuel (pañcupādānakkhandhā). These five masses are directly related to the vicious cycle of existence:

  1. Our conceptualisation of forms is a fuel (rūpakkhandho) and drives how we perceive and name forms (nāmarūpaṁ). ‘Forms’ consume us and drive our desire and cravings - our desire to look beautiful and attractive for example drives a multi-billion dollar beauty industry. We also desire to “own” forms, to possess them, to make them part of us and to give us satisfaction.
  2. Similar, our feelings act as fuel (vedanākkhandho) - we desire more of what we like and avoid what we don’t like (vedanā)
  3. Our perceptions (interpretations and conceptualisations of what we experience, such as the ability to recognise colours) also act as a fuel (saññākkhandho) - for example we want to be popular and liked by others, and we in turn judge others through our senses (saḷāyatanaṁ) and our contact with others (phasso).
  4. Based on our desire and craving for various forms, feelings, and perceptions, we make choices and decisions (saṅkhārakkhandho) which directly impact the results or implications of those intentions (saṅkhārā). For example, our like and dislike for others influence how we behave with them.
  5. And finally our consciousness itself is a fuel (viññāṇakkhandho). Our awareness of our existence leads to our primary craving - a desire to survive and to continue existence, to maintain our form and our consciousness (viññāṇaṁ)

Together these Five Masses of Fuel feed a massive and intense fire (caused by desire) that consumes us, every moment of our lives (sabbaṁādittaṁ). It enflames not only our present existence (bhavo), but leads to birth and rebirth (jāti) and eventually to old age and death (jarāmaraṇaṁ), and so the cycle of existence (saṃsāra) ever revolves.

This is clearly unsatisfactory (dukkhaṁ). Not only unsatisfactory, but the burning of the five fuels ultimately results in pain and suffering, that lasts throughout the entire cycle of saṃsāra.

Why suffering? Surely there are moments of pleasure, moments of happiness? Maybe, if we indulge in our senses and revel in pleasure and happiness, we can forget about the pain and suffering. But deep inside, we know nothing lasts forever. We cannot sustain happiness and pleasure indefinitely, we all eventually grow old and die.

We come to the realisation: nothing we experience is permanent (aniccaṁ), and therefore everything is ultimately unsatisfactory. Fundamentally, even our consciousness is impermanent (as it is continuously affected by what we have previously experienced), so there no sense of “self” that is permanent or unchanging (anatta).

Is there a way out of these vicious cycles (both the vicious cycle caused by the five masses of fuel, and the vicious cycle of saṃsāra)?

Fortunately, the Buddha found a way (dukkhanirodhagāminīpaṭipadā, or the Path of progress towards the End of Suffering), that does not require either indulgence of senses or extreme practices. The way is practical, achievable within one lifetime, and consists of the following eight components (ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, the Pure Path in eight parts):

  1. sammādiṭṭhi: The first step is of course to understand what we have just discussed (cattāri ariyasaccāni): that everything is unsatisfactory (dukkhaṁ), and impermanent, including our sense of self. The origin of this suffering (dukkhasamudayaṁ) is our craving which drives the five masses of fuel. In order to end the vicious cycle of suffering, we need to stop fueling the fire (dukkhanirodhaṁ). And to stop fueling the fire, we need to engage in the following components of the way.
  2. sammāsaṅkappo: Ultimately, we need to abandon our dependence on sensual pleasures (which are impermanent) and focus on ethical and moral conduct, such as good will and well being towards everything. Unwholesome and unskilled actions are sub-optimal and stem from bad intentions, resulting in harm to ourselves and others. Good intentions and optimal behaviour lead to wholesome actions and a detachment from sensual pleasures.
  3. sammāvācā: We should also avoid speech that is false, divisive, harsh or nonsensical.
  4. sammākammanto: We should also refrain from unethical and immoral actions, such as killing or harming other living beings, stealing and ultimately even sexual activity (for this propagates the vicious cycle). It may seem strange that we want to deny our fundamental biological imperative, but our desire for procreation overrides rationality and fuels our craving and leads us to uncontrollable behaviour.
  5. sammāājīvo: We should lead an exemplary life, avoiding activities and even thoughts that are unethical or result in further craving and unwholesome thoughts.
  6. sammāvāyāmo: We should make all effort to eradicate even the arising of bad or unwholesome thoughts and desires, ensure any bad or unwholesome thoughts that we already harbour are dissipated, and instead promote and maintain wholesome and ethical thoughts.
  7. sammāsati: We should be hyper-aware of ourselves, by observing our bodies, our feelings, how we think, our value systems. We are constantly mindful to ensure we are stopping all thoughts and activities leading to fueling our cravings.
  8. sammāsamādhi: Finally, we will recognise that once we have successfully abandoned our dependence on sensual cravings, removed unwholesome or unskilled qualities, we will gradually realise our entire outlook, disposition and mindset have progressed, over a set of four stages.
    1. In the first stage, we finally realise the joy and bliss of a calm mind that is free of delusions, cravings, and bad intentions.
    2. In the second stage, we gain internal clarity as our mind becomes focused and concentrated as it is no longer distracted.
    3. In the third stage, we become tranquil as we let go even of joy and bliss and become dispassionate and embrace equanimity.
    4. In the fourth stage, we completely let go and realise we are no longer tied to the vicious cycle of saṃsāra. With this realisation, we are finally free, we have broken out of the vicious cycle. Thus we have attained enlightenment or “perfect awakening.”

The above represents the “core” of what the Buddha taught, everything else is arguably elaboration and further clarification. The teaching is not only practical but also effective. Anecdotally, many individuals attained enlightenment during the Buddha’s lifetime and presumably more even after his death. Many people try to follow that teaching today, including myself.

How do we know the Buddha existed and his teachings are authentic?

According to the book The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts:

  1. there is a body of Early Buddhist Texts (EBTs), which is clearly distinguishable from all other Buddhist scripture;
  2. these texts originated from a single historical personality, the Buddha

The book’s main conclusion is:

… that the Early Buddhist Texts originated in the lifetime of the Buddha or a little later, because they were, in the main, spoken by the Buddha and his contemporary disciples. This is the most simple, natural, and reasonable explanation for the evidence.

Our argument covers two main areas:

  • The grounds for distinguishing the Early Buddhist Texts (EBTs) from later Buddhist literature;
  • The evidence that the EBTs stem from close to the Buddha’s lifetime, and that they were generally spoken by the historical Buddha.

However, it is also true (from the book) that:

… the texts bear all the marks of redaction and editing, and that they have been optimised for the oral tradition. There are even a few cases where the editorial hand seems to have added interpretations to existing ideas. But to assume from this that the literature as a whole has not conserved the central ideas propounded by its founder, or even that it was invented ad hoc by redactors, is to lose sight of the distinction between editing and composing. So when we say that the texts were “spoken by the Buddha”, we mean it in this non-literal sense.

My view is probably less optimistic than that stated in the book. I do believe that (some, perhaps most) the Buddha’s actual teachings are contained in the Tipiṭaka, but perhaps not the actual words he used and also potentially his teachings have been enhanced with additional material that he never taught. There may be material taught in other languages that were not translated into Pali and hence not included, I would like to think these have equivalents that were included. More serious are suggestions that some of Buddha’s teachings may have been omitted (or perhaps actively censored) because of the schisms between the various sects that developed in the years following the Buddha’s death. These omissions can be partially compensated by comparing his teachings across the major sects, which have been done by several scholars, notably Anālayo, Sujato, Allon amongst others.

As an alternative view, David Drewes in The Idea Of The Historical Buddha, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 40 • 2017 • 1–25, argues against regarding the Buddha as a historical figure:

… nothing about him has ever been established as fact, and the standard position in scholarship has long been that he is a figure about whom we know nothing. My only real suggestion is that we make the small shift from speaking of an unknown, contentless Buddha to accepting that we do not have grounds for speaking of a historical Buddha at all. of course, it is possible that there was some single, actual person behind the nebulous “śramaṇa Gautama” of the early texts, but this is very far from necessarily the case, and even if such a person did exist, we have no idea who he was.

The evolution (and devolution) of Buddha’s teachings

We cannot be assured that the Tipiṭaka contains the exact words of his teachings, nor can we be assured it only contains his teachings and not additional material added after he has died.

Although all efforts have been made to preserve the accuracy of the teachings, errors and omissions may have crept in over the years. In particular, the words have been rearranged so that his teachings are suitable for oral recitation and memorisation. Sentences may have been altered, rearranged, and added to. Additional content may have been added (potentially from disciples, or imported from other teachers and philosophies such as Jainism, Brahmanism or Hinduism).

Therefore, every sentence in the Tipiṭaka needs to be carefully considered and evaluated before we accept it as something he actually taught.

This applies even to (supposedly) his earliest discourses. According to Mahākhandhaka Kd 1 PTS 1.1–1.100, the five monks that Buddha taught the first and second discourses to all attained enlightenment (presumably immediately afterwards):

6.29.4 Imasmiñca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṁ bhaññamāne pañcavaggiyānaṁ bhikkhūnaṁ anupādāya āsavehi cittāni vimucciṁsu.
And while this exposition was being spoken to the monks from the group of five, their minds were freed from the corruptions through letting go.

And yet, in Pāsarāsisutta MN 26 PTS 1.161–1.175:

29.1 Asakkhiṁ kho ahaṁ, bhikkhave, pañcavaggiye bhikkhū saññāpetuṁ.
I was able to persuade the group of five bhikkhus.
29.2 Dvepi sudaṁ, bhikkhave, bhikkhū ovadāmi, tayo bhikkhū piṇḍāya caranti.
Then sometimes I advised two bhikkhus, while the other three went for alms.
29.3 Yaṁ tayo bhikkhū piṇḍāya caritvā āharanti tena chabbaggiyā yāpema.
Then those three would feed all six of us with what they brought back.
29.4 Tayopi sudaṁ, bhikkhave, bhikkhū ovadāmi, dve bhikkhū piṇḍāya caranti.
Sometimes I advised three bhikkhus, while the other two went for alms.
29.5 Yaṁ dve bhikkhū piṇḍāya caritvā āharanti tena chabbaggiyā yāpema.
Then those two would feed all six of us with what they brought back.

So it would seem the 5 monks were not enlightened immediately, but it was a process that took some time. Johannes Bronkhorst argues in The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India p. 84 that the Buddha’s early teachings were probably “personal advice, adjusted to the needs of each person.” Both Bronkhorst and Gombrich argues that the Four Pure Truths (cattāri ariyasaccāni) are unlikely to constitute “liberating insight” as they do not really describe the specific process of attaining liberation or articulate the necessary prerequisites, such as the elimination of effluents or intoxicants. Therefore, it seems likely the exact formulation of the truths are a later synthesis. Similar arguments can be made for the contents of the Second and Third Discourses, and even the formulation of the links to Dependent Origination may have been adjusted and amended over time, given the variance in the number of items in the chain in various suttas.

Turning buddhavacana into abhidhamma and Mahāyāna

According to Jayarava in Why Did Buddhists Abandon Buddhavacana?:

There is no general agreement, whether historically or presently, on what constitutes buddhavacana. The concept is also contested in the sense that Buddhists found the buddhavacana they inherited unconvincing or otherwise unsatisfactory and replaced it with other words that they labelled buddhavacana, a practice that is arguably still current.

Why would anyone do this, ie. deliberately replace or augment the Buddha’s teachings with related and similar teachings? One answer may lie in the Uttaravipattisutta AN 8.8 PTS 4.162–4.166, where Utarra delivered a seemingly “original” discourse to some monks (presumably sometime after the Buddha had passed away). King Vessavaṇa overheard the discourse, and went to the gods of the Thirty-Three to ask Sakka, lord of the gods, whether this was an “authentic” teaching, one that the Buddha might have taught. Sakka was so concerned by this he appeared in front of Uttara and asked:

5.7 “Kiṁ panidaṁ, bhante, āyasmato uttarassa sakaṁ paṭibhānaṁ, udāhu tassa bhagavato vacanaṁ arahato sammāsambuddhassā”ti?
“Sir, did this teaching come to you from your own inspiration, or was it spoken by the Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha?”

Uttara’s reply is interesting. According to Anālayo in The Dawn of Abhidharma p. 149:

Uttara illustrates this with the help of using a simile that describes a large group of people who take grain from a great heap and carry it away in various containers. On being asked where they got the grain, they will answer that they got it from the great heap. The simile makes it clear that the dictum was meant to indicate that the Buddha was the real source of anything Uttara had been teaching, even if Uttara had not been repeating something that in this exact manner had already been spoken by the Buddha.

The discourse then takes an interesting turn, as Śakra informs Uttara that the Buddha had actually given this teaching earlier. However, memory of this teaching delivered by the Buddha had in the meantime been lost among the four assemblies of disciples (monks, nuns, male lay followers, and female lay followers).

This illustrates that some of Buddha’s disciples felt confident enough they fully understood Budhha’s teachings that they could craft original discourses in the belief the Buddha would have spoken them if he had still been alive. Moreover, it implies that some of Buddha’s teachings have indeed been “lost” but it is acceptable for enlightened monks to resuscitate them, thus paving the way for some sects to claim that they have additional suttas that potentially supersede Buddha’s teachings because these “extra” suttas were previously “lost” or “hidden.” For example, the Mahayanists claim the Lotus Sutra was Buddha’s last sermon, even though the style and character of the sutra is very different from those in the Tipiṭaka.

Once the first step has been established, it seemed logical to continue and create additional original discourses. For example, the Anupadasutta MN 111 PTS 3.25–3.29 is a discourse in the Majjhima-nikāya of the Theravāda tradition of which no parallel is known, hence likely to be pure invention of the Theravādans. There are also discourses in the other canonical collections that are not present in the Tipiṭika.

According to Anālayo in [The Dawn of Abhidharma], the Abhidhamma in the Tipiṭaka, which is also unique to Theravāda although other sects have their own versions, evolved from lists of discourse topics (such as the ones found in Saṅgītisutta DN 33 PTS 3.207–3.271 and Dasuttarasutta DN 34 PTS 3.272–3.293), central themes, and potentially commentaries on the discourses into the voluminous collection it is today. The Abhidhamma takes an abstract or conceptual perspective on the core teachings and then exhaustively analyses them by attempting to provide a comprehensive inventory of everything connected to these teachings. Presumably at this time the instructions given in the discourses were perceived as somewhat lacking and insufficient - the final results go beyond what early discourses consider necessary for successful realisation. Eventually the Abhidhamma, which started out as a commentary “about” the dhamma, became the “superior” or “higher” dhamma, thereby overshadowing in importance the texts on which it originally commented.

Anālayo further points out that from a Mahāyāna viewpoint, “the early discourses are considered as teachings that are “inferior” (hīna). The teachings of the Abhidharma in turn are considered by their followers to be “superior” (abhi-) in comparison to the early discourses. In this way, the early teachings increasingly tend to fade in importance and are eventually superseded by the new texts, a development that in turn led to the formation of independent textual collections, the Abhidharma-piṭaka and the Bodhisattva-piṭaka, considered to be superior to the early discourses.” The Mahayanists then further argue that Mahāyāna is the word of the Buddha which had been collected by bodhisattvas like Samantabhadra, Mañjuśrī, Maitreya, etc. or originated from the realm of the nāgas, as well as from devas, gandharvas, and rākṣasas. They were not included in the canonical collections because they were beyond the ken of the śrāvaka[S]s responsible for collecting the word of the Buddha.

For the Theravādans, the Atthasālinī argues that all of the seven texts of the Abhidhamma collection should be considered the word of the Buddha. This would then imply even the texts criticising beliefs of other sects are also the word of the Buddha.

Standardisation and Creation

Mark Allon in his interesting book The Composition and Transmission of Early Buddhist Texts with Specific Reference to Sutras gives “… an overview of the main stylistic features of early Buddhist sutras and the organizational principles employed in the formation of textual collections of sutras that support the idea of these texts and collections being transmitted as fixed entities, and then examine the ways in which such texts changed and were changed over time, attempt to identify the reasons why this occurred, and give an account of the challenge this represents to the idea of oral transmission requiring fixity.” In doing so, he compares the same passages across different canonical collections in various languages such as Gandhari, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan.

According to Mark on p. 10:

These texts, both prose and verse, are very much textual or literary artifices. They are not verbatim, or tape-recorder, records of the sayings and discourses of the individuals concerned nor casual descriptions of their actions or of related events. They are highly structured and stylized, extremely formulaic and repetitive, carefully crafted constructs, at least as we have them. And this is so at all levels. Further, the wording used to describe or depict a given event, concept, teaching, or practice is highly standardized across the corpus of such texts transmitted by a given monastic community. As such they do not reflect how a person would normally speak, preach, debate, and interact, or describe an event.

Many discourses start with:

evaṃ me sutaṃ ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā ... viharati.
Thus heard by me, at one time the Blessed One dwells in ….

and often end with:

idam avoca bhagavā. attamanā te bhikkhū bhagavato bhāsitaṃ abhinandun ti.
The Blessed One said this. Pleased, those bhikkhus (monks) rejoiced in the words of the Blessed One.

The text of most suttas seem to be “highly structured, carefully crafted” and therefore unlikely to be the actual words that the Buddha would have used, but a homogenisation or distillation of them into a standardised format (presumably useful for memorization).

Even the grammar, choice and ordering of words are standardised. As Mark describes in p. 14:

For example, a characteristic feature of canonical prose are strings of grammatically parallel units, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, that express the same or similar general idea, with each subsequent unit nuancing or expanding the meaning of the preceding ones, presenting further qualities of the thing described, or presenting a similar category of item.
…
Further, the component units of these structures or strings are normally arranged according to a waxing number of syllables, that is, the first unit has fewer syllables than the last (or at least their count does not decrease)

An example is this phrase (in bold) from Ānandabhaddekarattasutta MN 132 PTS 3.190–3.191:

2.1 Tena kho pana samayena āyasmā ānando upaṭṭhānasālāyaṁ bhikkhūnaṁ dhammiyā kathāya sandasseti samādapeti samuttejeti sampahaṁseti, bhaddekarattassa uddesañca vibhaṅgañca bhāsati.
Now at that time Venerable Ānanda was educating, encouraging, firing up, and inspiring the mendicants in the assembly hall with a Dhamma talk on the topic of the recitation passage and analysis of One Fine Night.

Note the use of the four semi-synonymous verbs all starting with sa with a syllable pattern of 4+5+5+5. Its unlikely this sort of pattern, with shared sound and metrical similarities, would have occured in “normal” speech.

Another dominant stylistic characteristic of early Buddhist sutra prose is the use of formulas, that is, the wording used to depict a given concept, action, or event is highly standardized and predictable.

The use of formulas can be extended to entire suttas, allowing a number of “artificial” suttas to be created using just one formula. For example, SN 12.4-12.10, “… the Buddha gives an account of the realization of paṭiccasamuppāda by the seven buddhas, beginning with the past buddha Vipassī and ending with himself. Each account is identical except for the change of the name of the buddha. As Allon notes on p. 36:

It is hard to imagine the scenario presented here in which a teacher, in this case the Buddha, gives separate discourses on individual buddha’s on different occasions. A more likely scenario is that such a teacher would give an account of his own realization of paṭiccasamuppāda, as we find presented for the Buddha elsewhere in the canon, possibly then followed by a brief statement that the same occurred for the six past buddhas, or more likely, that the Buddha’s account of his own realization was applied to the past buddhas by those who composed these texts to form six additional suttas.

There are many other instances in SN and AN where such artificially generated suttas can be found. Why create all these repetitive pseudo-suttas? There are many possible answers, including a “who has more suttas” competition with other religious groups, aids to memorisation, mental training, or a desire to be comprehensive. My personal interpretation is that these variants of suttas form a useful collection of building blocks to choose from, by individual monks or groups, for use when giving public talks to assemblies, choosing a specific sutta at the request of a layperson (perhaps as part of a ceremony or rite of passage), or as a gift or blessing to a patron. Just like a church minister may choose a topic for a Sunday sermon, “building block” suttas can be chosen and either assembled to form a longer discourse, or dissected and explained.

Differences, Simplification and Elaboration

When we compare suttas with their equivalents or “parallels” in other canonical collections, we often find similarities, but in some cases radical differences across the collections.

Allon notes in The Composition and Transmission of Early Buddhist Texts with Specific Reference to Sutras on p. 47:

The main differences encountered between parallel versions of early Buddhist texts preserved in Pali, Gandhari, or other Prakrit, in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Sanskrit, Chinese, and/or Tibetan are, apart from language and language related phenomena, the following:

  • whole episodes or descriptions of events, practices, teachings, and so on, found in one version are missing in one or more of the parallels;
  • differences in the sequence of events and order in which teachings are given;
  • differences in the arrangement of information within the description of an event, concept or practice;
  • differences in the information given within the description of an event, concept or practice;
  • different order of items in a list and differences in the number of items listed;
  • differences in the names of people and places in the description of what is essentially the same event;
  • differences in the wording used to portray a given event, concept or practice, including the use of different synonyms, differences in word order, and differences in the complexity of descriptions; differences in the use of markers such as indeclinables and vocatives of address;
  • differences in grammar, e.g. verbal tense, grammatical number, etc.

Where do these differences come from, and which one represents the “authentic” words of the Buddha?

It is very likely that none of them are truly authentic, but which one best represents the Buddha’s original intent?

Again, there are many theories, and debates across scholars. I won’t try and summarise these, but the issue rages on even today, with many conflicting opinions. For example, some scholars (eg. Gombrich, Wynne, Anālayo) argue the more closely aligned a sutta is with it’s parallels, the more likely a sutta is “authentic” since it must have been composed early enough to predate the schisms and the emergence of the various sects. On the other hand, some scholars (eg. Schopen) have also argued the homogeneity may have come from cross-sharing across communities, and “superior” versions of a sutta may be adopted by other sects. This is not as unlikely as it may first appear. We do know monks travelled widely and often stay with foreign communities, so it is not unusual for knowledge sharing to occur.

One theory is that some suttas may have been “simplified” by particular communities to aid memorization, or as part of a standardisation process. They may also have been simplified as part of the process of transposing or translating from a different dialect or language.

There is also the theory, based on the use of formulas and building blocks, that the longer suttas may well be composed by taking one or more formula, and then elaborating it with a story. Different communities may have different elaborations, and cross sharing may propagate a specific elaboration across more than one community, but with stylistic and textual differences depending on the scribe or preferences of the oral listener.

Inconsistencies

The Tipiṭaka is not internally consistent. These inconsistencies have been documented by many scholars including Polak, Gombrich, et al. For example, the chains of Dependent Origination sometimes number 6, 10 or 12. There are 4, sometimes 5, sometimes 6 elements, 12 or 36 sense-fields etc. The Buddha also acknowledges these inconsistencies and explains he has explained the teachings in different ways (Evaṁ pariyāyadesito kho, ānanda, mayā dhammo.) and his disciples could either “deal with it” or start arguing. Bahuvedanīyasutta MN 59 PTS 1.397–1.400

Even when it is consistent, we cannot be assured of authenticity or accuracy. Through a mechanism known as “pericope” many of his teachings have been altered to insert “stock phrases”, often to “pad” out a relatively short discourse into a more substantial discourse - these phrases may or may not represent his true intention or meaning and their insertion into the text may change the meaning or nuance of the text to something radically different.

For example, the first Discourse Dhammacakkappavattanasutta SN 56.11 PTS 5.421–5.424 shows evidence that it was originally shorter, and over time has been expanded (because texts from other sects omit some of the material). Also, the texts errorneously has the Buddha referring to his five former ascetic companions as bhikkhave - a term used for a group of ordained Buddhist monks, and at that time the 5 ascetics have not yet been ordained, for the saṅgha did not exist (yet).

A good example of the inclusion of a pericope creating a problem in the meaning of a phrase in the sutta is in Cakkavattisutta DN 26 PTS 3.58–3.79. This problem is extensively documented and analysed by Richard Gombrich in Three Souls, One Or None: The Vagaries Of A Pali Pericope, Journal of the Pali Text Society XI (1987) pp. 73 – 78.

Much more seriously, it seems some pericopes may not even represent the original teachings of the Buddha, but may have been imported from non-Buddhist practices. Bronkhorst, Polak and Wynne all argue the four arūpa meditative states may have been non-Buddhist practices that were known before the Buddha attained enlightenment:

  1. the Stage of Infinity of Space (ākāsānañcāyatana);
  2. the Stage of Infinity of Perception (viññāṇañcāyatana);
  3. the Stage of Nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana);
  4. the Stage of Neither Ideation nor Non-Ideation (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana).

The last two of the above were dismissed by the Buddha as being non-conducive nor leading to enlightenment, and he identified them as specifically the teachings of Āḷāra Kālāma and Rāma in Pāsarāsisutta MN 26 PTS 1.161–1.175.

15.35 ‘nāyaṁ dhammo nibbidāya na virāgāya na nirodhāya na upasamāya na abhiññāya na sambodhāya na nibbānāya saṁvattati, yāvadeva ākiñcaññāyatanūpapattiyā’ti.
‘This teaching doesn’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. It only leads as far as rebirth in the dimension of nothingness.’
16.35 … yāvadeva nevasaññānāsaññāyatanūpapattiyā’ti
It only leads as far as rebirth in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.’

Yet, inexplicably, these methods were subsequently inserted into various suttas (for example Cūḷasuññatasutta MN 121 PTS 3.104–3.109), presumably by later disciples.

Misinterpretations

Even if his teaching is authentic and accurately preserved, there is a possibility that we (including scholars, practitioners and translators) may misinterpret it.

Gombrich stated in What the Buddha Thought p.2 that the Buddha was “startlingly original”. He questioned and refuted his ideological opponents, he often has a different perspective and does not follow the same philosophical path as others. His way of thinking is also very different from orthodox traditions. Even today, the Buddha’s teachings are strikingly different from other major religions.

Therefore it is not surprising that some followers and practitioners of Buddhism may not have interpreted his teachings in the way he intended. It is possible to derive realist, idealist, mystical, nihilist and other interpretations, by emphasing some teachings and deemphasising others. Some ignore the historical context of his teachings and may not realise that some teachings are refutations of braministic and Jainistic beliefs, and instead interpret the Buddha as endorsing or even promoting these beliefs. It is the human tendency to see what we want to see, and to filter ideas through our own biases and prejudices.

The Buddha himself warns against the danger of misinterpreting the texts by people who only memorise the words but don’t grasp the meaning in Alagaddūpamasutta MN 22 PTS 1.130–1.142.

10.1 Idha, bhikkhave, ekacce moghapurisā dhammaṁ pariyāpuṇanti— suttaṁ, geyyaṁ, veyyākaraṇaṁ, gāthaṁ, udānaṁ, itivuttakaṁ, jātakaṁ, abbhutadhammaṁ, vedallaṁ. Te taṁ dhammaṁ pariyāpuṇitvā tesaṁ dhammānaṁ paññāya atthaṁ na upaparikkhanti. Tesaṁ te dhammā paññāya atthaṁ anupaparikkhataṁ na nijjhānaṁ khamanti. Te upārambhānisaṁsā ceva dhammaṁ pariyāpuṇanti itivādappamokkhānisaṁsā ca. Yassa catthāya dhammaṁ pariyāpuṇanti tañcassa atthaṁ nānubhonti. Tesaṁ te dhammā duggahitā dīgharattaṁ ahitāya dukkhāya saṁvattanti. Taṁ kissa hetu? Duggahitattā, bhikkhave, dhammānaṁ.

According to Gombrich’s translation in How Buddhism Began p. 23:

…some foolish people memorise his teachings but do not use their intelligence to work out what they mean, so that the teachings afford them no insight. The advantages they derive from their learning are being able to criticise others and to quote; but they do not get what should be the real benefit of such learning. Because they have misunderstood the teaching, it only does them harm.

Some people believe that the Buddha’s teachings are esoteric and difficult to understand, that they transcend rationality and ultimately describe supramundane ideas that is inexpressible in language. I used to think this too, but now I believe the core teachings of the Buddha are simple and understandable as long as one is willing to set aside preconceptions and pay attention to what he is truly trying to say.

Lack of context

Many people today experience the Buddha’s teachings by reading translated texts, or following the teachings of a Buddhist teacher in their native language, or English. This is understandable, as Pāli is a “dead” language, so it is no one’s native language. I believe that to truly understand the Buddha’s teaching, one needs to read the “original” Pāli texts. No matter how good the translation may be, few words have precise equivalents across languages, and in particular abstract or technical terms are very difficult to translate and prone to misinterpretations and ambiguities. (What the Buddha Thought p. 5)

In addition, some of his teachings reference Vedic or Brahman philosophy and sometimes cannot be properly understood without knowledge of the these philosophies.

A good example is the doctrine of anattā which is widely translated as “no self”, but the word attā in Pali (ātman[S]) refers to the Vedic notion of an “eternal self” that was originally linked to the universal principle of brahman[S] and the Supreme Being and Creator God Brahmā[S]. According to Vedic literature, one who is freed from desire becomes immortal and joins with the brahman and the Brahmā (or sometimes described as “union with the Godhead”). The ātman, brahman and Brahmā are all manifestations of the the same concept but across the microscopic, macroscopic and cosmic realms. The Buddha’s anattā doctrine is a refutal of this and so translating it as “no self” is inadequate and can lead to a common misinterpretation that the Buddha was promoting the concept of nihilism. (What the Buddha Thought pp. 36-43)

Sometimes, the lack of context can can have humourous consequences. The well-known story of the notorious murderer Aṅgulimāla in Aṅgulimālasutta MN 86 PTS 2.98–2.105 creates a problem where we don’t really know why Aṅgulimāla was wearing a garland of fingers and apparently murdering people. The Papañca-sudani commentary on this sutta (ascribed to Buddhaghosa) invents a complete backstory for Aṅgulimāla but it is incoherent. The verse associated with the sutta is also difficult to parse and doesn’t scan properly, which means it is corrupted. Gombrich convincingly argues in How Buddhism Began Chapter V, that Aṅgulimāla must have been a Śaiva/Śākta believer who worshipped Śiva, a goddess that takes limbs from corpses and wears a garland and Aṅgulimāla was trying to adopt the deity’s iconic appearance and emulating the goddess’ behaviour.

In some places, the Buddha even adopts a satirical tone by making fun at accepted Brahman philosophy and beliefs. The Aggaññasutta DN 27 PTS 3.80–3.98 clearly is a parody of brahminical cosmogony. As Gombrich notes on HBB81:

The whole story of the origin of society, which forms the bulk of the text, is a parody of brahminical texts, especially the Ṛg Vedic ‘Hymn of Creation’ (RV X, 129) and the cosmogony at BAU 1, 2. The formation of the earth at the beginning of a world-cycle, its population by beings, their gradual social differentiation, the origins of sex and property, and finally the invention of kingship and the creation of the four brahminical varja (social classes) – all are a parodistic re-working of brahminical speculations, and at the same time an allegory of the malign workings of desire.

Buddhists should know the Buddha has already proclaimed the universe as having no absolute beginning, it’s just the cycle of existence. As per Tiṇakaṭṭhasutta SN 15.1 PTS 2.178:

1.7 Anamataggoyaṁ, bhikkhave, saṁsāro.
Transmigration has no known beginning.
1.8 Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṁ sattānaṁ taṇhāsaṁyojanānaṁ sandhāvataṁ saṁsarataṁ.
No first point is found of sentient beings roaming and transmigrating, shrouded by ignorance and fettered by craving.

Despite that, according to Gombrich on p. 82:

Buddhists have since the earliest times taken it seriously as an account of the origins of society and kingship, and even traced the Buddha’s own royal origins back to Maha-sammata, the person chosen to be the first king; they have interpreted the word as a proper name, though it originally meant ‘agreed to be great’. But now we see that the Buddha never intended to propound a cosmogony.

Many of the Buddha’s teachings are delivered in a style known as pariyāya (“roundabout” or “indirect”), which employs metaphors, allegories, parables which are not meant to be interpreted literally. These metaphors are based on the social and historical context of Buddha’s time, and may not be easily grasped in the absence of that context. (What the Buddha Thought p. 6)

Gombrich further argues in HBB75:

… much of the narrative telling what the Buddha did in the days and weeks following his Enlightenment is allegorical in origin; and I suspect that one could push this argument even further. The same goes for his biography up to the Enlightenment. Others have noticed this before me, so I shall not dwell on it. The stress on the luxury in which the future Buddha was brought up serves to emphasise his mature rejection of worldly goods. His being shielded from all knowledge of old age, sickness and death symbolises the way in which we turn a blind eye to the unpleasant facts of existence, and heightens the impact of the prince’s encounter with the four “signs” or omens (pubba nimitta): the story of how on his way to the pleasure grounds he successively encounters an aged man, an ill man, a corpse, and a tranquil ascetic who seems to offer the solution.

Of course Māra, the personification of Death, appears in Buddhist literature in several places, and usually signifies desire, or craving. Even then, different authors and compilers had different opinions and attitudes.

Furthermore, the Buddha often employs a method known as upāya-kauśalya[S] (“skill in means”) where he responds to an opponent not by disagreeing with them, but by appearing to agree but then take their words and reinterpret them to give them quite different meanings that demonstrate the Buddha’s perspective. An example is kamma which means “act, action, deed” and in brahmanism signifies ritualistic practice, ie. one acquires merit by performing rituals correctly. The Buddha redefines kamma to mean “intention” so he took a word that was meant literally into a metaphor. All these subtleties are often lost in translation, and sometimes can be interpreted as the Buddha agreeing with a position when he was actually trying to refute it. (Gombrich, How Buddhism Began pp. 17-18, also What the Buddha Thought p. 7)

Was the Buddha omniscient and was he able to predict the future?

Bhikkhu Anālayo states in The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Hamburg University Press 2010 p. 51 that

Gautama’s decease must have created a vacuum that needed to be filled. Bereft of the possibility of having a personal encounter with the living Buddha, for disciples in need of some form of emotional contact with the object of their first refuge, recollecting his marvellous qualities would have been of considerable importance.
…
The vacuum created by the teacher’s demise would have had its effect not only on the internal level – within the community of disciples – but also on the external level, namely in relation to other contemporary religious groups and practitioners.

Hence there is a need to “authenticate” the Buddha as an eminent spiritual teacher by referencing his noble and spiritual lineage, his mastery of supernatural powers, his omniscience, and ultimately the ability for a devotee to “take refuge” and “receive blessings” from one long departed.

Let’s examine the Buddha’s supposed prediction of the advent of the “next” Buddha. This is mainly described in the Madhyama-āgama in the Discourse on an Explanation about the Past (說本 MA 66 T i 508c09). According to Anālayo in The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal p. 113:

The Buddha thereupon narrates in detail how in a future time, when human lifespan will reach up to eighty thousand years, a wheel-turning king by the name of Śaṅkha will arise, who eventually will go forth and reach liberation. On hearing this description, a monk by the name of Ajita stands up and, with hands held in respectful gesture towards the Buddha, aspires to become the wheel-turning King Śaṅkha at that future time. The Buddha rebukes Ajita for postponing what could already be accomplished now – namely attaining liberation – after which he nevertheless predicts that Ajita will indeed become the wheel-turning King Śaṅkha.

The Buddha continues by describing the Buddha Maitreya under whom Śaṅkha will go forth. Another monk by the same name of Maitreya stands up and, with hands held in respectful gesture towards the Buddha, formulates the aspiration of becoming the future Buddha Maitreya. The Buddha praises him for making such an aspiration, predicts that he will indeed become the future Buddha Maitreya, and bestows a golden coloured robe on him.

It seems odd that the Buddha rebukes Ajita for deferring his liberation and yet praises Maitreya for his aspiration to become the next Buddha. It would have made more sense for Maitreya to become the next Buddha whilst the current Buddha was still alive, allowing for a smooth transition and a succession plan.

In the Tipiṭaka, Maitreya is also stated as the next Buddha in Cakkavattisutta DN 26 PTS 3.58–3.79. The placing of the occurrence of the Maitreya episode in parallels of this sutta across the canons of the three major sects show the following variations:

  • after the description of the wheel-turning king Saṅkha (Cakkavattisutta in the Dīgha Nikāya);
  • before the description of the wheel-turning king Saṅkha (轉輪聖王修行經 in the Dīrgha Āgama);
  • not found at all (轉輪王經 in the Madhyama Āgama).

Anālayo theorises that the inclusion of Maitreya seems to be a late addition, as there would be no reason to exclude it. Furthermore, the corresponding paragraph in Cakkavattisutta following where the Maitreya episode has been inserted seems a bit clumsy, and would have been a better transition if it immediately followed the description of King Saṅkha. Therefore:

Compared to these two versions, the Madhyama-āgama discourse appears to testify to a state of the discourse when this addition had not yet happened.

The real issue here is that this presumes the Buddha is able to predict the future, to the precise names and actions of individuals, which presupposes a “deterministic” universe and contradicts the supposed “free will” embodied in Dependent Origination (ie. one has the ability to consciously choose to cease and fade away the links in the chain). According to Anālayo in p. 108:

A problem with the present passage in all versions is that, if taken literally, it presents a precise prediction of the names and actions of individuals at a rather distant time in the future. In the Pāli discourses, the present passage is thus not only the sole reference to the Buddha Maitreya, but also the sole instance where such a type of prediction is given.

From the perspective of the early Buddhist conception of causality, to make precise predictions that at some remote time in the future someone named so-and-so will do such-and-such a thing to some degree conflicts with the notion of dependent arising (pratītya-samutpāda), according to which things are conditioned but not wholly determined. To predict the far away future in such detail would require a strong form of predeterminism. There should not be any free will or choice operating in the lives of the people concerned – in particular in the lives of the two individuals that will become the wheel-turning king and the Buddha in the future – otherwise they might end up doing something that differs from what has been predicted.

In fact, Upāli even questions the Buddha’s prediction in T 452 at T XIV 418c7, and according to Anālayo on p. 127:

Upāli questions the Buddha about the monk who has been predicted as the future Buddha Maitreya. In his query, Upāli expresses his puzzlement about the fact that this monk neither engages in the development of concentration nor eradicates his defilements.

Anālayo then further theorises on p. 125 that the primary purpose for introducing Maitreya as the next Buddha seems to be to address:

… the needs of the faithful in search of a way of compensating for the loss of leadership and inspiration after the demise of the teacher. … The Discourse on an Explanation about the Past more directly addresses the dilemma of the teacher’s disappearance by providing a substitute for the deceased Gautama: the bodhisattva Maitreya who will continue the lineage of Buddhas by becoming the next fully-awakened Buddha.

This tendency to exalt the Buddha as a consequence of the vacuum created by his decease, initiated by an increasing concern with his marvels and with his predecessors and successor(s), eventually blossomed into a claim that the Buddha was in fact omniscient.

In Pāsarāsisutta MN 26 PTS 1.161–1.175 we find lo and behold the Buddha indeed claimed to know “all”:

25.6 ‘Sabbābhibhū sabbavidūhamasmi,
‘I am the champion, the knower of all,
25.7 Sabbesu dhammesu anūpalitto;
unsullied in the midst of all things.

Furthermore, this was subsequently expanded to anyone who wishes to reach enlightenment, and in fact it is not possible to attain awakening without understanding and fully knowing “all” in Sabbapariññāsutta Iti 7 PTS 4 PTS 4 Verse 7:

2.1 “Sabbaṁ, bhikkhave, anabhijānaṁ aparijānaṁ tattha cittaṁ avirājayaṁ appajahaṁ abhabbo dukkhakkhayāya."
“Mendicants, without directly knowing and completely understanding the all, without dispassion for it and giving it up, you can’t end suffering.

However, these two passages presumably had an original meaning not of omniscience but that an enlightened person truly “saw things as they are”. In Kāḷakārāmasutta AN 4.24 PTS 2.25–2.26 this was clarified to:

2.1 Yaṁ, bhikkhave, sadevakassa lokassa samārakassa sabrahmakassa sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya diṭṭhaṁ sutaṁ mutaṁ viññātaṁ pattaṁ pariyesitaṁ anuvicaritaṁ manasā, tamahaṁ jānāmi.
“In this world—with its gods, Māras and Brahmās, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its gods and humans—whatever is seen, heard, thought, known, attained, sought, and explored by the mind: that I know.

In fact the Buddha explicitly denied having ever made a claim to omniscience in Tevijjavacchasutta MN 71 PTS 1.482–1.483, but this sutta seems to have been omitted in other canons, possibly a sign of censorship.

5.1 “sutaṁ metaṁ, bhante:
“Sir, I have heard this:
5.2 ‘samaṇo gotamo sabbaññū sabbadassāvī, aparisesaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paṭijānāti,
‘The ascetic Gotama claims to be all-knowing and all-seeing, to know and see everything without exception, thus:
5.3 carato ca me tiṭṭhato ca suttassa ca jāgarassa ca satataṁ samitaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paccupaṭṭhitan’ti.
“Knowledge and vision are constantly and continually present to me, while walking, standing, sleeping, and waking.”’
5.4 Ye te, bhante, evamāhaṁsu: ‘samaṇo gotamo sabbaññū sabbadassāvī, aparisesaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paṭijānāti, carato ca me tiṭṭhato ca suttassa ca jāgarassa ca satataṁ samitaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paccupaṭṭhitan’ti, kacci te, bhante, bhagavato vuttavādino, na ca bhagavantaṁ abhūtena abbhācikkhanti, dhammassa cānudhammaṁ byākaronti, na ca koci sahadhammiko vādānuvādo gārayhaṁ ṭhānaṁ āgacchatī”ti?
I trust that those who say this repeat what the Buddha has said, and do not misrepresent him with an untruth? Is their explanation in line with the teaching? Are there any legitimate grounds for rebuke and criticism?”
5.5 “Ye te, vaccha, evamāhaṁsu: ‘samaṇo gotamo sabbaññū sabbadassāvī, aparisesaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paṭijānāti, carato ca me tiṭṭhato ca suttassa ca jāgarassa ca satataṁ samitaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paccupaṭṭhitan’ti, na me te vuttavādino, abbhācikkhanti ca pana maṁ asatā abhūtenā”ti.
“Vaccha, those who say this do not repeat what I have said. They misrepresent me with what is false and untrue.”

Kaṇṇakatthalasutta MN 90 PTS 2.126–2.133 then seems to soften this:

‘natthi so samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā yo sakideva sabbaṁ ñassati, sabbaṁ dakkhiti, netaṁ ṭhānaṁ vijjatī’”ti.
‘There is no ascetic or brahmin who will know all and see all simultaneously: that is not possible.’”

So apparently it may be possible to know and see all, just not at once. This paves the way to declare the Buddha as “serially omniscient” in Sabbaññubhāvapañha Mil 5.1.2 PTS 103–107:

“Bhante nāgasena, buddho sabbaññū”ti?
‘Venerable Nāgasena, was the Buddha omniscient?’
“Āma, mahārāja, bhagavā sabbaññū, na ca bhagavato satataṁ samitaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ paccupaṭṭhitaṁ, āvajjanapaṭibaddhaṁ bhagavato sabbaññutañāṇaṁ, āvajjitvā yadicchakaṁ jānātī”ti.
‘Yes, O king, he was. But the insight of knowledge was not always and continually (consciously) present with him. The omniscience of the Blessed One was dependent on reflection.’ But if he did reflect he knew whatever he wanted to know.

But wait, according to Anālayo in The Dawn of Abhidharma p. 120, 一切智 MA 212 at T i 793c6 states: “Counterparts to this statement in the Madhyama-āgama and in the Bhaiṣajyavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya have the slightly different formulation that there is no other recluse or Brahmin who has omniscient knowledge at once.” So, others are not omniscient, but the Buddha can be.

According to Sujato, this paves the way for Buddha’s omniscience to be the standard view in later books:

Anālayo then points out that in Ekottarāgama 48.3 at T II 787c4: “the Tathāgata … thoroughly understands all in the three times: future, past, and present”, 如來 … 當來, 過去, 現在, 三世皆悉明了; the same statement recurs in T 453 (佛說彌勒下生經) at T XIV 421a8.

Gombrich states in Popperian Vinaya: Conjecture and Refutation in Practice, in Pramāṇakīrtiḥ, Papers Dedicated to Ernst Steinkellner on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday (2007): “… the idea that the Buddha was omniscient is strikingly at odds with the picture of him presented in every Vinaya tradition”. These “show that the Buddha … occasionally made a false start and found it necessary to reverse a decision. Since omniscience includes knowledge of the future, this is not omniscience.”

Also, one would imagine that the Buddha, if he had been omniscient and could predict the future, would have been able to prevent many things, including the uprising of Devadatta.

Buddhist sociology

The Buddha lived in a period of urbanisation in India, transitioning from villages to towns and cities, together with the rise of trade (across cities and towns). The population was divided into 4 castes (varṇa[S]) (as well as “outcastes” or those outside the social hierarchy). There was an established or “mainstream” religious and cultural system that I will call “brahmanism” administered by the religious caste (brāhmaṇa[S]).3

However, with the rise of trade, members of the merchant and farming caste (vaiśya[S]), together with the political caste (kṣatriya[S]), were becoming more affluent and powerful and were open to new religious ideas. These represent the primary audience that was drawn to the Buddha’s teachings, although the Buddha also won converts from brahmanism and welcomed followers from the artisan and worker caste (śūdra[S]).

One would expect the sort of person who would be drawn to Buddha’s teachings would typically be wealthy and educated, with leisure time and experienced in various sensual pleasures, who would grow to be disenchanted with what life has to offer and gradually question whether there were alternative answers outside of brahmanism.4

There were already other alternatives to brahmanism, including Jainism, and those practising alternate religious practices were generally classified as ascetics.

The Buddha himself was initially an ascetic when he renounced and left the worldly life and for a time practised asceticism. Later on he would denounce many aspects of ascetic practice (although he conceded some ascetic practices are beneficial), but he also understood the general population would consider him an ascetic and he encouraged his followers to refer to themselves as “ascetics who are followers of the Sakyan” (samaṇā sakyaputtiyāmhā, Aggaññasutta DN 27 9.2), evidently to distinguish themselves from other kinds of ascetics.

A unique community developed around Buddhism during Buddha’s time, and still survives today (albeit with modifications) in Buddhist dominated countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and even in countries where Buddhism isn’t the dominant religion.

This community started when the Buddha invited those he felt understood his teachings to “join” him. Others asked Buddha to accept them as disciples and followers. Some are renunciants like him and adopted his simple lifestyle of wearing a robe and dependent on householders for food and other necessities. Others continued in their worldly lives but came to hear his sermons and to provide alms and other donations to him.

This community became known as the saṅgha. Anyone who joined the saṅgha left their caste behind, so the Buddha promoted the intermingling of castes within the community. Instead of the 4 castes separated by profession or birth, the saṅgha consisted of four types of followers:

  • bhikkhu: male renunciants
  • bhikkhuni: female renunciants
  • upāsaka: male lay devotees
  • upāsikā: female lay devotees

The “fourfold assembly” would often meet together for events (such as during uposatha days when monastic confess their faults to each other and recite the monastic rules communally, and followers intensify their practices), or to hear a public sermon or lecture, often given by the Buddha or one of his senior disciples. The saṅgha also had a missionary purpose, monastics were sent out to spread the word and encourage people to join.

Also, anyone who is enlightened is part of the “pure saṅgha” or āryasaṅgha, whether they were formerly part of any saṅghas or not. This is a sort of uber-saṅgha, or an Enlightened Society, of arahants. Today there is no formal āryasaṅgha as it is believed there are no known arahants (more on this in the next section).

Initially the saṅgha was a loose, informal community, but as Buddha’s followers grew into thousands spread across multiple cities, some degree of control was required. The Buddha was reluctant to impose a command and control hierarchy, so to a large extent the community governed itself, with seniority (and gender) used as a basis for relative relationships within the community. However, a set of rules was established for this Utopian society, primarily to ensure there were norms for acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

The rules started out few and straightforward, but over time grew into a complex set. New rules were added by necessity, and each rule was accompanied by a clear case study justifying its inclusion. Rules were sometimes changed or rescinded due to unexpected and unforeseen circumstances. Throughout this process, we become acutely aware that the Buddha was a human being after all, he made mistakes and had to rectify them. Despite the Buddha saying before he passed away that the minor rules can be abolished after his death5, the First Council after the Buddha’s death couldn’t decide which rules were minor and which were major. Indeed, scholars believe the rules continued to be expanded for several centuries after and the current version may date to 3 BCE.6

The Buddha consistently showed us that he was fair, but also practical. When King Bimbisāra, a very important benefactor, complained that soldiers were deserting his army to become monks, the Buddha then forbade soldiers from being ordained.7 Similar, slaves were not allowed to be ordained, lest they desert their masters.8 In one year the King requested the rainy season retreat (vassa) be delayed, and the Buddha advised his disciples to comply.9 Rather than being the omniscient being that was revered by the gods, the Buddha was in fact the loyal vassal of a human king. But he was also a practical man adapting to social expectations. He did not reject the social conventions of his day: the caste system, inequality between the genders, the principles of trade and commerce, or the rules by which society was governed. Revolutionary anarchist he was not.

Over time, lay disciples became progressively excluded from the saṅgha. It was embarrassing for monastics to have the laity listening in on the monastics confessing their transgressions, and eventually it was too much even for the whole monastic community to hear each other’s confessions. So confessions became a private affair between pairs or small groups of monastics. Gradually, the saṅgha transformed from a Utopian Society into an exclusive club for mostly male monastics, who by and large were not answerable to anyone but themselves.

Some parts of the teachings were not allowed to be disclosed to the laity, for various reasons. Benefactors and donators were very important - thousands of monastics need to be fed daily and provided with necessities. So any teaching that might jeopardise this precarious balance must be handled with care. The Buddha’s core teachings with a soteriological goal which is dependent on renouncing oneself from worldly life, may not appeal to everyone. Indeed, some of the teachings, such as those articulating meditation techniques focusing on rotting corpses (to cultivate a distaste for the pleasures of the flesh and to remind the listener of the impermanence of life) may not even be palatable to ordinary people. So eventually the core teachings were only disclosed to the monastics, people who were serious enough to pursue the soteriological goal, and the teachings to lay people focused on virtue, morality, the importance of giving alms, generosity and respect for monastics. The Buddha became a person to be venerated, and what he actually taught was glossed over.

The Buddha’s greatest lay benefactor was Anāthapiṇḍika, the wealthy banker. Indeed, many of the Buddha’s discourses were given at Anāthapiṇḍika’s park (donated to the saṅgha) located at Jeta’s Grove (a famous monastery) in Sāvatthī. There are special sermons composed especially for his benefit. When Anāthapiṇḍika was dying, he summoned the Buddha for the last time, and Sāriputta was sent to visit him. Out of compassion, and wishing Anāthapiṇḍika to be reborn in a higher place, Sāriputta revealed a teaching not normally taught to lay people, and Anāthapiṇḍika exclaimed in surprise in Anāthapiṇḍikovādasutta MN 143 PTS 3.258–3.263:

15.5 … api ca me dīgharattaṁ satthā payirupāsito manobhāvanīyā ca bhikkhū;
But for a long time I have paid homage to the Buddha and the esteemed bhikkhus.
15.6 na ca me evarūpī dhammī kathā sutapubbā”ti.
Yet I have never before heard such a Dhamma talk.”

Buddhism spread rapidly across India during Asoka’s reign, to Sri Lanka, Burma and eventually to South East Asia. It is remarkable that the structure and lineage of the saṅgha was mostly preserved throughout this process. However, Buddhism also forked into various “sects” and the saṅgha was no longer a unified community. Today, the differences between the sects are such that a reconciliation seems unlikely. Whole books have been written on the reasons and the history of divisions in the way Buddhism is interpreted or practiced that I will not summarise here. Recently, “modern”, “humanistic” and “protestant” versions of Buddhism have surfaced, each with their own adherents.

However, cracks began to appear even during the Buddha’s lifetime. Although the ordaining as a monastic was meant to be a process supporting those who have renounced from worldly life, it became a career option for those who have no soteriological intentions but simply wished to have an “easy” life where they do not need to work, or have any responsibilities, and will be looked after as part of a community.

As we saw, monastic life will seem attractive compared to the life of a soldier, or a slave, and no doubt to others wishing to escape or be relieved of ordinary commitments.

Although technically, monastics are not supposed to handle money, earn a living, or own property, the temptation became too much and ways were found circumventing these rules. Generous donations from benefactors include luxury items and property that were granted in perpetuity, so individual monastics had all the benefits of ownership without any of the drawbacks. Even “servants” were “gifted” to monastics, and technically these were slaves. The Buddha himself received the “gift” of hundreds of “servants” from King Bimbisāra - that amounts to an entire village.

The benefactor gains merit from the “donation”, the monastic gets free labour - everyone benefits except the poor slave. Even if the monastic then “frees” the slave, both the benefactor and the monastic benefit further from the “merit” of having freed a human being. All the slave got out of that was their freedom, which was their right in the first place.

Periodically, there were cries of “corruption” in the saṅgha from these “fake monastics” and ownership of property and human beings. Notably Asoka did a “cleansing purge” of a monastery, and there have been records of periodic cleanses or “purifications” in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand etc. but the problems continue to the present time. The history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Burma in particular appear to be one of decline, revival, amd state control, along with the fortunes of those countries. Even today, genocide and civil wars dominate the recent history of many so called “Buddhist” countries.

Gombrich describes the various issues related to the above in Theravāda Buddhism in chapters 6-8. Similar issues are described for Buddhism in Myanmar by Spiro in Buddhism and society.

Today the saṅgha survives but is mainly regarded as monastic communities of (primarily) bhikkhus, at least in the Theravadin tradition. The various groups of Theravadan bhikkhunis disappeared and although there are women today who regard themselves as bhikkhunis, wear ochre robes, and adhere to monastic rules (patimokkha), they are not necessarily formally recognised, as a bhikkhuni has to be ordained by other bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and since there are no surviving properly ordained bhikhhunis, no bhikkhuni can be legally ordained, a view that is often criticised and widely debated. Bhikkhunis of other sects still exist, and are formally recognised as such.

It is unfortunate that Buddhism died out in India and today is a minority religion in that country, and usually portrayed as a variant of Hinduism. Johannes Bronkhorst in Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism Chapter 3 suggests that Buddhism lost political support compared to brahmanism and over time adopted or adapted to brahmanism practices. I venture to suppose that a desire to portray Buddhism in a favourable light compared to brahmanism potentially was one of the main reasons why the texts were altered and expanded as we saw earlier in the article. The main soteriological basis of Buddha’s teachings became obscured by passages extolling and exalting the Buddha, emphasising his supernatural skills and powers, and brahmanism practices were incorporated in the texts to demonstrate the Buddhism was at least comparable in stature. The volume of material expanded considerably to demonstrate the depth of Buddha’s teachings, even though the core messages were actually relatively concise. Increasinglly, verse was used to convey abstract concepts, again possibly to convey depth and mysticism, even though the Buddha himself advised against using verse. In Khuddakavatthukkhandhaka Kd 15 PTS 2.105–2.145 33.1.13 the Buddha states:

33.1.13 “na, bhikkhave, buddhavacanaṁ chandaso āropetabbaṁ.
“You shouldn’t give metrical form to the word of the Buddha.
33.1.14 Yo āropeyya, āpatti dukkaṭassa.
If you do, you commit an offense of wrong conduct.
33.1.15 Anujānāmi, bhikkhave, sakāya niruttiyā buddhavacanaṁ pariyāpuṇitun”ti.
You should learn the word of the Buddha using its own expressions.”

Dhammapada became a popular text, as people are drawn by the inherent beauty of the verse and the metaphors, even though the actual content can be rather opaque (and, I mentioned earlier, can reflect non-Buddhist origins). And thus we come full circle: the very practices and beliefs that the Buddha would have refuted have gradually seeped into and have become part of buddhavacana.

The failure of Buddishm

Some Buddhist practitioners and scholars believe that sometime after the 1st century CE the Buddha’s teachings became no longer effective and practitioners were no longer able to achieve enlightenment. The last known arahant (enlightened being) lived around that time.

According to Gombrich in p. 168n of Theravāda Buddhism:

In Sinhalese public opinion there seem always to have been two conflicting views about the state of the Sāsana. The view that it is in decline goes back, we saw, to the Buddha himself. There is a popular tradition in Sri Lanka that the last Enlightened person in the country died in the first century BCE. On the other hand, the Pali commentaries and chronicles both state and imply that ancient Ceylon was full of Enlightened monks. There are even anecdotes about how people tested or contested claims to sainthood. Curious laymen devised little ruses to see whether an alleged saint took fright easily or salivated at the sight of food. A major component of the popular image of the saint was that he controlled his body and always preserved decorum. Rahula sums up his fascinating chapter on this topic by saying that saints ‘were evidently not expected to be entirely free from . . . minor blemishes, such as pride and love of display’, but ‘should have a reputation for deep piety and scrupulousness in observing the precepts’ – and miraculous powers were a bonus. I doubt whether expectations are very different today.

According to Jayarava in Why Did Buddhists Abandon Buddhavacana?:

As far as I can see, all Buddhist sects gradually moved away from buddhavacana and adopted novel doctrines over time. Even the venerable Theravāda tradition — whose own mythology includes the claim to have preserved the entire oeuvre of the Buddha in the very language that he spoke — moved substantially away from those texts. Modern Theravāda is actually based on the writings of Buddhaghosa, a fifth century commentator, and on medieval sub-commentaries on Abhidhamma, such as the Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha. The practice of meditation died out in Theravāda sects and had to be reinvented in the eighteenth century. Indeed, some Theravādins have argued that liberation from rebirth is impossible in the absence of a living Buddha.

Today there are no known living arahants, or even known arahants in recent memory. Some have claimed they are arahants but not generally accepted, others have been suspected or assumed to be arahants, and there may be arahants who have not declared themselves and are therefore unknown.

Buddhism as a religion includes beliefs, customs and practices that were not taught or endorsed by the Buddha. These are documented by Gombrich in Theravāda Buddhism: A social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo and Spiro in Buddhism and society : a great tradition and its Burmese vicissitudes.

Buddhism today is divided into various sects, and the beliefs of the sects do not always overlap. There are also modern forms of Buddhism which may or may not incorporate all the “original” teachings of the Buddha. Some have replaced Buddha’s teachings, and sometimes even the Buddha himself, with “newer” and “improved” teachings.

Buddhism is primarily practised by the various sects and groups of monastics (who do not always agree with each other), or by “lay disciples.” The major sects all have their own version of the Buddhist teachings, with some considerable differences between them.

There were issues with quarrels and bad behaviour even during Buddha’s lifetime. Take, for example Ovādasutta SN 16.6 PTS 2.204–2.205, where Kassapa complains to the Buddha that lately monks have become hard to admonish, impatient, and don’t take instruction respectfully, requiring an intervention by the Buddha:

2.1 “Dubbacā kho, bhante, etarahi bhikkhū, dovacassakaraṇehi dhammehi samannāgatā, akkhamā, appadakkhiṇaggāhino anusāsaniṁ.
“Sir, the mendicants these days are hard to admonish, having qualities that make them hard to admonish. They’re impatient, and don’t take instruction respectfully.”
2.2 Idhāhaṁ, bhante, addasaṁ bhaṇḍañca nāma bhikkhuṁ ānandassa saddhivihāriṁ abhijikañca nāma bhikkhuṁ anuruddhassa saddhivihāriṁ aññamaññaṁ sutena accāvadante: ‘ehi, bhikkhu, ko bahutaraṁ bhāsissati, ko sundarataraṁ bhāsissati, ko cirataraṁ bhāsissatī’”ti.
“Come on, monk, who can recite more? Who can recite better? Who can recite longer?”

Even the Buddha noticed that his teachings became less effective over time, due to internal corruption within the Saṅgha. Kassapa asked the Buddha why there are now fewer enlightened beings, but more disciplinary rules. The Buddha replied that the overall quality of members of the community have declined and some don’t respect the teachings or the teacher (Saddhammappatirūpakasutta SN 16.13 PTS 2.224–2.225):

4.3 Idha, kassapa, bhikkhū bhikkhuniyo upāsakā upāsikāyo satthari agāravā viharanti appatissā, dhamme agāravā viharanti appatissā, saṅghe agāravā viharanti appatissā, sikkhāya agāravā viharanti appatissā, samādhismiṁ agāravā viharanti appatissā
It’s when the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen lack respect and reverence for the Teacher, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the training, and immersion.

The arch-nemesis during Buddha’s lifetime was no doubt Devadatta, who tried to take over the community, caused a formal schism in the Saṅgha, and even tried unsuccessfully to kill the Buddha in Saṁghabhedakakkhandhaka Kd 17 PTS 2.180–2.206

Given the “schism” of Buddhism into various sects, the potential “corruption” in the Buddha’s teachings, and the fact that there are no known living arahants, I have to reluctantly conclude Buddhism is a failed religion, since it is no longer effective by the very standards it sets.

A New Approach

So, what is the path forward? Is there a way to “rediscover” the original intent and teachings of the Buddha, or are we doomed to wait for the “next” Buddha, who may not appear for thousands of years?

In the pages of this website, I hope to document my journey towards my quest to truly understand what the Buddha really taught, and use that as a basis for my own “salvation”, or freedom from suffering and craving.

At this point, a question could reasonably be asked: Isn’t this a “scorched earth” approach, and ignores all the effort made by others to date? Surely I am not conceited enough to believe I am superior to all present and past teachers, that I am going to discover something that existing research have not already uncovered?

Indeed, it is a good question and one I have asked myself many times. I don’t believe I am superior to others, and acknowledge many seem to have far more knowledge and experience than myself. There is an extensive amount of research and translations available today, and yes I have read some of them. Indeed, in preparing this article, I feel I am “standing on the shoulders of giants” and very much relying on the expertise of many people: Walpoul Rahula, Richard Gombrich, Grzegorz Polak, Mark Allon, Johannes Bronkhorst, Bhikkhu Anālayo, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Bhante Sujato amongst others to name a few.

Why not just rely on their authority, and also the experience of many well known Buddhist practitioners today? That would be nice, except they don’t all agree with each other. Even prominent Buddhist bhikkhus and teachers don’t always share the same views, and it is all too easy to find disagreements and debates in various discussion forums on the Internet. And since none of them have declared that they have attained enlightenment (indeed, by Vinaya rules they are not allowed to), then it is impossible to determine who is right and who is … well … less right.

Therefore, I believe it is still valuable to go through this process of rediscovery, mainly because for me to truly realise what the Buddha taught, I need to be able to digest, conceptualise and synthesise what I have read in my own terms.

An excerpt from the Foreword of Sujato’s book A History of Mindfulness may help clarify my motivation. Note, I have paraphrased the excerpt to make it more applicable to my situation, my replacements are in parentheses:

An aspiring (student) first learns from the lips of a teacher whose words as they utter them must be the very latest formulation of the topic. Then they might go back to read some of the works of well-known contemporary teachers. Since devotees usually have faith that their teacher (or the teacher’s teacher) was enlightened, they assume, often without reflection, that the teachings must be in accord with the Buddha. Finally, if they are really dedicated, they may go back to read (the actual teachings). Once they come to the text itself, they are already pre-programmed to read the text in a certain way. It takes guts to question one’s teachers; and it takes not just guts, but time and effort to question intelligently.

And therefore the approach:

Our first step must be to forget all we’ve learnt about (the Buddha’s teachings), and to start again from the bottom up. A basic principle of the historical method is that simpler teachings tend to be earlier and hence are likely to be more authentic​ - w​e must start with the bricks before we can build a house. It is the shorter, more basic, passages that are the most fundamental presentation of (the Buddha’s teachings). The longer texts are an elaboration. We do not assume that shorter is always earlier, but we take this as a guiding principle whose implications we can follow through.

Polak further clarifies in Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology p. 216:

Similarly to Sujato, I too believe that proper justification and motivation for critical studies of early Buddhism can only be provided by a pragmatic and existential approach.

… Buddhism easily stands out as probably the least dogmatic and the least difficult to harmonize with the scientific worldview. It possesses some apparent flaws, a dose of internal discrepancies, some question marks and we can also encounter some problems connected to its history. These problems certainly would put Buddhism on the edge of being immediately disqualified as the ‘ultimate solution’, were it not for a fascinating perspective of some deeply hidden nucleus, possibly devoid of these flaws. This perspective is provided by the presence of some fundamental internal discrepancies within the Buddhist doctrine, which suggest that some process of evolution of the original doctrine must have occurred, during which the above-mentioned discrepancies made their way into the Buddhist writings. In this way, a critical research of this problem becomes a life’s necessity. It is no longer the case of us trying to find motivation and then justification for this activity, as the questions ‘why should we?’, and ‘do we have right to?’ get transformed to ‘how can we allow ourselves not to?’.

The Buddha himself advocated that his disciples should not to accept any teaching merely on a teacher’s authority, but to work things out for themselves and use common sense in Kesamuttisutta AN 3.65 PTS 1.189–1.193:

4.1 … mā anussavena, mā paramparāya, mā itikirāya, mā piṭakasampadānena, mā takkahetu,　mā nayahetu, mā ākāraparivitakkena, mā diṭṭhinijjhānakkhantiyā, mā bhabbarūpatāya, mā samaṇo no garūti.
… don’t go by oral transmission, don’t go by lineage, don’t go by testament, don’t go by canonical authority, don’t rely on logic, don’t rely on inference, don’t go by reasoned contemplation, don’t go by the acceptance of a view after consideration, don’t go by the appearance of competence, and don’t think ‘The ascetic is our respected teacher.’

Assumptions

  • First of all, I assume that at least some of Buddha’s teachings have been accurately preserved in the Tipiṭaka, otherwise there is no hope of rediscovering what they were. This is in accordance with the main conclusions from the book The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts.
  • I also have to assume that at one stage the teachings must have been effective, otherwise Buddhism as a religion would have failed a long time ago and we will not know of it today.
  • The Buddha was not omniscient, even after enlightenment. Although he no doubt had a penetrating intellect and a compassionate personality, he is not able to foretell the future, read people’s minds (although he shown to be a good judge of character and understands people well). He does occasionally make mistakes, so we should not assume that he is always correct or his teaching is necessarily the absolute truth.
  • Therefore, I assume that Buddhism is no longer effective because the teachings have been corrupted and misinterpreted, but if we can rediscover what the original teachings may have been, then they will be effective.
  • I also believe that the original teachings are completely integrated and self-consistent, so the key to rediscovering Buddha’s teachings is to find an internally coherent and interlocking subset.
  • The core teachings of Buddhism should not require a belief in supernatural powers, the different planes of existence, various deities, etc. I am not saying that these do not exist, but the Buddha made it clear that his teachings were sufficient and don’t require speculation on concepts or entities that are unknowable. We also don’t really need to know the details of Buddha’s life, or past lives, entertaining though they may be. So we can set aside any elements from teachings that reference these, and save them for bedtime reading.

Principles

  • Question and evaluate everything: do not assume a teaching is correct unless it appears to make sense, or can be directly experienced, and is consistent with other teachings that have been previously validated as true.
  • It is possible to apply rational or logical thinking to evaluate the suttas. It does not necessarily require leaps of faith.
  • The simplest possible version of a teaching is likely to be the correct one, or at least the least corrupted. It appears that the tendency is for the suttas to be added to rather than redacted, since the monks that preserved them were keen not to eliminate any of Buddha’s teachings, but apparently believe enhancing them through pericopes (filling out a teaching with stock phrases) is acceptable. If two teachings differ because one appears to be a superset of the other, accept the smaller teaching as a hypothesis for the correct set. The larger set is assumed to be due to a later addition.
  • Minimum viable proposition: the teachings of the Buddha should be distilled to a core, internally consistent, set which is deemed to be just sufficient to achieve enlightenment. The Tipiṭaka has a lot of repetitions and redundancy, these can be simplified.
  • All teachings must be evaluated. Do not selectively cherry pick some teachings and disregard others. It is tempting to focus only on the well known and popular suttas, but it is possible some of the more esoteric or difficult to interpret suttas may be more accurate.
  • Where possible, evaluate the teaching based on the Pāli text and not an English translation. In particular, retain the Pāli words for any technical terms.
  • Reject any teachings not related to the core soteriology. In particular, anything to do with the various heavens and hells, deities, supernatural powers or attainments, etc. This is a fairly innocuous principle to follow regardless whether one believes in supernatural powers or not, since if one manages to achieve enlightenment, then any supernatural powers that may be gained are irrelevant anyway. In Susimaparibbājakasutta SN 12.70 PTS 2.120–2.128 reaching enlightenment is described as being possible without the acquisition of psychic powers (anekavihitaṁ iddhividhaṁ), divine clairaudience (dibbāya sotadhātuyā visuddhāya), read minds, recall past lives (anekavihitaṁ pubbenivāsaṁ anussaratha), claivoyance (dibbena cakkhunā visuddhena), or even the formless meditative practices.
  • Set aside any teachings relating to Buddhism as a religion - rules and prohibitions, customs, sociology etc. Many of these are probably late additions or irrelevant to soteriology.

In addition, Johannes Bronkhorst proposes a method to arrive at the teaching of the Buddha on the basis of the early canonical texts in Early Buddhist Meditation, a paper presented at the conference “Buddhist Meditation from Ancient India to Modern Asia”, Jogye Order International Conference Hall, Seoul, 29 November 2012:

Put very briefly, the teaching of the Buddha as presented in the early canon contains a number of contradictions. There are views and practices that are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected. The method I have proposed is based on a study of other religious movements that are known to have existed at the time of the Buddha in the same region of India. It turns out that among the views and practices that are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected in the Buddhist canon many are also found in those other religious movements. We are therefore entitled to suspect that Buddhism, in the course of its development but before the final redaction of its early canon, underwent the influence of those movements and borrowed some of their views and practices. My proposal is to consider views and practices in the Buddhist canon as borrowings, and therefore as non-authentic, if two criteria are met: (1) they are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected in the Buddhist canon, and (2) they have their place in the other religious movements of the time. I also submit that the original teaching of the Buddha may have to be looked for among the views and practices that remain after deduction of the borrowings.

Even more importantly, the Buddha himself advised an approach to determine whether a teaching is authentic or not, which he repeated four times in Catumahāpadesakathā (the four great references) from Mahāparinibbānasutta DN 16 PTS 2.72–2.168:

4.8.1 “Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu evaṁ vadeyya:
“Take a bhikkhu who says:
4.8.2 ‘sammukhā metaṁ, āvuso, bhagavato sutaṁ sammukhā paṭiggahitaṁ,
Friend, I have heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha:
4.8.3 ayaṁ dhammo ayaṁ vinayo idaṁ satthusāsanan’ti.
this is the teaching, this is the training, this is the Teacher’s instruction.’
4.8.4 Tassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno bhāsitaṁ neva abhinanditabbaṁ nappaṭikkositabbaṁ.
You should neither approve nor dismiss that bhikkhu’s statement.
4.8.5 Anabhinanditvā appaṭikkositvā tāni padabyañjanāni sādhukaṁ uggahetvā sutte osāretabbāni, vinaye sandassetabbāni.
Instead, having carefully memorized those words and phrases, you should make sure they fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training.
4.8.6 Tāni ce sutte osāriyamānāni vinaye sandassiyamānāni na ceva sutte osaranti, na ca vinaye sandissanti, niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṁ:
If they do not fit in the discourse and are not exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion:
4.8.7 ‘addhā idaṁ na ceva tassa bhagavato vacanaṁ;
‘Clearly this is not the word of the Buddha.
4.8.8 imassa ca bhikkhuno duggahitan’ti.
It has been incorrectly memorized by that bhikkhu.’
4.8.9 Iti hetaṁ, bhikkhave, chaḍḍeyyātha.
And so you should reject it.
4.8.10 Tāni ce sutte osāriyamānāni vinaye sandassiyamānāni sutte ceva osaranti, vinaye ca sandissanti, niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṁ:
If they do fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: 4.8.11 ‘addhā idaṁ tassa bhagavato vacanaṁ;
‘Clearly this is the word of the Buddha.
4.8.12 imassa ca bhikkhuno suggahitan’ti.
It has been correctly memorized by that bhikkhu.’

Process

How to begin?

Sujato created a hypothesis on the origin and development of the Buddhist texts called ‘General Integrated Sutta Theory’ (GIST) in the book A History of Mindfulness p. 19. It “… encompasses the entire gamut of extant early scriptures, that is, the Suttas, Vinayas, and Abhidhammas of all the schools preserved in Pali, Chinese, and various Indic dialects” and presents essential relations between these texts. According to this, the following constitute the earliest strata of Buddhist texts:

  • Earliest Discourses: Dhammacakkappavattana, Anattalakkhaṇa, and Ādittapariyāya Suttas, and the Request of Brahmā.
  • Earliest Collection: Congruent sections of Saṁyutta Nikāya/Saṁyukta Āgama.
  • Earliest Abhidhamma: Congruent sections of Vibhaṅga/Dharmaskandha/Śāriputrābhidharma.

According this, we should start by examining the earliest discourses as well as the Saṁyutta Nikāya. I will only examine the Pali version, since I can read Pali but not Chinese. Sujato suggests that the topics in the Saṁyutta Nikāya are fairly congruent across the various schools and are expositions of the Four Noble Truths, with the following relationships between the topics, the collection in the Saṁyuttanikāya SN, the section in the Abhidhamma Vibhaṅga Vb, and finally individual suttas:

# Discourses
## Truths
### [Saccasaṁyutta SN 56](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-mahavaggasamyutta/sn56)
#### [Saccavibhaṅga Vb 4 PTS 99–121](https://suttacentral.net/vb4)
- MN 141
- MA 31
- EA 27.1
## Aggregates
### [Khandhasaṁyutta SN 22](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-khandhavaggasamyutta/sn22)
#### [Khandhavibhaṅga Vb 1 PTS 1–69](https://suttacentral.net/vb1)
- SN 22.59
- SA 34)
## Sense bases
### [Saḷāyatanasaṁyutta SN 35](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn35)
#### [Āyatanavibhaṅga Vb 2 PTS 70–81](https://suttacentral.net/vb2)
### [Dhātusaṁyutta SN 14](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn14)
#### [Dhātuvibhaṅga Vb 3 PTS 82–98](https://suttacentral.net/vb3)
- MN 115
- MA 181
- MN 141
- MA 162
### [Vedanāsaṁyutta SN 36](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn36)
## Origin
### [Nidānasaṁyutta SN 12](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn12)
#### [Paṭiccasamuppādavibhaṅga Vb 6 PTS 135–192](https://suttacentral.net/vb6)
- SN 12.2
- SA 298
## Defilements
### [Diṭṭhisaṁyutta SN 24](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-mahavaggasamyutta/sn45)
#### [Khuddakavatthuvibhaṅga Vb 17 PTS 345–400](https://suttacentral.net/vb17)
- SA 4
### (Kamma)
#### (Kamma)
- SA 41
## Cessation
### [Asaṅkhatasaṁyutta SN 43](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-mahavaggasamyutta/sn43)
#### (Nibbāna)
### [Sotāpattisaṁyutta SN 55](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-mahavaggasamyutta/sn55)
- SA 30
## 8-fold path
### [Maggasaṁyutta SN 45](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-mahavaggasamyutta/sn45)
#### [Maggaṅgavibhaṅga Vb 11 PTS 235–243](https://suttacentral.net/vb11)
- SN 45.8
- SA 783
### [Satipaṭṭhānasaṁyutta SN 47](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-mahavaggasamyutta/sn47)
#### [Satipaṭṭhānavibhaṅga Vb 7 PTS 193–207](https://suttacentral.net/vb7)
- MN 10
- MA 98
- EA 12.1
### [Sammappadhānasaṁyutta SN 49](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn49)
#### [Sammappadhānavibhaṅga Vb 8 PTS 208–215](https://suttacentral.net/vb8)
- SN 49
### [Iddhipādasaṁyutta SN 51](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn51)
#### [Iddhipādavibhaṅga Vb 9 PTS 216–226](https://suttacentral.net/vb9)
- SN 51.13
### [Indriyasaṁyutta SN 48](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn48)
#### [Indriyavibhaṅga Vb 5 PTS 122–134](https://suttacentral.net/vb5)
### [Balasaṁyutta SN 50](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn50)
### [Bojjhaṅgasaṁyutta SN 46](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn46)
- AN 5.14
- AN 5.15
- SA 675
#### [Bojjhaṅgavibhaṅga Vb 10 PTS 227–234](https://suttacentral.net/vb10)
- SN 46.3
- SA 736
- SA 740
- SA 724
- SN 46.5
- SA 733
### [Jhānasaṁyutta SN 34](https://suttacentral.net/pitaka/sutta/linked/sn/sn-nidanavaggasamyutta/sn34)
#### [Jhānavibhaṅga Vb 12 PTS 244–271](https://suttacentral.net/vb12)
- SA 29
#### [Appamaññāvibhaṅga Vb 13 PTS 272–284](https://suttacentral.net/vb13)
#### [Sikkhāpadavibhaṅga Vb 14 PTS 285–292](https://suttacentral.net/vb14)

There is also a classification of the Buddha’s teachings into 9 sections (navaṅga). These nine categories are based on content, structure or literary style:

  1. Sutta (Sūtra[S]): prose discourses, especially short declarative discourses. Refers primarily to the early portions of the Thera/Therīgāthā and the Sutta Nipāta
  2. Geyya (Geya[S]): mixed prose and verse discourse. Identified with the Sagāthāvagga of the Saṁyutta Nikāya
  3. Veyyakarana (Vyākarana[S]): explanation, analysis. Discourses in question and answer format.
  4. Gāthā: verse
  5. Udāna: inspired speech. Eg, Dhammapāda and the Udāna
  6. Itivuttaka (Ityukta[S]): fables, eg. Itivuttaka
  7. Jātaka: story of a previous life of the Buddha
  8. Abbhutadhamma (Abhutadharma[S]): concerning wonders and miraculous events, eg. Acchariya-abbhūta Sutta (MN 123/MA 32), the Bakkula Sutta (MN 124/MA 34)
  9. Vedalla (Vaipulya[S]) either ’extended discourses’ or ’those giving joy’ (cf Mahayana Texts) eg. MN 43/MA 211, MN 44/MA 44

According to this classification, the suttas in the four Nikāyas can usually be classified into the top 3:

SuttaVyākaraṇaGeyya
ContentBasic doctrinal statementsDetailed expositionInspirational/devotional
StyleDeclarative proseInterrogative proseMixed prose and verse
SpeakerThe Buddha onlyThe Buddha and/or disciplesThe Buddha, disciples, and others
ContextAlways monasticUsually monasticUsually with lay people or deities, often Brahmanical
ParadigmDhammacakkappavattanaAnattalakkhaṇaRequest of Brahmā

Based on the above, we will focus on Sutta and Vyākaraṇa discourses in the Nikāyas in the following order:

  1. Saṁyutta Nikāya (SN)
  2. Majjhima Nikāya (MN)
  3. Dīgha Nikāya (DN)
  4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN)

We will set aside the discourses outside the four main collections for the time being. Joy Manné proposes in Categories Of Sutta In The Pali Nikayas And Their Implications For Our Appreciation Of The Buddhist Teaching And Literature, Journal of the Pali Text Society, XV, 29-87, that “each of the first four Nikāyas came about in order to serve a distinct need and purpose in the growing and developing Buddhist community” (p. 73).

DN was primarily intended for the purpose of propaganda, to attract converts to the new religion, and thus is aimed mainly at non-Buddhists favourably disposed to Buddhism; MN, in contrast, was directed inwards towards the Buddhist community and its purpose was to extol the Master (both as a real person and as an archetype) and to integrate monks into the community and the practice.

Bhikkhu Bodhi hypothesises in The Connected Discourses of the Buddha p. 32 that:

… the suttas in SN (as also in AN) were, as a general rule, not targetted at outsiders or even at the newly converted, but were intended principally for those who had already turned for refuge to the Dhamma and were deeply immersed in its study and practice. … SN was compiled to serve as the repository for the many short but pithy suttas disclosing the Buddha’s radical insights into the nature of reality and his unique path to spiritual emancipation.

We notice, particularly in SN but generally across all the collections, is there is a pattern in the way suttas are organised in a collection. As noticed by Mark Allon in p. 27, suttas in a collection are grouped:

… on the basis of genre, size, purpose, a numerical principle, subject matter, and so on. The textual units within these larger collections were further organized into more manageable sub-divisions, such as vagga/vargas, saṃyutta/saṃyuktas, and nipātas, and then, in the case of sutra collections, into the most basic grouping of the vagga/varga that consists ideally of ten sutras, the number ten perhaps being influenced by the fact that we have ten fingers. The larger collection was also sometimes divided into bhāṇavāras, or recitation sections, where a bhāṇavāra is said to consist of 8,000 akṣaras or syllables.47 Yet another system of organization occasionally used for large collections was to arrange the member sutras into groups of 50, or paññāsakas, a system used to group the 152 suttas of the Majjhima- nikāya into three paññāsakas48 and for structuring the suttas of the large Khandha- and Saḷāyatana-saṃyuttas of the Saṃyutta-nikāya and those in Books 2 to 10 (Duka- to Dasaka-nipāta) of the Aṅguttara-nikāya. A further set of organizational principles was then used to guide the inclusion and arrangement of textual units within these secondary and tertiary divisions. This included genre, size, whether verse was included and how many verses were involved, subject matter, a numerical feature, a connection based on a key word or words, or key concepts, the manner of treating a topic, including its treatment in brief and in expanded form, the individuals involved, such as who delivered the discourse or spoke the verses or the one to whom they were addressed, the location of events depicted, and figures of speech such as a simile or metaphor, to mention only the main ones.

In SN, suttas are often arranged by:

  • topic (subject matter or keyword),
  • groups of individuals, eg. deities, kings, monks, ascetics,
  • a shared literary feature or figure of speech,
  • pairs of textual units or occasionally longer runs

Finally, after reading and the suttas, one should internally understanding the true meaning and underlying key concepts, after which the suttas themselves do not need to be memorised or even retained in their current form. I try to summarise buddhavacana on this website through diagrams and tables, and very rarely translate or quote entire suttas. This is based on advice from the Buddha himself in the Simile of the Raft, contained in Alagaddūpamasutta MN 22

In Conclusion

Some of you may have noticed the structure of this article somewhat mirrors the Buddha’s Four Pure Truths:

  1. I started by describing who the Buddha was and summarising what he taught.
  2. I then described how his teachings have transformed over the years, to the point where I believe they are no longer effective.
  3. I describe the need to rediscover what his teachings were, so that they can be effective.
  4. Finally, I outline an approach by which the Buddha’s teachings can be rediscovered.

This article and this website will continually evolve as I progress along on my journey of rediscovery and ultimately awakening.

Afterword

The Buddha, whether he truly existed or was a composite of various people, revolutionalised soteriology, by removing the necessity for elements such as gods, heavens, souls, supernatural powers, cosmology, omniscience, or any other thing that cannot be directly experienced, although he never explicitly denied any of the above.

Instead, he blended the Vedic concepts of rebirth, cycle of existence, and cessation of desire as the key to liberation, together with the Jain concepts of the sanctity of all life and self control. He crafted a “middle” path that avoided extremities of belief or actions. His key innovations were the ethicisation of kamma and linking it to suffering and the cycle of existence, showing us our “consciousness” is nothing more than the results of our desires and cravings, and recognising that ultimately everything we experience is impermanent, unsatisfactory, and does not support the concept of an eternal soul. His most misunderstood concepts are his descriptions of enlightenment and meditation, which confuses people even today.

Ultimately, his teachings can be distilled to very simple ideas: eliminate craving and desire and other unwholesome or unskillful thoughts, be the best person one can possibly be, have a calm and dispassionate disposition, have a positive attitude towards life and other living beings, and you will be forever be rid of sufffering and dissatisfaction. Even if one does not believe in anything he taught, is there nothing better than to follow that path?

  1. The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050 Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. ↩︎

  2. Religious affiliation in Australia ↩︎

  3. Theravāda Buddhism The Social Conditions Of His Day pp. 49-56. Interestingly, Johannes Bronkhorst in Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism presents a counter-opinion, that “the Brahmins, did not occupy a dominant position in the area in which the Buddha preached his message” and that Brahmanism didn’t really spread until after the reign of Asoka. This would imply all the brahmanical references found in the Tipiṭaka must be from a later period when Buddhism found itself in competition with Brahmanism. ↩︎

  4. Theravāda Buddhism To whom did the Buddha’s message appeal? pp. 56-60 ↩︎

  5. Mahāparinibbānasutta DN 16 PTS 2.72–2.168 35. Tathāgatapacchimavācā: Ākaṅkhamāno, ānanda, saṅgho mamaccayena khuddānukhuddakāni sikkhāpadāni samūhanatu. (If it wishes, after my passing the Saṅgha may abolish the lesser and minor training rules.) ↩︎

  6. Frauwallner, Erich (1956), The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature, Rome., p. 3 and chap. 4. ↩︎

  7. Mahākhandhaka Kd 1 PTS 1.1–1.100 27. Rājabhaṭavatthu ↩︎

  8. Mahākhandhaka Kd 1 PTS 1.1–1.100 34. Dāsavatthu ↩︎

  9. Vassūpanāyikakkhandhaka Kd 3 PTS 1.137–1.156 2. Vassānecārikāpaṭikkhepādi: Tena kho pana samayena rājā māgadho seniyo bimbisāro vassaṁ ukkaḍḍhitukāmo bhikkhūnaṁ santike dūtaṁ pāhesi — “yadi panāyyā āgame juṇhe vassaṁ upagaccheyyun”ti. (At one time King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha wanted to postpone the rains residence. He sent a message to the monks: “Would the venerables please enter the rains residence during the next waxing phase of the moon?”) ↩︎

1.3 - Enlightenment

My current views on this complex and not well understood goal of Buddhism

Introduction

THe attainment of enlightenment or nibbāna is regarded as the soteriological goal of Buddhism.

THe Buddha said in the First Discourse Dhammacakkappavattanasutta SN 56.11 PTS 5.421–5.424 that when he finally understood the 4 noble truths completely (imesu catūsu ariyasaccesu evaṁ tiparivaṭṭaṁ dvādasākāraṁ yathābhūtaṁ ñāṇadassanaṁ suvisuddhaṁ ahosi) he was able to declare that he had attained “supreme perfect enlightenment” (anuttaraṁ sammāsambodhiṁ abhisambuddho)

Enlightenment has been described using the word nibbāna, but what does this word actually mean?

According to the PTS Pali-English Dictionary (PED), nibbāna is commonly regarded as “extinguishment” or “going out of a lamp or fire”. The PED describes the Buddhist use of the word as “… an ethical state, to be reached in this birth by ethical practices, contemplation and insight. It is therefore not transcendental.”

However, over time the interpretation of the word became more and more complex. The following are excerpts from the PED (some text have been elided for simplicity):

  • nibbāna is the untranslatable expression of the Unspeakable, of that for which in the Buddha’s own saying there is no word, which cannot be grasped in terms of reasoning and cool logic, the Nameless Undefinable (cp. the simile of extinction of the flame) which may be said to pass from a visible state into a state which cannot be defined. Thus the Saint (Arahant) passes into that same state, for which there is “no measure” (i.e. no dimension) […]. Yet, it is a reality, and its characteristic features may be described, may be grasped in terms of earthly language, in terms of space (as this is the only means at our disposal to describe abstract notions of time and mentality) […]
  • It is the speculative, scholastic view and the dogmatising trend of later times, beginning with the Abhidhamma period which has more and more developed the simple, spontaneous idea into an exaggerated form either to the positive (i.e. seeing in nibbāna a definite; state or sphere of existence) or the negative side (i.e. seeing in it a condition of utter annihilation).
  • Yet its sentimental value to the (exuberant optimism of the) early Buddhists (Rh. Davids, Early Buddhism, p. 73) is one of peace and rest, perfect passionlessness, and thus supreme happiness.

According to the New Concise Pali-English dictionary, nibbāna is:

  1. the ceasing to burn, going out.
  2. freedom from care or passion, a sense of bodily well-being; ease, happiness.
  3. the ceasing to burn, going out (of the fires of passion etc); the ceasing, coming to an end, of all that furnishes fuel for rebirth; the end of the possibility of rebirth; freedom from all concerns and passions; the sense of well-being, ease, happiness, experienced through the knowledge of this freedom in oneself.

How did the Buddha use the term nibbāna

I searched for the term in the Tripiṭaka, and I found the following suttas either directly or indirectly describing nibbāna:

  • Nibbānasutta AN 6.101 PTS 3.443 defines nibbāna as neither dukkhato (pain) nor sukhato (pleasure)
  • Nibbānasutta AN 7.19 PTS 4.15 describes the “happiness” observed, perceived and experienced by one who is enlightened (Nibbāne sukhānupassī viharati sukhasaññī sukhapaṭisaṁvedī) Note that in here “happiness” (sukhaṁ) is not necessarily an emotion but can be satisfaction with having achieved something (api ca, āvuso, yattha yattha sukhaṁ upalabbhati yahiṁ yahiṁ taṁ taṁ tathāgato sukhasmiṁ paññapetī) Bahuvedanīyasutta MN 59 PTS 1.397–1.400
  • Nibbānasukhasutta AN 9.34 PTS 4.415–4.418 explains nibbāna can also be considered to be “bliss” (sukhamidaṁ) in the same manner.
  • Nirāmisasutta SN 36.31 PTS 4.236–4.238 additional terms that can be used, including “joy” (pīti), “equanimity” (upekkhā) and release (vimokkho) that can be “more spiritual” than the ones “of the flesh” (nirāmisā nirāmisatarā)
  • Nibbānasutta AN 9.48 PTS 4.454 says that nibbāna is achievable in the current life (Sandiṭṭhikaṁ nibbānaṁ)
  • Paṭhamanibbānapaṭisaṁyuttasutta Ud 8.1 PTS 80 describes nibbāna as a string of negatives: not of the earth, water, fire or wind (neva pathavī, na āpo, na tejo, na vāyo), nor in the infinity of space, consciousness, nothingness or neither perception or non perception (na ākāsānañcāyatanaṁ, na viññāṇañcāyatanaṁ, na ākiñcaññāyatanaṁ, na nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaṁ), not the world, the world beyond, the sun or the moon (nāyaṁ loko, na paraloko, na ubho candimasūriyā). Furthermore, it does not come, or go, or stay still, or die, or come into existence, or rest, or fall, or has a basis (neva āgatiṁ vadāmi, na gatiṁ, na ṭhitiṁ, na cutiṁ, na upapattiṁ; appatiṭṭhaṁ, appavattaṁ, anārammaṇamevetaṁ).
  • Dutiyanibbānapaṭisaṁyuttasutta Ud 8.2 PTS Ud 80 PTS Ud 80 Verse 86 says it is hard to comprehend anataṁ (endless and boundless) but for those that have comprehended and understood craving, nothing can be seen (passato natthi kiñcanaṁ).
  • Tatiyanibbānapaṭisaṁyuttasutta Ud 8.3 PTS 81 says “not-born, non-existing, not made, not caused” (atthi ajātaṁ abhūtaṁ akataṁ asaṅkhataṁ). This phrase also crops up in other places, such as Iti43.
  • Nibbānadhātusutta Iti 44 PTS 39 PTS 39 Verse 83–84 states there are two “facets” or types of nibbāna: after achieving it and is still living (saupādisesā nibbānadhātu), and after one passes away (anupādisesā nibbānadhātu)
  • Catutthanibbānapaṭisaṁyuttasutta Ud 8.4 PTS Ud 81 expresses the “end of suffering” (esevanto dukkhassa) as the lack of attachment to agitation (calitaṁ). When there is no agitation, there is tranquility (passaddhi), no inclination (nati), no coming and coming (āgatigati), no dying and rebirth (cutūpapāto), not in here, another world, or in between.

From this, one can surmise nibbāna is neither pleasurable nor painful (although one can observe, perceive and experience “bliss”, “happiness”, “joy”, “equanimity” or “release” in the knowledge that one has attained enlightenment), and it not material, or immaterial, or various states of existence, or endless/boundless, does not get made, or born, or caused, and is not of this world or any other.

And yet nibbāna as a “concept” (nibbānadhātu) remains even after an enlightened one dies (anupādisesā nibbānadhātu). This is difficult to reconcile with the above view, and raises the troublesome question of “what exists after the death of an enlightened being” which Buddha has refused to answer.

Samādhisutta AN 10.6 PTS 5.8 (as well as similar wordings in AN3.32, AN10.7, AN10.60 etc.) describes “the stilling of all activities, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation” as “peaceful, and sublime” (etaṁ santaṁ etaṁ paṇītaṁ yadidaṁ sabbasaṅkhārasamatho sabbūpadhipaṭinissaggo taṇhākkhayo virāgo nirodho nibbānan). So it seems this is a “stock phrase” or pericope, possibly inserted at a later stage.

# SN 12.70
- khīṇā jāti
- vusitaṁ brahmacariyaṁ
- kataṁ karaṇīyaṁ
- nāparaṁ itthattāyāti pajānāma

The Buddha warned in Mūlapariyāyasutta MN 1 PTS 1.1–1.6 that those who have not “directly experienced” nibbāna may not understand it completely and hence develop wrong views:

‘Apariññātaṁ tassā’ti vadāmi. Nibbānaṁ nibbānato sañjānāti; nibbānaṁ nibbānato saññatvā nibbānaṁ maññati, nibbānasmiṁ maññati, nibbānato maññati, nibbānaṁ meti maññati, nibbānaṁ abhinandati.`

What is process of enlightenment

The moment of enlightenment is a liberating insight from someone who is conscious and aware, not someone in a deep meditative state, absorption or altered state of consciousness. This is evidenced by the Buddha’s early disciples. This includes the five ascetics (Kondañña, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Assaji), Yasa and his 54 friends, the 30 men on the way to Uruvelā, the Kassapa brothers and their 1000 disciples, and eventually Sāriputta and Moggallāna, the two famous disciples. From the stories of these early converts and their attainment of enlightenment, it seems all of them did so relatively quickly, after hearing and understanding the Buddha’s teachings, and apparently without practising or entering in any of the jhāna states.

From this we can conclude enlightenment is something that is achievable in one lifetime (provided one is receptive and ready), and apparently after hearing the Buddha speak just once or soon thereafter, and does not require supernormal powers or deep meditation skills.

The simplest possible explanation of nibbāna is that it is the satisfaction and sense of achievement that comes from understanding the Buddha’s teachings, successfully conquering and controlling the khandhas resulting in the extinction of unwholesome intentions and thoughts. Therefore kamma will gradually subside and death will no longer result in rebirth.

There is no requirement to believe that it is some sort of other-worldly or supramundane state, or that the achiever will develop supernatural powers or become omniscient, although those attainments are not ruled out, if they exist.

the depiction of the Buddha’s own attainment of the absorp- tions and of his insight into the four noble truths 114

According to the Aṅguttara-nikāya discourse, what enabled the Buddha to progress from the first absorption to the second was the overcoming of vitarka and vicāra, and further progress to the higher absorp- tions took place by leaving behind first rapture and then happiness. The description confirms that, even in the case of the Buddha himself, basic awareness of the factors specific to a particular absorption was consid- ered a sufficient degree of analysis for practical purposes. This was enough to enable him to recognize clearly the factors that are to be cul- tivated and those that need to be left behind in order to attain a higher absorption. Analayo 112

Placing the descriptions of the Buddha’s own progress to awakening alongside the Anupada-sutta and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna-sutta reveals a trajectory that leads from a relatively basic and straightforward ap- proach to detailed analyses concerned with minute details. While the employment of analysis in itself is an integral part of early Buddhist thought, the tendency for analysis to expand its scope and proliferate points to the emerging Abhidharma. 116

it lies in the attempt to be as detailed and com- prehensive as possible. Once the task is no longer just to point out the way, but rather to provide a complete map of the whole territory to be traversed, there is inevitably a danger that the actual road to be taken might become buried under the amount of details provided. p117

Nibbāna is achievable to anyone who is willing to detach from and renounce the sensory world and cravings, who has the capacity to understand Buddha’s teachings, and has the mental strength and focus to manage the khandhas. It does not require taking vows, joining the sangha and being ordained, wearing robes and receiving alms, practising deep meditative states or any of the other customs, rituals and practices associated with Buddhism as a religion. It does require wisdom, compassion, and other positive attributes and a sense of calmness, equanimity and focus.

After attaining enlightenment, arahants continued their existence and live out the remainder of their natural lives as mendicants engaging in daily activities.

How do we know when someone has reached Nibbāna

According to Chabbisodhanasutta MN 112 PTS 3.30–3.37. If someone claims to be awakened, their claim should be interrogated with a series of questions. Only if they can answer them clearly should the claim be accepted.

The questions and accepted answers are merely going through a list of the Buddha’s core teachings and finally declaring that one has lived in accordance to those teachings:

  • catūsu vohāresu (four kinds of expressions)
  • pañcupādānakkhandhā (five aggregates)
  • cha dhātuyo (6 elements)
  • cha ajjhattikabāhirāni āyatanāni (6 interior and exterior sense fields)
  • saviññāṇake kāye bahiddhā ca sabbanimittesu ahaṅkāramamaṅkāramānānusayā samūhatā (eradicated ego, possessiveness, and underlying tendency to conceit for this conscious body and all external stimuli)

If the response is as expected, then that person is declared to be enlightened!

So apparently it’s quite “simple” - all one has to do is to memorise these core teachings and recite them in accordance to a formula!

Of course, it’s not quite so simple. In addition to knowing all the core teachings, the person has to truthfully declare they are practising them perfectly and hence have achieved true liberation.

I find the list interesting because it includes the four noble truths but not dependent origination, and it seems to require renouncing and becoming ordained as a mandatory prerequisite. Given that this sutta is meant for monks confirming each other’s enlightenment, this is not surprising. Presumably laypeople have no need to declare themselves - they can just reach enlightenment and ride off into the sunset.

The loss of Nibbāna

So how do we explain why there are no known arahants today, and apparently there hasn’t been any potentially for thousands of years? Perhaps it’s because in the years after the Buddha’s death, his teachings became corrupted and less well understood. The concept of enlightenment evolved from a relatively straightforward and achievable state to a mystical, unknowable state that no one will recognise nibbana even if they have attained it, or the concept evolved into something entirely different and hence unattainable.

A possible explanation is that in the years following the Buddha’s death, it became harder and harder to attract people to the religion without the charismatic personality of the founder. Buddhism was in competition with other religious beliefs of the day, including Jainism and Brahmanism.

The concept of nibbāna as being something prosaic and relatively attainable, that requires renunciation from the world and yet promises seemingly very little in return (apart, of course, from everlasting relief from suffering) would make Buddhism less attractive compared to other religions that promises union with the Godhead, or supernatural powers.

So the disciples of the Buddha decided to engage in some “marketing”. The Buddha was no longer an ordinary human being, he was omniscient and has supernatural powers, including the ability to delve into past lives (and according to some future lives as well), read the minds of other people, levitate, and ascend into the heavens to converse with deities.

Nibbāna became an esoteric state that was not attainable without years of study, secret knowledge and altered states of consciousness.

The monks that made these embellishments did so with the best intentions. The idea was to have enough “pizzaz” added to the suttas to make Buddhism attractive to ordinary people in comparison with other religions. But those in know would be able to distinguish between the true teachings and these embellishments.

Unfortunately, centuries past by and new generations of monks no longer had the inside knowledge about what was true and what was added. So they started believing that everything was true. When that happened, arahants became fewer and fewer and eventually extinct.

The response it seems was to make everything even more complex. Clearly, the teachings were not enough, and additional material was developed, ostensibly because the teachings have become too obscure and explanations and commentaries were needed. These commentaries drew from other religions, including meditation techniques and practices. And thus Buddha’s teachings became overcomplicated, corrupt, and no longer easy to understand or digest.

On top of everything, the practice of Buddhist meditation gradually disappeared and was lost, so monks no longer even knew how to meditate. Today’s Buddhist meditation practice is a relatively modern invention, and can be traced to a handful of monks who developed these techniques from studying the commentaries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Did they “rediscover” meditation, or a completely new set of techniques? We may never know.

Buddhism devolved in a religion where the some of its practitioners no longer believe it is possible to attain enlightenment in the current lifetime, and therefore the best possible alternative is to meditate, gain merit and hopefully get reborn in a heaven where they can await the appearance of the next Buddha.

2 - A Beginner (Non-Linguist) Guide to Learning Pali

My work in progress textbook on learning Pali, based on Kaccāyana Pali Vyākaraṇam, the oldest extant Pali grammar book

The current status of this work is “Conceptual high fidelity prototype” and many chapters are incomplete or not yet written.

2.1 - 0: Introduction

Motivation for writing this book, the goal and structure of the book, and prerequisites for the reader

I am a relative beginner in learning Pali. I started learning the language in earnest on 30 June 2023. This is my conceited attempt at thinking I can author my own Pali textbook, based on what I have learnt so far.

Motivation

Why write my own book when there are so many excellent textbooks already on Pali?

The first, and best answer, is that I don’t learn until I am able to explain it to someone else, even if that someone else is an imaginary reader. There is nothing more conducive to solidifying knowledge than to have to distill it and explain it in language a “golden retriever can understand” (to paraphrase a line from the film Margin Call).

Secondly, I find other Pali textbooks, particularly the ones written by English (or European) linguists confusing and somewhat frustrating. They use highly technical linguistic terms, which I don’t understand well. Their grammatical explanations can often be over complicated and obtuse. I am not saying every book is like this, there are many examples of books that appear to be clearly written. Perhaps the one who is obtuse is me.

I find I learn a language best “natively”, ie. by its own terms and gradually “bootstrapping” myself until I achieve a minimum viable level of competency to start reading text. As children, this is how we learn a language, by osmosis from hearing others, until we are confident enough to form our own words. We then improve by reading, which broadens our knowledge and proficiency further.

There are no native speakers of Pali, but fortunately there are books describing the Pali language written by ancient Pali speakers. The earliest, and probably most well known is the Kaccāyana Pali Vyākaraṇam. This was probably written in the 5th-6th century CE in India, and the author has been ascribed to the Arahat Mahākaccāyana (but this is disputed).

There are, of course, other Classical Pali grammars, including those written by Moggalāna (circa 11-12 AD), and Saddanīti by Aggavaṃsa (circa 1157 AD). Rūpasiddhi (circa 13 AD) updated and reorganised the content of Kaccayana. However, to avoid confusion from multiple sources, I have decided to primarily derive my textbook from Kaccāyana. Also, there is an excellent translation of Kaccāyana into English (which I am heavily reliant on) by A. Thitzana which can be downloaded for free from Kaccāyana Pāli Grammar Volumes 1 - 2.

In authoring this textbook, I have decided to avoid using linguistic technical terms as much as possible (such as conjugation, declension, nominative, etc.) but use “ordinary” English words to describe elements of the Pali language. I will use Pali terminology to describe aspects of the Pali language as much as I can, and only resort to English to describe what they mean.

So you will find my textbook do not use the same terms as you will find in other Pali textbooks and grammar books. I apologise in advance if this leads to confusion and frustration. I will attempt to point out the equivalent terms used in other textbooks whenever possible, to help readers in drawing comparisons if they wish.

Again, I do so because I feel strongly that it is best to learn Pali on it’s own terms, and not impose an external linguistic framework on it. Such frameworks may be useful to linguists, but they tend to confuse beginners like me.

Goal and Structure

The aim of this textbook is to get the reader to a level where they can tackle the texts in the Tipiṭaka (the Three Baskets of the Buddhist canon) as quickly as possible. Less emphasis is placed on the ability to listen, speak or write.

Most Pali textbooks gently introduce the various features of the language over a number of chapters, so significant progress needs to be made before a reader is able to understand moderately complex sentences, let alone entire suttas from the Tipiṭaka. For example, A.K. Warder’s “Introduction to Pali” covers the basics of Pali grammar over 16 lessons. Assuming a reader will cover 1-2 lessons per week, this means a reader is not ready to read the Tipiṭaka until 2-4 months later.

By contrast, this textbook gives an overview of all the essential features of the Pali language in the first chapter, so the reader in theory should have the key knowledge to read the Tipiṭaka in days, or weeks, rather than months, or years.

I am speaking from experience. I started studying Pali in late June, and by mid July I was already starting to read my first sutta.

How is this achieved? All the complex production rules with regards to sandhi and word endings are moved to appendices. The goal is to enable the reader to be able to read Pali, not necessarily to be able to write or speak it. So the reader can study the production rules based on their own needs and priority rather than being forced to apply them from the beginning.

Also, unlike other textbooks, this textbook does not focus on teaching vocabulary, nor does it require the reader to memorise long lists of words. Vocabulary is introduced only when necessary, and just before it is required. The reader is encouraged to develop their own vocabulary based on the material they choose to read, and therefore they only need to learn the words that are important to them.

After the initial overview of the Pali language, the textbook alternates from diving deeper into aspects of the Pali language, to exercises involving reading, understanding and translating extracts from the Tipiṭaka. The reader is encouraged not to necessarily follow the textbook linearly but tackle chapters in their own order of preference, or to embark on their own reading journey and read whatever parts of the Tipiṭaka they wish to, using the textbook merely as a reference and light guidance.

Prerequisites

This textbook does not require prior familiarity with either the Pali language or the Buddhist Pali canon. It does, however, require the reader to have a strong interest in both and willing to focus their efforts in learning.

Knowledge of multiple languages (including computer languages) and prior experience in learning a foreign language can be advantageous, but not required.

This textbook takes advantage of modern technology. It is not written in paper but available as hyperlinked pages on a website. It also assumes the reader has access to and is familiar with modern tools such as the Digital Pali Dictionary or the online version of The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary so the reader can easily look up any words they are encountering for the first time.

In particular, the Digital Pali Dictionary can look up words in inflected form and has advanced features like sandhi splitting and compound word deconstruction, which further reduces the need to learn how to do those.

Finally, the textbook also assumes the reader is familiar with electronic editions of the Tipiṭaka, including:

SuttaCentral
SuttaCentral contains early Buddhist texts, known as the Tipiṭaka or “Three Baskets”. This is a large collection of teachings attributed to the Buddha or his earliest disciples, who were teaching in India around 2500 years ago. They are regarded as sacred canon in all schools of Buddhism.
Ancient Buddhist Texts
Materials from the early and medieval Buddhist tradition covering texts in Pāli and Sanskrit; line by line (interlinear) texts and translations; translations in English only; studies of grammar, prosody and compilation; maps, reference works and audio files.
Pali Tipitaka
This web site is based on the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana CD published by the Vipassana Research Institute. Based at Dhamma Giri, Igatpuri, near Mumbai, India, the Vipassana Research Institute also publishes literature & disseminates information related to Vipassana Meditation Technique as taught by S.N.Goenka in the tradition of Sayagyi U Ba Khin.
Tipitaka.app
Tipitaka.app is a free software built and distributed as a Dhamma donation. It will always be free and a property of the Buddhist World.
Digital Pali Reader
The Digital Pali Reader provides a database of the Tipiṭaka in romanised script with a search facility and the inbuilt dictionaries allow for instant lookup of any word
Tipiṭaka Pāḷi Projector
TPP is a software program to help one navigate the vast amounts of Pāḷi texts. It includes, 21 English Ebooks that can be displayed side by side with the Pāḷi texts. The Dictionaries and Search functions are where TPP separates itself from the other Pāḷi readers. It is very fast and totally off-line. It works on Windows as an installable Exe or MacOS DMG file too. The project can also run on any operating system that supports FireFox Web Browser. This application was created at Pa-Auk Forest Monastery in Maymyo. The FireFox version supports Sinhala, Myanmar, Thai and Devanagiri Scripts.
Access to Insight
Access to Insight is an HTML website dedicated to providing accurate, reliable, and useful information concerning the practice and study of Theravada Buddhism, as it has been handed down to us through both the written word of the Pali canon and the living example of the Sangha.
Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project
The Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project is a public domain electronic version of the Pali Canon.

So, without further ado, let’s begin!

2.2 - 1: The Pali Language Basics

A concise overview of the Pali language covering key features

Pali, like most other Indo-Aryan languages, is an oral language spoken as vākya (sentences) made up of vacana (words) which are a combination of akkhara (“sounds”, or “letters from an “alphabet”). {1}

There are debates about the origin of Pali, whether it was in fact a real language actually spoken by people, as opposed to an “invented” language specifically for the purposes of recording Buddhist doctrine. The term “Pali” actually just means “text”, and today “Pali” is used primarily for Buddhist literature.

Pali Alphabet and pronunciation {2}-{9}

The Buddha may have spoken a language similar to Pali, and when he died his sayings were collected and systematised so they can be transmitted orally generation to generation using memorisation techniques such as chanting. The Pali canon was not written down until hundreds of years after the Buddha has passed away.

As such, there is no “official” Pali alphabet or writing. Pali can be transcribed fairly faithfully in a number of alphabets, including Roman letters (with the addition of a few diacritical marks or accented characters similar to other European languages).

For this textbook, I will use Roman letters as the basis for the Pali alphabet since I am used to that.

Of course, no one knows for sure how Pali words would have been pronounced, and how Pali sentences would have been spoken, particularly with regards to tonality. Modern day Pali pronunciation is based on how the Buddhist Pali canon is chanted in various countries including Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand.

Pali sentence structure

A Pali sentence (vākya) or Pali text (pali) is generally composed of multiple words (pada or vacana). Since Pali was an oral language, punctuation mark and upper/lower case conventions are typically not used, although modern editors have sometimes added these to aid reading.

Words also do not need to be separated by spaces, although modern Pali editions of text do add spaces, to aid reading. Later on, we will find out Pali has compound words, which consist of multiple words joined together to create a composite word.

To be able to distinguish words in a sentence, Pali relies heavily on paccaya (affixes to roots or word stems) to create distinctive word endings. Fluent Pali listeners will no doubt listen to the sound of these endings to distinguish the words. These endings also give additional meaning to the words and indicate how the words are used in a sentence.

Because of this, the word order in a Pali sentence is less important than many other languages, however there are conventions for how to arrange words in a typical sentence. Speakers can unconventionally reorder words, typically to give emphasis to certain words or to augment or add nuance to a sentence’s emotional meaning.

This is similar to our reaction when we hear “Yoda” speak in the “Star Wars” series of films. We appreciate who Yoda is as a personality, and we pay more attention to his words simply because of the different order.

dhātu (roots)

Fundamentally, all words in Pali are said to be derived from one or more dhātu (roots). These roots are similar to Sanskrit roots. Pali can be regarded as a simplified version of Sanskrit, however some of the roots may have different meanings, or nuances. There are some that say Sanskrit was a “sacred” language reserved for priests and members of the holy caste, whereas Pali, along with many other Indian languages, was spoken by the common people. The Buddha may have spoken in Pali because he wanted to convey his teachings to ordinary people, not just privileged members of a particular caste.

dhātu can have 1-3 syllables:

typeexamplemeaning
single stem or one-syllable rootsvāto move
yāto go
pāto drink
jito conquer
nīto carry
suto flow
bhūto be
dual-word rootsgamuto go
pacato cook
vadato speak
multiple-stem or three syllable rootsvāyamato attempt
arahato deserve
kilisato torment

A series of transformations convert a root into a word by adding paccaya (affixes). Words can also be formed by combining a root with one or more upasagga (prefixes). Multiple upasagga and different forms of paccaya can be applied to a root before it becomes a word, thus creating multi-syllabic words. The result is a word that can be used in a sentence.

Altogether there are around 1700 roots in Pali. However, many many words can be made from them by attaching upasagga (prefixes) and various affixes (paccaya). In theory, fresh words can be formed by new combinations of roots with different prefixes so the adventurous Pali student can attempt to create Pali words for “modern” terms such as “computer” or “phone”.

It is not really necessary to memorise the 1700 roots, although it will be very useful if the reader chooses to do so. Knowing all the roots and the various prefixes and affixes will allow the reader to sometimes (not always) “guess” the meaning of a word not previously encountered, and will also help when applying the various transformation rules (see below).

sandhi (word transformations)

As Pali is a spoken language, when words are combined to form a sentence, changes may occur between words (or sometimes even within a word) to make the sentence “flow” or “sound” better.

In English, we often shorten words like “can not” to “can’t”, or “I will” to “I’ll”. This happens very frequently in Pali, especially when two vowels become adjacent to each other from two words next to each other, and there are complex rules governing how such transformations occur.

As a example {10} (don’t worry about the meaning of the words for now):

tatra + ayaṁ + ādi
= tatra + aā yaṁm + ādi
= tatrā’ya’mādi
= tatrāyamādi

As you can see, when there are two adjacent vowels when we join two or more words together, sandhi typically involves deleting one of the vowels, and then either retaining, lengthening or changing the remaining vowel. Sometimes the consonant next to the vowel may also be changed.

The overall effect is to make the words easier to say as a group. Although tatrāyamādi may seem like a single word because of sandhi, a listener should still regard them as separate words when trying to understand a sentence. However, some sandhi combinations of common words are so often encountered they have acquired distinctive meaning as combined words.

Another example {11}

tatra + abhiratiṁ + iccheyya
= tatra + aā bhiratiṁm + iccheyya
= tatrā’bhirati’miccheyya
= tatrābhiratimiccheyya
“… should prefer enjoying at that …”

For the time being, we are not going to go into detail on these rules but be aware that words may change in a sentence. Eventually, as you read more and more sentences in Pali, these changes will become easier to recognise.

nāmā (nouns) {52}

nāmā are the most common type of words in Pali, and roughly (but not exactly) correspond to the term “noun” in English. nāmā also means “name”, so these words represent things that we can “name” - including people, places, things, numbers, feelings and many other objects or concepts.

Example {53}

Here is a simple sentence, consisting of 3 nāma:

eso no satthā

which translates as:

that person/being / our / teacher
That person [is] our teacher.

Instead of satthā other examples may be:

  • brahmā (God)
  • attā (self)
  • sakhā (friend)
  • rājā (King)

liṅga (gender) {53}

nāma can be classified into 3 different types or liṅga. The word liṅga actually means “gender”, and traditionally each nāma is assigned a gender. The liṅga represents an “intrinsic property” of the nāma.

The notion of a Pali gender is similar to (but not quite the same as) genders in some European languages. However, there are differences that it’s best to regard liṅga as a classification scheme or grammatical construct rather than what we may think of as “gender”. I like to think of it this way:

  • pulliṅga - the “major” or “default” type. Most nouns fall into this category. Generally associated with masculinity or masculine persons (but not always)
  • napuṁsakaliṅga - the “special” type. Tend to be used for nouns that don’t quite fit with the notions of masculinity or feminity, or represent abstract concepts.
  • itthiliṅga - the “minor” type, comparatively rare with respect to the other two types. Generally associated with feminity or feminine persons.

Note that for the remainder of this book, we may refer to the above liṅga by the following symbols for brevity:

  • 🚹 = pulliṅga
  • 🚻 = napuṁsakaliṅga
  • 🚺 = itthiliṅga

Ancient India was a patriarchal society, and men were regarded as the “major” component of society, doing activities considered important, hence the tendency is to associate important words to pulliṅga.

Number

Like in English, Pali words are slightly different depending on whether they are used to refer to one thing vs many things.

  • ⨀ = ekavacana (singular)
  • ⨂ = bahuvacana (plural)

There used to be also a “dual” form but that is now largely obsolete and encountered in very rare instances. Examples include:

  • to idh’āgato (these two having come)
  • ubho (both)
  • mātāpitu (father and mother)

vibhatti (case endings) {54}

Unlike English, words need to be “transformed” before they are used in a sentence. This is done by adding endings or “suffixes” to the word (vibhatti).

Altogether there are seven types of vibhatti, and they are conveniently numbered 1 to 7 {55}:

symbol⨀⨂vibhatti
①siyopaṭhamā (“first”)
②aṁyodutiyā (“second”)
③nāhitatiyā (“third”)
④sanaṁcatutthī (“fourth”)
⑤smāhipañcamī (“fifth”)
⑥sanaṁchaṭṭhī (“sixth”)
⑦smiṁsusattamī (“seventh”)

You may note the 4th and 6th case endings are the same, which means in practice we can only tell which case is being used by context (more later). Notice also the plural endings for some of the cases are the same. Again, which case is being used can only be determined by context.

Let’s start with an example. Suppose we have the word purisa (“man”, in the masculine gender or 🚹) and we want to use it in a sentence in singular form, and we wish to transform it using the 1st case ending (paṭhamāvibhatti). If we look up the above table, we should add the si ending (using rule of {55}):

purisa + si → puriso

Wait, what happened? Why does the transformation not result in purisasi?

This is where additional rules comes into play. By rule of {83}, any word ending in a will be transformed into the 1st case by deleting the a and by rule of {104} replacing the si with o. Kaccāyana has a whole chapter of such rules.

So the transformation becomes:

purisa + si
→ purisa + si {83}
→ puris + si(o) {104}
→ puriso

The plural form undergoes a similar transformation:

purisa + yo
→ purisa + si {83}
→ puris + yo(ā) {107}
→ purisā

This does make things interesting, because the transformation result for every word then depends on:

  • kāra’nta (word ending)
  • liṅga (gender)
  • ekavacana (singular) vs. bahuvacana (plural)
  • vibhatti (desired case ending)

Here is a table of purisa transformed in all the 7 cases and singular vs plural.

numbervibhattiendingtransformationsuttaresult
⨀①sipurisa + sio{104}puriso
⨂①yopurisa + yoā{107}purisā
⨀②aṁpurisa + aṁpurisaṁ
⨂②yopurisa + yoe{107}purise
⨀③nāpurisa + ena{103}purisena
⨂③hipurisae + hi{101}purisehi
⨂③hipurisae + bhi{99}-{101}purisebhi
⨀④sapurisa + ssa{61}purisassa
⨂④naṁpurisaā + naṁ{89}purisānaṁ
⨀⑤smāpurisa + smāpurisasmā
⨀⑤smāpurisa + mhā{99}purisamhā
⨀⑤smāpurisaā{108}purisā
⨂⑤hipurisae + hi{101}purisehi
⨂⑤hipurisae + bhi{99}-{101}purisebhi
⨀⑥sapurisa + ssa{61}purisassa
⨂⑥naṁpurisaā + naṁ{89}purisānaṁ
⨀⑦smiṁpurisa + smiṁpurisasmiṁ
⨀⑦smiṁpurisa + mhi{99}purisamhi
⨀⑦smiṁpurisae{108}purise
⨂⑦supurisae + su{101}purisesu

You will note that in some of the cases, there are multiple ways the word can be transformed. For example, singular purisa can be transformed in the 3rd case into either purisehi or purisebhi. Both are acceptable. Which should we use for a given sentence? It depends on the “sound” - a native speaker would have chosen the version that sounded the most pleasing, depending on surrounding words.

The rules can be quite complicated, so let’s not worry about them for now. In practice, you can rely on looking up a relevant table to determine the appropriate transformation (TBD). If you are just reading Pali, then with practice you will learn to recognise the various endings which will become familiar to you.

A much more important question to answer at this point is …

Why do we need vibhatti endings and what is their purpose?

In English, when we see a sentence like

The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

We know that words “quick” and “brown” refers to the “fox”, which is the “subject” of the sentence, and “lazy” refers to the dog, which is the “object” of the sentence. The verb “jumped over” separates the subject and the object. Our brain automatically “collects” and “groups” the words, so we read the sentence as:

(The quick brown fox) jumped over (the lazy dog).

In English, as we can see, word order is important. If we mixed the words up, the sentence becomes far harder to read:

Over the quick lazy brown fox the dog jumped.

This sentence would imply quite a different meaning.

In Pali, all words with the same gender and the same case ending should be grouped together, and that’s how we distinguish which words belong to which entity. So the word order becomes far less important, we could mix the words up and the sentence would still have the same meaning!

In practice, the 1st case is usually reserved for the “most important” entity in a sentence, the 2nd for the “second most important” and so on.

So, in the above English sentence, were it to be translated the Pali, “the quick brown fox” would all be in the 1st case, and “the lazy dog” would all be in the 2nd case. If there are more entities, they would take the 3rd, 4th cases and so on.

In many sentences, the 1st case would usually refer to the entity or actor “performing” or “doing” the action (or, the “subject” of the sentence), and the 2nd case refers to the entity being impacted by the action (the “object”) of the sentence. Although this is a very common pattern, it is by no means rigid, and in theory any case ending can be used for any purpose. There are many examples in the Pali canon where the cases are used in unconventional ways. (TBD: need to include examples)

Vibhatti usage typical meanings {271}-{315}

The following meanings are usually associated with each case. However, as noted above, these are conventions only, and the author of a sentence may choose to adopt an unconventional approach of assigning words to cases (perhaps for emphatic or stylistic reasons).

vibhattinumberroleusagePali termsutta
①⨀/⨂subject (active)subject, doerkattu/kattā{284}
①⨀/⨂addressto address, to callālapana{285}
②⨀to (object)objectkamma{297}
②⨂tillcontinuity for a certain period or distanceaccantasaṁyoga{298}
③⨀by (subject) (passive)subjectkattu/kattā{288}
③⨂by/withsupporting causekaraṇa{286}
③⨂with/togethercompanysahayoga{287}
③⨂by means of/in regard ofaspect or adjectivevisesana{292}
③⨂due to/forreasonkāraṇa{289}
④⨀/⨂receivership/purposerecipient of actionsampadāna{293}
⑤⨀fromsource from which it occursapādāna{295}
⑤⨂for/due toreasonkāraṇa{296}
⑥⨀(possessive) ofownersāmi{301}
⑥⨂among/out ofselection for comparisonniddhāraṇa{304}
⑥⨂while/despitetwo concurrent actionsanādara{305}
⑦⨀at, in, onlocation/positionadhikaraṇa/okāsa{302}
⑦⨂among/out ofselection for comparisonniddhāraṇa{304}
⑦⨂for/due tocausenimitta{310}
⑦⨂while/whentwo concurrent actionslakkhaṇa{313}
⑦⨂despite/whiletwo concurrent actionsanādara{305}

⓪ ālapana (vocative) {57}

English Pali textbooks often refer to a “vocative” case, but this is not recognised as a separate case but a variant of the 1st case. The usual case ending si (for 1st case singular) is instead called ga but the transformation rules are similar to si.

Examples:

bhoti ayye! (Oh madam!)
bhoti kaññe! (Oh girl!)
bhoti kharādiye! (Oh the girl named Kharādiya!)

Contrast this to the normal 1st case form of ayyā (🚺⨀①):

sā ayyā (that lady)

In plural:

bhotiyo ayyāyo (Oh Madams!)

*️⃣ sabbanāma (pronouns)

sabba means “all” so sabbanāma are “common” or “generic” nouns that can apply in “all’ situations.

Examples of sabbanāma include the different vibhatti forms of ya (“who, what”), ta (“he/she/it”, “that”), eta (“this”), ima (“this”), amu (“that”), kiṁ (“what?”). One of the common usage of sabbanāma is as “pronouns”, where they can assume all genders to represent all things and persons of the different genders. But they can also function as adjectives, adverbs, honorifics and interrogatives.

Examples:

Sabbanāmameaning④⑥
sabbaallsabbesaṁsabbesānaṁ
yawhichyesaṁyesānaṁ
tathattesaṁtesānaṁ
imathisimesaṁimesānaṁ
kawhokesaṁkesānaṁ
itaraotheritaresaṁ (others)itaresānaṁ (others)
katamawhatkatamesaṁ (of which ones)katamesānaṁ (of which ones)

⏏️ nipāta (particles)

nipāta means “to fall. i.e. to be placed anywhere”, and refer to words that can be found placed in the beginning, in the middle or at the end of sentences and words, but not usually regarded as prefixes (see below).

Generally, the vibhatti endings of nipāta words are elided as these words are not related to other words in the sentence and therefore do not need to be matched with them. {221}

However, in some instances, the vibhatti endings may be retained, if the nipāta word play a role in the sentence meaning.

Examples

tvaṁ panā’vuso! tumhe panā’vuso!

you / (no specific meaning) / friend
you (plural) / (no specific meaning) / friend
How about you, my friend? And the rest of you (plural)?

padaso dhammaṁ vāceyya

by word / dhamma / teach (causative, optative)
(He) should teach and say Dhamma word by word.

vihāraṁ • sve upagaccheyya

to temple / tomorrow / should approach (optative)
(He) should come to the temple tomorrow.

The following is a brief descriptive list of some nipāta words. Some are plain nipātas without any affix, while some are with indeclinable affixes. Some may even have a sort of vibhatti-ending in them or may still have traces of vibhattis. Please note that the implied meaning of elided vibhatti still remains in effect for some nipāta words such as yathā, tathā and evaṁ etc.

nipātameaningnote
yathā, tathāin a manner that, in such a way ascombination of sabbanāma ya ta with indeclinable affix thā. The affix itself is ex- pressive of manner or mood.
evaṁthus, in this way, true as it is said, yes (many meanings)dutiyāvibhatti, very frequently used in Pāli texts
khaluused mostly in a reported narrative
khomostly meaningless, but sometimes it may mean “only, really”a plain nipāta, found often in main Buddhist texts. Used together with atha evaṁ taṁ etc.
tatratherea combination of sabbanāma ta with indeclinable affix tra
athoin addition, besides
athanow, then, later on, ifSometimes used in the beginning of a chapter or an episode, as an introductory or initiating word
hireally, for, onlySometimes a meaningless particle
tuin addition, onlyAlso an expletive without meaning, sometimes added to be more emphatic in a statement
caalso, tooIt is used to express some additional meaning in grammatical texts. Sometimes meaningless. Sometimes it has a lot of meanings when used after other nipāta particles
vāsimilar to either or, in other waysIn grammatical texts, sometimes it is used to express other option or method or inconsistency of a function. Sometimes with no particular meaning
voyouIt is sometimes a meaningless expletive
haṁ, ahaṁIthe use of these two nipāta are seldom found in texts unless it means “I”
alaṁ(a) enough, (b) suitable, (c) worthiness, (d) appropriateness, (e) abilityAlso, (f) sometimes used as a prohibition or rejection, usually used in combination with (1) a noun in instrumental case, or (2) tuṁ-infinitive Kita verbs or (3) an āya-infinitive in dative case nouns
evaequal to “only”used next to the word it want to modify or restrict or confirm in its implied meaning. A plain nipāta.
ho!, aho!these are expression of interjection or surprise. No vibhatti
he!, ahe!, re!, are!“hey”Vocative nipāta particles, similar to “hey” in English. Usually vocative case vibhatti is applicable, but to be elided

nipāta as prefixes

However, there are quite a few nipāta that can be placed before some verbs or kita-affixed nouns and used in a way resembling prefixes.

combinednipātawordcombined meaning
antaradhāyatiantaradhāyati(he) disappears
āvikarotiāvikaroti(he) makes it openly, displays clearly
pātubhavatipātubhavati(it) arises visibly, i.e. appears
sacchikarotisacchikaroti(he) realizes, i.e. attains
vinābhāvovinābhāvoseparation, being apart
sahacārīsahacārīthe one who used be together, a friend
punabbhavopunabhavobeing born again, rebirth

🔼 upasagga (prefixes)

There are 20 upasagga words which are usually applied as prefixes to ākhyāta (verbs) and kita-affixed nouns (see below). Like nipāta, upasagga words also have their vibhatti endings elided, but in some cases where they are functioning as independent words (not attached to a verb or noun), they may retain their vibhatti endings.

There are three kinds of upasagga:

  1. dhātva’tthā’nuvattaka - those that follow the meaning of the root, without affecting its original meaning.
  2. dhātva’tthabādhaka - those that absolutely mean opposite of the root. These categorically change the original meaning of the root.
  3. dhātva’tthavisesaka - those that enhance the original meaning of the root by adding more specific meaning and flavour to it.

Example:

parābhavo

🔼(parā) 🚹⨀①(bhava)
opposite / to be, being loss, ruin

Here are various words that can be formed from the word hara (“carrying”) together with various upasagga prefixes and the ṇa-suffix:

exampleupasaggameaningcombined meaning
pahāropaspeciallycarrying (instruments of harm) specially, i.e. beating, striking
nihāroniouttaking out, evicting
nīhāronīouttaking out, evicting (same as above)
uhārouupcarrying up
duhārodubadcarrying badly
saṁhārosaṁwellcarrying well
vihārovispeciallycarrying one’s body specially, staying, i.e. act of staying at a place using alternating bodily modes
avahāroavalowly,contemptuous, meancarrying in a mean manner, i.e. stealing
anuhāroanufollowing, subsequentcarrying accordingly
parihāropariall aroundcarrying from all around
adhihāroadhispecially, nicelycarrying nicely
abhihāroabhitowardcarrying toward
patihāropatiagaincarrying again
suhārosuwellcarrying well
āhāroātowardcarrying toward, food or meal
atihāroatibeyond, excessivecarrying beyond or excessively
apihāroapidownwardcarrying down
apahāroapioutcarrying outward, i.e. removing
upahāroupanear, close tocarrying toward proximity, bringing up closer, carrying complementary gift etc.

🆎 samāsa (compound nouns) {316}-{343}

Like German, Pali often combines many nouns to form a compound noun.

The following table summarises the major types of compound nouns, typical liṅga (gender) and examples:

typenameliṅgaexamplerule
abyayībhāvaAdverbial🚻so napuṁsakaliṅgo{320}
kammadhārayaAppositionalvariable, or follow last componentabhidheyavacano, paraliṅgo ca{341}
diguNumeral Appositional🚻 (usually ⨀ but can be ⨂)digusseʼkattaṁ{321}
tappurisaDeterminativevariableayañʼca tappuriso abhidheyavacanaliṅgoRūpasiddhi {351}
dvandaCopulativeMostly 🚻 but variable in some instances per last componentsamāhāre napuṁsakaṁMoggalāna {20} Chapter 3
bahubbīhiAttributivevariable per the contextual meaning of the aññapada (the external word of attributive meaning)bahubbīhi cāʼyaṁ abhidheyaliṅgavacanoRūpasiddhi {352}

The rules for constructing a samāsa can be complex:

rāja + putta (the King’s son)
→ rāja + sa + putta (⨀⑥)
→ rāja + sa + putta + si (⨀①)
→ rāja(ññ) + sa(o) + putta + si {135}
→ rāñño + putta + si(o) {83}
→ rāñño + putto
→ rāñño(ja) + putto(a) {317}
→ rājaputta {318}
→ rājaputta + si (⨀①)
→ rājaputta + si(o) {104}
→ rājaputta + o {83}
→ rājaputto

Fortunately, resources such as the Digital Pali Dictionary can deconstruct compound words into their individual words, which helps the beginner to understand such words encountered. So there is less of a need to learn the complex rules associated with them.

➡️ taddhita (affixes) {344}-{405}

Various affixes can be added to a noun to create derived nouns and adjectives.

Compare and contrast with English use of affixes such as “-al”, “-ly”, “-er”, “-or” etc. For example, “topic” vs “topical”, “true” vs “truly”.

In English, “navigate” is a verb, whereas “navigator” (with an “-or” affix) is a profession. Similarly, in Pali, nāvā is “boat”, nāvā with ṇika as an affix becomes nāviko (“traveller by boat”, or “sailor”). Note that the last vowel of the root and the ṇ are both elided, and then the noun is given the 🚹⨀① vibhatti ending.

The rules for constructing a tadhitta affixed noun can be rather daunting:

vasiṭṭha + apacca (Vasiṭṭha’s son)
→ vasiṭṭha + sa (⨀⑥) + apacca
→ vasiṭṭha + s + sa + apacca {61}
→ vasiṭṭhassa + apacca + si (⨀①)
→ vasiṭṭhassa + apacca + si(aṁ) {219}
→ vasiṭṭhassa + apacca + aṁ {83}
→ vasiṭṭhassa + apaccaṁ (of Vasiṭṭha / son)
→ vasiṭṭhassa + ṇa + apaccaṁ {344}
→ vasiṭṭhassa + ṇa + apaccaṁ {317}
→ vasiṭṭha + ṇa {396}
→ vasiṭṭha + a {318}
→ va(ā)siṭṭha + a {400}
→ vāsiṭṭha + a {83}
→ vāsiṭṭha {601}
→ vāsiṭṭha + si (⨀①)
→ vāsiṭṭha + si(o) {104}
→ vāsiṭṭha + o {83}
→ vāsiṭṭho

typemeaningaffixruleliṅga
apaccapatronymicṇa{344}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇāyana, ṇāna{345}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇeya{346}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇi{347}🚹
ṇikaby vā of {347}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇava{348}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇera{349}🚹 (but can be variable)
Aneʼkatthavarious meaningsṇika{350}-{351}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇa{352}🚹 (but can be variable)
ima, iya{353}🚹 (but can be variable)
ima, iya, ikaby ādi of {353}🚹 (but can be variable)
kiyaby ca of {353}🚹 (but can be variable)
samūhacollective groupingkaṇ, ṇa{354}🚹
tā{355}🚺
taʼdassathānathe source or the causeiya{356}🚻 (but can be variable)
upamāanalogous similitudeāyitatta{357}🚻
tanʼnissitatthadependent nature and sourcela{358}🚻 (mostly)
bahulaprominent natureālu*{359}variable
bhāvaabstract conditionsṇya, tta{360}🚻
ttanaby tu of {340}🚻
tā{360}🚺
ṇa{361}🚻
visesacomparisonstara, tama, isika, iya, iṭṭha{363}variable
taʼdassaʼtthipossessed quality or inherent naturevī{364}🚹 (but can be variable)
soby ca of {364}🚹 (but can be variable)
sī{365}🚹 (but can be variable)
ika, ī{366}🚹 (but can be variable)
ra{367}🚹 (but can be variable)
vantu{368}🚹 (but can be variable)
mantu{369}🚹 (but can be variable)
ṇa{370}🚹 (but can be variable)
tappakatimade up of somethingmaya{372}variable

*ka is added sometimes. eg. dayāluko

Words with taddhita affixes are sometimes not recognised by Pali-English dictionaries, since these dictionaries may not cover the full range of possible affixes and their meanings. So it is probably worthwhile learning how to recognise taddhita affixed words and the associated meanings.

Numbers

Pali numbers have their own set of tadhikka affixes (to denote “first”, “second”, “third” etc.)

typenameaffixruleliṅganotes
Saṅkhyā TaddhitaNumbersma{373}variable
ī{375}🚺
ti{378},{389}🚺derivative morpheme
tiya{385}variable
ka{392}🚻
noCardinalsOrdinals
1ekapaṭhama
2dvi, di, du, dvedutiya
3ti or tritatiya
4catu or catur (before a vowel)catuttha, turīya
5pañcapañcatha, pañcama
6chachaṭṭha, chatthama
7sattasattha, sattama
8aṭṭhaaṭṭhama
9navanavama
10dasa, rasa, lasa, ḷasadasama, dasī

Abyaya (indeclinable affixes)

These are undeclinable (and no liṅga), and often used as adverbs or adjectives.

affixrule
dhā{397}
soby ca of {397}
thā{398}
thattāby tu of {398}
thaṁ{398}
khattuṁUṇādisutta {646}

Abyaya affixes applied after Sabbanāma-nouns

These are often used as a substitute or replacement for case endings (particularly ⑤ and ⑦), since they are indeclinable. They also have no liṅga (gender).

useaffixrule
To express reason or timeto{248}
To express position or placeto{248}
tra, tha{249}
dhi{250}
va{251}
hiṁ, haṁ, haṁ{252}
ha, dha{254}
To express timedā, dācanaṁ{254}
hiṁ, haṁ, haṁ{252}
To express dayjja, jju{571}

ākhyāta (verbs) {406}-{523}

Like nouns, verbs also have vibhatti endings affixed to them when used in sentences, but the endings are different from those of nouns. These endings depend on:

  • voice {406}-{407}
    • 🟢 = parassapada (active)
    • 🔵 = attanopada (middle) - impersonal
  • number
    • ⨀ = ekavacana (singular)
    • ⨂ = bahuvacana (plural)
  • person {408}-{412} (if more than one, the last applies)
    • 🤟 = paṭhama purisa (first person, equivalent to ’third person’ in English)
    • 🤘 = majjima purisa (middle person, equivalent to ‘second person’ in English)
    • 👆 = uttama purisa (primary person, equivalent to ‘first person’ in English)
  • tense/mood {413}-{422}
    • ▶️ = vattamāna (present)*
    • ⏹ = piñcamī (imperative) - (used to express) āṇatti (command), āsīsa (wish) at a non-specific time-frame mode (anuttakāla)*
    • ⏯ = sattamī (potential/optative)*
    • 🔄 = parokkhā (past perfect)
    • ↩️ = hiyyattanī (past imperfect)*
    • ⏮ = ajjatanī(aorist)
    • ⏭ = bhavissanti (future)
    • 🔀 = kālātipatti (conditional)

* collectively referred to as sabbadhātuka vibhatti

verb terminations {423}-{430}

🟢🟢🟢🟢🟢🟢🔵🔵🔵🔵🔵🔵
🤟🤟🤘🤘👆👆🤟🤟🤘🤘👆👆
⨀⨂⨀⨂⨀⨂⨀⨂⨀⨂⨀⨂
▶️tiantisithamimateantesevheemhe
⏹tuantuhithamimataṁantaṁssuvhoeāmase
⏯eyyaeyyuṁeyyāsieyyāthaeyyāmieyyāmaethaeraṁethoeyyāvhoeyaṁeyaṁhe
🔄auetthaaṁmhattharetthovhoiṁmhe
↩️āūotthaaṁmhātthatthuṁsevhaṁiṁmhase
⏮īuṁotthaiṁmhāāūsevhaṁaṁmhe
⏭ssatissantissasissathassaṁissāmassatessantessasessavhessaṁssāmhe
🔀ssāssaṁsussessathassaṁssāmhassathassiṁsussasessavhessaṁssāmhase

Here is an example of the root gamu (to go) with all the verb endings applied. A number of transformations need to happen prior to affixing the vibhatti:

gamu
→ gamu (elision of final vowel per rule {521})
→ gamm(cch) (m→cch per rule {476})
→ gacch

Here is an example for transforming into the parassapada (🟢), ekavacana (⨀), paṭhama purisa (🤟), vattamāna (▶️) form:

gamu + ti {414}
→ gamu + ti {521}
→ gam + a + ti {445}
→ gam(cch) + a + ti {476}
→ gacchati

The plural form bahuvacana (⨂) undergoes a similar transformation:

gamu + anti {414}
→ gamu + anti {521}
→ gam + a + anti {445}
→ gam(cch) + a + anti {476}
→ gacch + a + anti {510}
→ gacchanti

voicenumberpersontenseendingtransformationruleresultirregular forms
🟢🤟⨀▶️tigacch + a + ti{445}gacchatigacche
🟢🤟⨂▶️antigacch + antigacchantigacchare
🟢🤘⨀▶️sigacch + a + si{445}gacchasi
🟢🤘⨂▶️thagacch + a + tha{445}gacchatha
🟢👆⨀▶️migacch + ā + mi{478}gacchāmigacche
🟢👆⨂▶️magacch + ā + ma{478}gacchāma
🔵🤟⨀▶️tegacch + a + te{445}gacchate
🔵🤟⨂▶️antegacch + antegacchantegacchare
🔵🤘⨀▶️segacch + a + se{445}gacchase
🔵🤘⨂▶️vhegacch + a + vhe{445}gacchavhe
🔵👆⨀▶️egacch + egacche
🔵👆⨂▶️mhegacch + ā + mhe{478}gacchāmhe
🟢🤟⨀⏹tugacch + a + tu{445}gacchatugacche
🟢🤟⨂⏹antugacch + antugacchantu
🟢🤘⨀⏹higacch + ā + hi{478}gacchāhigaccha {479}, gacchassu {571}
🟢🤘⨂⏹thagacch + a + tha{445}gacchatha
🟢👆⨀⏹migacch + ā + mi{478}gacchāmigacche
🟢👆⨂⏹magacch + ā + ma{478}gacchāma
🔵🤟⨀⏹taṁgacch + a + taṁ{445}gacchataṁ
🔵🤟⨂⏹antaṁgacch + antaṁgacchantaṁ
🔵🤘⨀⏹ethagacch + a + ssu{445}gacchassu
🔵🤘⨂⏹vhogacch + a + vho{445}gacchavho
🔵👆⨀⏹egacch + egacche
🔵👆⨂⏹āmasegacch + āmasegacchāmase
🟢🤟⨀⏯eyyagacch + eyyagaccheyyagacche
🟢🤟⨂⏯eyyuṁgacch + eyyuṁgaccheyyuṁ
🟢🤘⨀⏯eyyāsigacch + eyyāsigaccheyyāsigacche
🟢🤘⨂⏯eyyāthagacch + eyyāthagaccheyyātha
🟢👆⨀⏯eyyāmigacch + eyyāmigaccheyyāmigacche
🟢👆⨂⏯eyyāmagacch + eyyāmagaccheyyāma
🔵🤟⨀⏯ethagacch + ethagacchetha
🔵🤟⨂⏯eraṁgacch + eraṁgaccheraṁ
🔵🤘⨀⏯ethogacch + ethogacchetho
🔵🤘⨂⏯eyyāvhogacch + eyyāvhogaccheyyāvho
🔵👆⨀⏯eyaṁgacch + eyaṁgaccheyaṁgacche
🔵👆⨂⏯eyaṁhegacch + eyaṁhegaccheyaṁhe
🟢🤟⨀🔄ajagamu + a{458}jagamajagāma
🟢🤟⨂🔄ujagamu + u{458}jagamu
🟢🤘⨀🔄ejagamu + e{458}jagame
🟢🤘⨂🔄tthajagamu + i + ttha{458},{516}jagamittha
🟢👆⨀🔄aṁjagamu + aṁ{458}jagamaṁ
🟢👆⨂🔄mhajagamu + ā + mha{458}jagamimha
🔵🤟⨀🔄tthajagamu + i + ttha{458},{516}jagamittha
🔵🤟⨂🔄rejagamu + i + re{458},{516}jagamire
🔵🤘⨀🔄tthojagamu + i + ttho{458},{516}jagamittho
🔵🤘⨂🔄vhojagamu + i + vho{458},{516}jagamivho
🔵👆⨀🔄iṁjagamu + iṁ{458}jagamiṁ
🔵👆⨂🔄mhejagamu + i + mhe{458},{516}jagamimhe
🟢🤟⨀↩️āa + gacch + ā{519}agacchāgacchā, agaccha, gaccha
🟢🤟⨂↩️ūa + gacch + ū{519}agacchūgacchū, agacchu, gacchu
🟢🤘⨀↩️ogacch + ogacchoagaccho, agaccha, gaccha, agacchi, gacchi
🟢🤘⨂↩️tthagacch + a + ttha{445}gacchatthaagacchattha, agacchatha, gacchatha
🟢👆⨀↩️aṁgacch + aṁgacchaṁagacchaṁ
🟢👆⨂↩️mhāgacch + ā + mhā{478}gacchāmhāagacchamhā
🔵🤟⨀↩️tthagacch + a + ttha{445}gacchatthaagacchattha
🔵🤟⨂↩️tthuṁgacch + a + tthuṁ{445}gacchatthuṁagacchatthuṁ
🔵🤘⨀↩️segacch + a + se{445}gacchaseagacchase
🔵🤘⨂↩️vhaṁgacch + a + vhaṁ{445}gacchavhaṁagacchavhaṁ
🔵👆⨀↩️iṁgacch + iṁgacchiṁagacchiṁ
🔵👆⨂↩️mhasegacch + ā + mhase{478}gacchāmhaseagacchamhase
🟢🤟⨀⏮īa + gacch + ī{519}agacchīgacchī, agacchi, gacchi
🟢🤟⨂⏮uṁgacch + uṁagacchuṁgacchuṁ, agacchiṁsu, gacchiṁsu
🟢🤘⨀⏮ogacch + ogacchoagaccho, agaccha, gaccha, agacchi, gacchi
🟢🤘⨂⏮tthagacch + i + ttha{445}gacchitthaagacchittha
🟢👆⨀⏮iṁgacch + iṁgacchiṁagacchiṁ
🟢👆⨂⏮mhāgacch + i + mhā{516}gacchimhāagacchimhā, gacchimha, agacchimha
🔵🤟⨀⏮āa + gacch + ā{519}agacchāgacchā, agacchittha, gacchittha
🔵🤟⨂⏮ūa + gacch + ū{519}agacchūgacchū
🔵🤘⨀⏮segacch + i + se{516}gacchiseagacchise
🔵🤘⨂⏮vhaṁgacch + i + vhaṁ{516}gacchivhaṁagacchivhaṁ
🔵👆⨀⏮aṁgacch + aṁgacchaṁagacchaṁ, agaccha, gaccha
🔵👆⨂⏮mhegacch + i + mhe{516}gacchimheagacchimhe
🟢🤟⨀⏭ssatigacch + i + ssati{516}gacchissati
🟢🤟⨂⏭ssantigacch + i + ssanti{516}gacchissantigacchissare
🟢🤘⨀⏭ssasigacch + i + ssasi{516}gacchissasi
🟢🤘⨂⏭ssathagacch + i + ssatha{516}gacchissatha
🟢👆⨀⏭ssāmigacch + i + ssāmi{516}gacchissāmi
🟢👆⨂⏭ssāmagacch + i + ssāma{516}gacchissāma
🔵🤟⨀⏭ssategacch + i + ssate{516}gacchissategacchissare
🔵🤟⨂⏭ssantegacch + i + ssante{516}gacchissante
🔵🤘⨀⏭ssasegacch + i + ssase{516}gacchissase
🔵🤘⨂⏭ssavhegacch + i + ssavhe{516}gacchissavhe
🔵👆⨀⏭ssaṁgacch + i + ssaṁ{516}gacchissaṁ
🔵👆⨂⏭ssāmhegacch + i + ssāmhe{516}gacchissāmhe
🟢🤟⨀⏭ssāgacch + i + ssā{516}gacchissāagacchissā, agacchissa, gacchissa
🟢🤟⨂⏭ssaṁsugacch + i + ssaṁsu{516}gacchissaṁsuagacchissaṁsu
🟢🤘⨀⏭ssegacch + i + ssase{516}gacchissaseagacchissase, agacchissasa, gacchissasa {517}
🟢🤘⨂⏭ssathagacch + i + ssatha{516}gacchissathaagacchissatha
🟢👆⨀⏭ssaṁgacch + i + ssaṁ{516}gacchissaṁagacchissaṁ
🟢👆⨂⏭ssāmhāgacch + i + ssāmhā{516}gacchissāmhāagacchissāmhā, agacchissāmha, gacchissāmha
🔵🤟⨀⏭ssatagacch + i + ssata{516}gacchissataagacchissata
🔵🤟⨂⏭ssiṁsugacch + i + ssiṁsu{516}gacchissiṁsuagacchissiṁsu
🔵🤘⨀⏭ssasegacch + i + ssase{516}gacchissaseagacchissase
🔵🤘⨂⏭ssavhegacch + i + ssavhe{516}gacchissavheagacchissavhe
🔵👆⨀⏭ssaṁgacch + i + ssaṁ{516}gacchissaṁagacchissaṁ
🔵👆⨂⏭ssāmhasegacch + i + ssāmhase{516}gacchissāmhaseagacchissāmhase

Note that some of the terminations are the same so in practice we will need to distinguish which tense is being used from context. Note also the irregular forms, particularly the aorist ones. The irregular aorists tend to be more commonly used than the regular forms. This is so prevalent other grammar books such as Moggalāṇa Vyākaraṇa and Rūpasiddhi created rules to accomodate them.

Voices

Like Sanskrit, Pali supports 3 different ways of expressing sentences, based on the “voice”:

  1. the active voice (kattu) {444}-{452}
  2. the passive voice (kamma)
  3. the impersonal voice (bhāva)

However, in Pali literature, bhāva (middle, or impersonal, voice) is seldom used, probably because most of the literature is based on the Buddha (or a disciple) “speaking” to a group of monks, which has then been transformed into a structure suitable for memorisation and chanting.

🔴 Passive verb endings Vattamānā Vibhatti {440}-{443}

A passive verb is created by using the attanopada (🔵) endings together with an infix of ya in between the root and the ending.

Note that passive verbs can only be formed based on roots that can be expressed in a “passive” (kamma) sense - some roots can only result into “active” verbs and cannot be transformed this way.

Example transformation (based on the root paca (to cook)):

paca + ya + te {440}
→ paca + y(cc)a + te {441}
→ paccate (“is cooked”)

The full set of attanopada (🔵) endings of in the present tense vattamāna (▶️) across the 3 persons and plurality:

voicenumberpersontenseendingtransformationresult
🔴🤟⨀▶️tepaca + y(cc)a + tepaccate
🔴🤟⨂▶️antepaca + y(cc)a + antepaccante
🔴🤘⨀▶️sepaca + y(cc)a + sepaccase
🔴🤘⨂▶️vhepaca + y(cc)a + vhepaccavhe
🔴👆⨀▶️epacca + y(cc)a + epacce
🔴👆⨂▶️mhepaccca + y(cc)a + ā + mhepaccāmhe

Because the middle voice is seldom used, rule {518} allows these verbs to be retransformed into “reversed” parassapada (🟢) endings:

voicenumberpersontenseendingtransformationresult
🔴🤟⨀▶️tipaccate + tipaccati
🔴🤟⨂▶️antipaccante + antipaccanti
🔴🤘⨀▶️sipaccase + sipaccasi
🔴🤘⨂▶️thapaccavhe + thapaccatha
🔴👆⨀▶️mipacce + ā + mipaccāmi
🔴👆⨂▶️mapaccāmhe + ā + mapaccāma

Typically we would use the parassapada (🟢) endings for passive verbs.

Other examples (using different rules):

kara (“to do”)
→ kara + ya + te {440}
→ kara + ī + ya + te {442}
→ kara + ī + ya + te {521}
→ karīyate (“is done”)

vaḍha (“to grow”)
→ vaḍha + ya + te {440}
→ vaḍha + ya(ḍḍha) + te {443}
→ vuḍḍhate (“is grown”)

🟠 Causative verbs

There are two types of causative verbs:

  1. Causative verb in the active voice
  2. Causative verb in the passive voice

There 4 typical causative affixes (kārita) used to construct causative verbs {438}:

  • ṇe
  • ṇaya
  • ṇāpe
  • ṇāpaya

Just like for tadhikka noun affixes, the ṇ is typically elided when joined to a root, leaving the remaining letters. {523}

Various vowel gradation transformations may also take place when joining the affix to the noun as per rule {483}.

Example transformation (based on the root paca (to cook)) and the causative affix ṇe:

paca + ṇe + ti {438}
paca + ṇe + ti {521}
→ pac + ṇe + ti {523}
→ pa(ā)c + e + ti {483}
→ pāceti ("(he) causes to cook”)

🟠 Causative (active) verbs {438}

The full set of causative versions of the vattamāna (▶️) forms of the root paca (to cook) using parassapada (🟢) endings:

voicenumberpersontenseendingcausativetransformationresultirregular forms
🟠🤟⨀▶️tiṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + tipāceti
🟠🤟⨀▶️tiṇayapa(ā)ca + ṇaya + tipācayati
🟠🤟⨀▶️tiṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + tipācāpetipacāpeti
🟠🤟⨀▶️tiṇāpayapa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + tipācāpayatipacāpayati
🟠🤟⨂▶️antiṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + antipācenti
🟠🤟⨂▶️antiṇayapa(ā)ca + ṇaya + antipācayanti
🟠🤟⨂▶️antiṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + antipācāpentipacāpenti
🟠🤟⨂▶️antiṇāpayapa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + antipācāpayantipacāpayanti
🟠🤘⨀▶️siṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + sipācesi
🟠🤘⨀▶️siṇayapa(ā)ca + ṇaya + sipācayasi
🟠🤘⨀▶️siṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + sipācāpesipacāpesi
🟠🤘⨀▶️siṇāpayapa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + sipācāpayasipacāpayasi
🟠🤘⨂▶️thaṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + thapācetha
🟠🤘⨂▶️thaṇayapa(ā)ca + ṇaya + thapācayatha
🟠🤘⨂▶️thaṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + thapācāpethapacāpetha
🟠🤘⨂▶️thaṇāpayapa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + thapācāpayathapacāpayatha
🟠👆⨀▶️miṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + mipācemi
🟠👆⨀▶️miṇayapa(ā)ca + ṇaya + mipācayami
🟠👆⨀▶️miṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + mipācāpemipacāpemi
🟠👆⨀▶️miṇāpayapa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + mipācāpayamipacāpayāmi
🟠👆⨂▶️maṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + mapācema
🟠👆⨂▶️maṇayapa(ā)ca + ṇaya + mapācayama
🟠👆⨂▶️maṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + mapācāpemapacāpema
🟠👆⨂▶️maṇāpayapa(ā)ca + ṇāpaya + mapācāpayamapacāpayāma

Note: not all forms of the above are encountered in Pali literature - they represent the full theoretical set of causative forms that can be generated.

🟠🔴 Causative passive verbs

It is also possible to construct causative verbs in the passive voice, just by adding the passive ya affix after the causative affix. The ṇaya and ṇāpaya causative affixes are rarely used in the passive voice.

Example transformation (based on the root paca (to cook)) and the causative affix ṇe and the passive affix ya:

paca + ṇe + ya + ti {438,440}
paca + ṇe + ya + ti {521}
→ pac + ṇe + ya + ti {523}
→ pa(ā)c + ya + ti {483}
→ pāciyati (“is caused to be cooked”)

voicenumberpersontenseendingcausativetransformationresult
🟠🔴🤟⨀▶️tiṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + tipāciyati
🟠🔴🤟⨀▶️tiṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + tipācāpiyati
🟠🔴🤟⨂▶️antiṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + antipāciyanti
🟠🔴🤟⨂▶️antiṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + antipācāpiyanti
🟠🔴🤘⨀▶️siṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + sipāciyasi
🟠🔴🤘⨀▶️siṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + sipācāpiyasi
🟠🔴🤘⨂▶️thaṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + thapāciyatha
🟠🔴🤘⨂▶️thaṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + thapācāpiyatha
🟠🔴👆⨀▶️miṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + mipāciyāmi
🟠🔴👆⨀▶️miṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + miPācāpiyāmi
🟠🔴👆⨂▶️maṇepa(ā)ca + ṇe + i + ya + mapāciyāma
🟠🔴👆⨂▶️maṇāpepa(ā)ca + ṇāpe + i + ya + mapācāpiyāma

ākhyāta examples

▶️ vattamāna {414}

(used to express actions or events which occur) at the present

pāṭaliputtaṁ gacchati

Pāṭaliputta (city) / he goes
He goes to Pāṭaliputta.*

sāvatthiṁ pavisati

Sāvatthi (city) / he enters
He enters Sāvatthi.

⏹ piñcamī {415}

(used to express)

  • āṇatti (command)
  • āsīsa (wish)

at a non-specific time-frame mode (anuttakāla)

karotu kusalaṁ

do / meritorious deed
(Please) do meritorious deed.

sukhaṁ te hotu

happiness / for you / be
May you be happy.

⏯ sattamī {416}

(to express)

  • anumati (permission)
  • parikappa (thought)

at a non-specific time (anuttakāla).

tvaṁ gaccheyyāsi you / can go You can go.

kima’haṁ kareyyāmi
what I (kiṁ + ahaṁ) / shoud do
What should I do?

🔄 parokkhā {417}

(to be applied to express things happened in one’s absence, in a situation where the speaker is not a witness to) at a past time-frame mode (atīta - past).

supine kila’māha

in the dream / apparently / (he) said (kila + āha)
(He is supposed to have) said.

evaṁ kila porāṇā’hu

thus / apparently / ancient sages / said (porāṇā + āhu)
Ancient sages are supposed to have said thus.

↩️ hiyyattanī {418}

(used to express events that took place) in past time (yesterday or before), either being witnessed or not witnessed (by the speaker)

so agamā maggaṁ

he / went / road
He went along the road.

te agamū maggaṁ

they / went / road
They went along the road.

⏮ ajjatanī {419}

(used to express things happened) in the near past starting from today, either being witnessed or not witnessed (by the speaker)

so maggaṁ agamī

he / road / gone
He has (just) gone along the road.

te maggaṁ agamuṁ they / road / gone
They have (just) gone along the road.

⏭ bhavissanti {421}

(to be used) in the (expression of) future

so gacchissati, karissati

he / will go / will do
He will go, will do.

te gacchissanti, karissanti

they / will go / will do
They will go, will do.

🔀 kālātipatti {422}

(to be used) in (the expression of) an action that was past (without being materialised due to adverse conditions or lack of the supporting causes)

so ce taṁ yānaṁ alabhissā, agacchissā

he / if / that / vehicle / should have got / might have gone already
If he had gotten that vehicle, he might have gone already.

te ce taṁ yānaṁ alabhissaṁsu, agacchissaṁsu

they / if / that / vehicle / should have got / might have gone already
If they had gotten that vehicle, they might have gone already.

Example sentence constructions

kattu-vācaka vākya (active voice sentences)

An active voice sentence is a subject-principal sentence where Kattā (the agent, doer subject) is much more dominant.

  1. kattu (subject) - Kathita Kattā or `Vutta-kattā`` (predominant-subject) must be in 1st case (①)
  2. kamma (object) - Akathita-kamma or Avutta-kamma (non-principal object) must be in 2nd case (②)
  3. The verb must be either in the parassapada termination (🟢) in most cases or in the attanopada termination (🔵) with or without an affix of kattu sense. [Affixes of kamma sense such as ya, or kita affixes eg. tabba, ta, etc. cannot be used]
  4. The persons (subjects) and verbs should be concordant.
Subject (①)Object (②)VerbMeaning
PurisoodanaṁpacatiMan cooks the rice
PurisāodanaṁpacantiMen cook the rice
BuddhādhammaṁdesentiBuddha teach the Dhamma
TvaṁodanaṁpacasiYou cook the rice
TumheodanaṁpacathaYou (plural) cook the rice
AhaṁodanaṁpacāmiI cook the rice
MayaṁodanaṁpacāmaWe cook the rice

Kamma-vācaka Vākya (passive voice sentences)

A passive voice sentence is a object-principal sentence where the Kamma (the thing being done, the object) is more visibly dominant by being in the 1st case (①).

The rules in a passive voice sentence are:

  1. kamma (object) - Kathita Kamma or Vutta-kamma (predominant-object) must be in 1st case (①)
  2. kattā (subject) - Akathita-kattā or an Avutta-kattā (non-principal subject) must be in 3nd case (③)
  3. The verb should be mainly in the attanopada termination (🔵) or it can be in a reversed parassapada form (🟢) with an affix which has a Kamma-sense only. {440}-{443}.
  4. The object (not the subject!) and verb should be in agreement.
Subject (③)Object (①)VerbMeaning
PurisenaodanopacīyateThe rice is cooked by man
PurisehiodanopacīyateThe rice is cooked by men
BuddhenadhammodesīyateThe Dhamma is taught by Buddha
RājenatvaṁdīyaseBy king, you are given
RājenatumhedīyavheBy king, you (plural) are given
RaññāahaṁdīyeBy king, I am given
RaññāmayaṁdīyāmheBy king, we are given

bhāva (impersonal) middle voice sentences

It’s like a passive voice sentence except the focus is purely on the action and does not focus on either the subject or object. Therefore the verb tends to be in ⨀ (ekavacana) 🤟 (paṭhama purisa) form. If there is a subject, it can be (but not always) be in 3rd (③) or 6th case (⑥).

Subject (③)VerbMeaning
DevadattenabhūyateDevadatta’s being
PabbatenaṭhīyateThe mountain’s standing
PurisenakathīyateThe man’s speaking

Causative sentences

There are four integral parts in a causative sentence:

  1. Causative subject - Hetu-kattā (the prompter), or Payojaka-kattā (the mover)
  2. Subordinate Object - Kārita-kamma (causative object)
  3. Root-object - dhātu-kamma, the object of the root which has direct connection/meaning to the root
  4. Causative verb

If the root is a dual-kamma-indicative root (dvikammaka) such as nī (to carry), duha (to milk), then there can be three objects.

Causative Subject (①)Subordinate Object (②)The root-object (②)Causative VerbMeaning
PurisopurisaṁodanaṁpācetiMan causes the other man to cook the rice
PurisāpuriseodanaṁpācentiMen cause the other men to cook the rice

🔽 kibbidhāna (kita-affixed nouns) {524}-{623}

This is a class of words which are verbs transformed into “verb nouns” through the addition of suffixes.

These “verb nouns” are nouns, and have noun vibhatti endings applied to them, but can function like verbs in a sentence, or as auxiliary verbs such as the absolutive (also called gerund), the present participle and past participle.

verbal affixes

useaffixrulevoiceliṅga
Verb or adjectivetabba{540}🔴 (sometimes 🔵)variable
anīya{540}🔴 (sometimes 🔵)variable
ṇya{541}🔴 (sometimes 🔵)🚻 (sometimes variable)
teyaby ca of {541}🔴 (sometimes 🔵)🚻 (sometimes variable)
kha{560}🔴 (sometimes 🔵)🚻 (sometimes variable)
ta{555} , {556}, {557}🟢🔴🔵variable

gerund or auxiliary verbs

useaffixrulevoiceliṅga
to-infinitivetave{561}--
tuṁ{561}, {562}, {563}--
gerundtuna, tvāna, tvā{564}no voice, but sense of “active”-
Present participle or adjective or adverbmāna, anta{565}🟢 (or 🔴 with ya affix)variable

Individual noun affixes

All of these can be variable gender, even when a gender is specified in the following table.

noaffixrulegender
1ṇa{ 524, 528, 529}variable
2a{525, 526, 527, 553}variable
3ṇvu, tu, āvī{527}🚹
4kvi{530}🚹
5ramma{531}🚻🚹
6ṇī, tu, āvī{532}🚹
7yu{533, 553}variable
8rū{534, 535}🚹
9ṇuka{536}🚹
10ra{538}variable
11ricca{542}🚻
12i{551}variable
13ti{552, 553}🚺
14ririya{554}🚺
15tavantu, tāvī{555}🚹
16ina{558, 559}🚻🚹
17ratthu{566}🚹
18ritu{567}🚹
19rātu{567}🚺
20tuka{569}🚹
21ika{570}🚹

Example

Here is a worked through example of how a root transforms into a kita-affixed noun (from caja, using the ṇa affix):

caja “to share generously”
→ caja {521}
→ caj + ṇa {529}
→ cajṇa (kārita) {621}
→ cajṇa {523}
→ ca(ā)ja (vuddhi) {483}
→ cāj(g)a {623}
→ cāga (noun) {601}
→ cāga + si (⨀①)
→ cāga + si(o) {104}
→ cāga + o {83}
→ cāgo (“charitable giving, sharing”)

Here is another example based on budha (to know):

budha “to know”
→ budha {521}
→ budh + ta {557}
→ budh + ta(dha) {576}
→ budh(d) + dha {611}
→ buddha (noun) {601}
→ buddha + si (⨀①)
→ buddha + si(o) {104}
→ buddha + o {83}
→ buddho (“The one who knows truth, who awakened”)

Given the complexity of the above rules, it’s probably better just to recognise the completed forms whenever you come across them, but try and recognise the affix and associated meaning if you can.

⏬ uṇādi (uṇādi-affixed nouns) {624}-{673}

These are also “verb nouns” that can behave like verbs or auxiliary verbs or future participles.

The majority of uṇādi-affixes, except some verbal affixes, are used mainly in the formation of individual nouns of varying genders.

Examples:

sama “to calm”
→ sama + tha {628}
→ samatha {601}
→ samatha + si (⨀①)
→ samatha + si(o) {104}
→ samatha + o {83}
→ samatho (“that which calms the mind, Samatha meditation”)

gaha “to take”
→ gaha {521}
→ ga(e)ha {629}
→ geha {601}
→ geha + si(aṁ) {104}
→ geha + aṁ {219}
→ gehaṁ (“home”)

sādhana

The process of attaching either kita or uṇādi affixes to create new words is called sādhana. Like kāraka (the syntax of case or vibhatti endings), sādhana affixed words can be associated with specific usage meanings.

sādhana-affixed word can be associated with a voice (kattu, kamma, bhāva), in which case their usage can affect the “voice” of a sentence. This is especially true when sādhana-affixed word is used as a verb-noun, ie. it carries the “action” of a sentence.

Example sentences of kattu sādhana-affixed words

dānaṁ dinno devadatto

🚻⨀②(dānaṁ) 🚹⨀①(⏬(ta)(dinno) devadatto)
alms / gave (past participle) / Devadatta
Devadatta gave alms.

kumaro antepuraṁ gato

🚻⨀②(antepuraṁ) 🚹⨀①(kumaro ⏬(ta)(gato))
King’s palace / prince / went (past participle)
The prince went into the King’s palace.

so bhagavā sayam’pi cattāri saccāni buddho

🚹⨀①(so bhagavā ⏬(ta)(buddho)) ⏏️(sayam api) 🚻⨂②(cattāri saccāni)
that / Bhagavā / understood (past participle) / by oneself / just / four / truths
That Bhagavā (Buddha) understood the four truths just by himself.

Example sentences of kamma sādhana-affixed words

buddhena dhammo desito

🚹⨀③(buddhena) 🚹⨀①(dhammo ⏬(ta)(desito))
by Buddha / dhamma / taught (past participle)
The Dhamma is taught by the Buddha.

bhotabbo odano bhavatā

🚹⨀①(⏬(tabba)(bhotabbo) odano) 🚹⨀③(bhavatā)
eaten (future passive participle) / rice / Your Honourable
That rice is to be eaten by Your Honourable.

Example sentences of bhāva sādhana-affixed words

tassa gītaṁ

🚻⨀⑥(tassa) 🚻⨀①(🔽(ta)(gītaṁ))
of that person / sung (past participle)
Sung of that person.

sayitabbaṁ bhavatā

🚻⨀①(⏬(tabba)(sayitabbaṁ)) 🚹⨀③(bhavatā)
eating (future passive particle) / by Your Honourable
Eating by Your Honourable.

sādhana associated meanings and usage

The associated meanings are rather weak compared to case endings (vibhatti) and can sometimes have no significant role.

associationexamplemeaningruleusage
kattunāyakothe leader (who leads){527}netī’ti nāyako
kammakammaṁwork (which is being done){531}karīyate tan’ti kammaṁ
bhāvacāgogenerosity (act of giving, sharing){529}cajate, cajanaṁ vā cāgo
karaṇavinayothe discipline (by which one is trained){527}vineti etenā’ti vinayo
sampadānadānīyothe recipient monk (to which alms should be given)databbo assā’ti dānīyo
apādānabhemothe fearsome object (from which people fear){627}bhāyanti etasmā’ti bhemo
adhikaraṇaṭhānaṁthe place (where people stand){548}tiṭṭhanti tasmin’ti

Exercise

Our first exercise, and also a celebration for finishing this chapter, is to translate the Saraṇattaya Kp 1 PTS 1. This is a very well known sutta commonly referred to as the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple Gem or Three Refuges) and traditionally recited by disciples of the Buddha as part of a ceremony by which one formally declares oneself a Buddhist.

Buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Dhammaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Saṅghaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Dutiyampi buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Dutiyampi dhammaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Dutiyampi saṅghaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Tatiyampi buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Tatiyampi dhammaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi
Tatiyampi saṅghaṁ saraṇaṁ gacchāmi

Let’s start by examining only the first line. Analysing each word by identifying the form of the vibhatti ending yields:

🚹⨀②(buddhaṁ saraṇaṁ) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(gacchāmi)

Translating each word into English yields:

Buddha / refuge / (I) go

Note that in Pali, all words in the same case refer to the same entity, so both “Buddha” and “refuge” refer to the same entity. In other words, the Buddha is the refuge and the refuge is the Buddha. In English, we can regard the equality as “Buddha as refuge”.

So, rearranging the words into a more idiomatic English sentence, we get:

I go to the Buddha as refuge.

For the exercise, translate the remainder of the sutta. It’s okay to leave words like “dhamma” and “sangha” untranslated (and use non-accented characters) as these are well known terms to Buddhists.

Answer

I go to the Buddha as refuge.
I go to the Dhamma as refuge.
I go to the Sangha as refuge.
For the second time too, I go to the Buddha as refuge.
For the second time too, I go to the Dhamma as refuge.
For the second time too, I go to the Sangha as refuge.
For the third time too, I go to the Buddha as refuge.
For the third time too, I go to the Dhamma as refuge.
For the third time too, I go to the Sangha as refuge.

Note that dutiyaṃ and tatiyaṃ are being used as nipāta. piis a nipāta meaning “too” or “also”.

The sentence structure of this sutta can also be represented as a pseudo UML class diagram:

classDiagram
  class sentence["dutiyampi/tatiyampi buddhaṃ/dhammaṃ/saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english((For the second/third time) I go to the Buddha/Dhamma/Sangha as refuge)
  }
  namespace saṅkhyāpūraṇa {
    class dutiyaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      ②
      english(second time)
    }
    class tatiyaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      ②
      english(third time)
    }
  }
  class pi {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(too)
  }
  namespace saraṇa {
    class buddhaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
    }
    class dhammaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
    }
    class saṅghaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
    }
  }
  class saraṇaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
     🚹⨀②
    english(as refuge)
  }
  class gacchāmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     🟢⨀🤟▶️
    english(I go)
  }
  sentence *-- dutiyaṃ
  sentence *-- tatiyaṃ
  sentence *-- pi
  sentence *-- buddhaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- dhammaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- saṅghaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- saraṇaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- gacchāmi: kiriya
  buddhaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
  dhammaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
  saṅghaṃ .. saraṇaṃ

We can also model the successive actions as a pseudo UML sequence diagram:

sequenceDiagram
participant ahaṃ as (ahaṃ)
participant buddhaṃ
participant dhammaṃ
participant saṅghaṃ
  loop (paṭhama), dutiyampi, tatiyampi
    ahaṃ ->> buddhaṃ : gacchāmi
    buddhaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
    ahaṃ ->> dhammaṃ : gacchāmi
    dhammaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
    ahaṃ ->> saṅghaṃ : gacchāmi
    saṅghaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
  end

Finally, the different states of the refuges can be modelled as a pseudo UML state diagram:

stateDiagram-v2
  state fork_state <<fork>>
  state join_state <<join>>
  [*] --> fork_state : gacchāmi
  fork_state --> buddhaṃ
  fork_state --> dhammaṃ
  fork_state --> saṅghaṃ
  buddhaṃ --> join_state
  dhammaṃ --> join_state
  saṅghaṃ --> join_state
  join_state --> saraṇaṃ
  saraṇaṃ --> fork_state : dutiyampi, tatiyampi

Conclusion

Congratulations on finishing this chapter! It is compact and dense, and not every feature of Pali explained here will sink in initially. It may be worthwhile revisiting this chapter from time to time to check your understanding as you progress in your journey in learning Pali.

The good news is you now know enough of the basics of Pali to start reading the Tipiṭaka with the aid of a good dictionary, and looking up every word as you go along. You may encounter sentences that you can’t interpret very well, but that’s okay. Leave it for now, and study the next chapters, which will help you build confidence and skill in your ability to analyse sentences and deduce the correct meaning.

Remember, the sentences in the Tipiṭaka are often repetitive and used in similar forms again and again. They are intentionally structured this way to assist in memorisation and chanting. So, once you have learnt how to correctly interpret a complex sentence, you may encounter it again and again and reading will become easier and easier over time.

2.3 - 2: `kāraka` (word ending) meanings

Various meanings and usage-rules of word endings in sentences after vibhatti has been applied {271}-{315}

kāraka means the “cause” or “participants” of actions, and the relationship between various words in a Pali sentence. The following are descriptions of various kāraka categories, and the typical vibhatti endings that are applied to words belonging to those categories.

2.3.1 - 2.1: apādāna (Ablative)

apādāna words refer to the source from which it occurs and is generally translated as “from”. It is normally (but not always) associated with the fifth case (⑤) vibhatti endings. It is often referred to as “ablative” in English Pali grammar books.

The usage examples provided here are not exhaustive, other usages are possible.

2.1.1 Place or source {271}

  • The place or source from which someone left or something originated
  • The source from which fear arises
  • The one from which one learns.

Example

gāmā apenti munayo

🚹⨀⑤(gāmā) ⨂(🟢🤟▶️(apenti) 🚹①(munayo))
from village / depart / sages
The sages depart from the village.

Exercises

Translate the following from Pali to English. Look up the words in a dictionary, perform necessary sandhi and compound word deconstruction, and take note of the vibhatti endings to deduce the meaning of the sentence.

  1. nagarā niggato rājā
  2. corā bhayaṁ jāyate
  3. ācariyu’pajjhāyehi sikkhaṁ gaṇhāti sisso

Answers

Note: please do the exercises first before checking the answers.

  1. nagarā niggato rājā

🚻⨀⑤(nagarā) ⨀①(🔽(ta)(niggato) 🚹(rājā))
from city / departed (past participle) / king
The departed king [is] from the city.

  1. corā bhayaṁ jāyate

🚹⨀⑤(corā) ⨀(🚻①(bhayaṁ) 🔵🤟▶️(jāyate))
from thief / fear / arises
Fear arises from the thief.

  1. ācariyu’pajjhāyehi sikkhaṁ gaṇhāti sisso

🚹⨀⑤🆎(ācariya+upajjhāya) 🚺⨀②(sikkhaṁ) ⨀(🟢🤟▶️(gaṇhāti) 🚹①(sisso))
teacher and preceptor / lesson / takes / pupil
The pupil takes lesson from the teacher/preceptor.

2.1.2 With various words and prefixes {272}

2.1.2.1 parā + ji

  • being defeated, to lose in a fight or the struggle

buddhasmā parājenti aññatitthiyā

🚹⨀⑤(buddhasmā) ⨂(🟢🤟▶️(parājenti) 🚹①(aññatitthiyā))
from Buddha / (are) defeated / (those) holding other views, heretics
The heretics are defeated from (i.e. by) the Buddha.

2.1.2.2 pa + bhū

  • an initial originating source of a continuous occurrence

himavatā pabhavanti pañca mahānadiyo

🚹⨀⑤(himavatā) ⨂(🟢🤟▶️(pabhavanti) 🚺①(pañca mahānadiyo))
from the mount Himavantā / originate / five great rivers
The five great rivers originate from the Himalayas.

2.1.2.3 From noun

This is the most common type of apādāna.

urasmā jāto putto

🚹⨀⑤(himavatā) ⨀🚹①(🔽(ta)(jāto) putto)
from chest (womb) / (was) born / the son
The son was born from chest (i.e. womb).

2.1.2.4 Indeclinable affix to

This affix has an ablative sense.

ubhato sujāto putto

⏏️(ubhato) ⨀🚹①(🔽(ta)(sujāto) putto)
from both sides / well-bred, well-born / the son
The son was well-bred, well-born from both sides.

2.1.2.5 From prefix

Word is used in the context of some upasagga (prefixes)

apa sālāya āyanti vāṇijā

🔼(apa) 🚺⨀⑤(sālāya) ⨂(🟢🤟▶️(āyanti) 🚹①(vāṇijā))
taking off, by avoiding / from the rest house / come / the traders
The traders come by skirting (avoiding) from the rest-house.

ghata’massa telasmā pati dadāti

🚹⨀②(ghataṁ) *️⃣🤟🚹⨀④(assa) 🚻⨀⑤(telasmā) 🔼(pati) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(dadāti)
ghee / to that person / from sesame oil / instead of / [he] gives
He gives him ghee instead of sesame oil.

2.1.2.6 Starting from …

ito pakkhasmā vijjhati migaṁ luddako

⏏️(ito) 🚹⨀⑤(pakkhasmā) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(vijjhati) 🚹⨀②(migaṁ) 🚹⨀①(luddako)
from this day / from a fortnight (15 days) / shoots / deer / the hunter
Starting from today within a fortnight, the hunter [will] shoot the deer.

2.1.2.7 api (exception)

The prefix api can mean “but” or “however”. Similarly, other words such as rahitā, rite, nānā, vinā with the sense of “except” can be associated with words with ⑤,② or ③ endings to convey the meaning of “except for.”

rahitā mātujā puññaṁ katvā dānaṁ deti

🚺⨀⑤(rahitā mātujā) 🚻⨀②(puññaṁ) 🔽(tvā)(katvā) 🚻⨀②(dānaṁ) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(deti)
except/abandoning son / meritorious deed / having done / alms / [he] gives
Having done meritorious deed without son, he gives alms.

Note the following variations (using ① or ③ case endings) are also acceptable:

rahitā mātujaṁ puññaṁ katvā dānaṁ deti rahitā mātujena puññaṁ katvā dānaṁ deti

2.1.2.8 From pronouns (sabbanāma)

yato’haṁ bhagini ariyāya jātiyā jāto

⏏️(yato) ⨀👆①(ahaṁ) 🚻⨀⓪(bhagini) ⨀(🚺⑤(ariyāya jātiyā) 🚹🔽(ta)(jāto))
since the time when / I / sister / by noble birth / [was] born
Sister, since I was born (by being enlightened).

Exercises

  1. anavatattamhā pabhavanti mahāsarā
  2. aciravatiyā pabhavanti kunnadiyo
  3. bhūmito niggato raso
  4. mātito sujāto putto
  5. pitito sujāto putto
  6. ā brahmalokā saddo abbhuggacchati
  7. upari pabbatā devo vassati
  8. buddhasmā pati sāriputto dhammadesanāya bhikkhū ālapati temāsaṁ
  9. uppala’massa padumasmā pati dadāti
  10. kanaka’massa hiraññasmā pati dadāti
  11. kosā vijjhati kuñjaraṁ
  12. māsasmā bhuñjati bhojanaṁ
  13. rite saddhammā kuto sukhaṁ labhati (saddhammaṁ, saddhammena)
  14. te bhikkhū nānā kulā pabbajitā
  15. vinā saddhammā nattha’ñño koci nātho loke vijjati (saddhammaṁ, saddhammena)
  16. vinā buddhasmā nattha’ñño koci nātho loke vijjati (buddhaṁ, buddhena)
  17. yato sarāmi attānaṁ
  18. yato patto’smi viññutaṁ
  19. yatvā’dhikaraṇa’menaṁ cakkhundriyaṁ asaṁvutaṁ viharantaṁ abhijjhā, domanassā pāpakā akusalā dhammā anvā’saveyyuṁ

Answers

  1. anavatattamhā pabhavanti mahāsarā

🚹⨀⑤(anavatattamhā) ⨂(🟢🤟▶️(pabhavanti) 🚺①(the great lakes))
from lake anavatatta / originate / king
The great lakes originate from lake Anavatatta.

  1. aciravatiyā pabhavanti kunnadiyo

🚹⨀⑤(aciravatiyā) ⨂(🟢🤟▶️(pabhavanti) 🚺①(kunnadiyo))
from the river Aciravatī / originate / The small creeks
The small creeks originate from the river Aciravatī.

  1. bhūmito niggato raso

🚺⨀⑤(bhūmito) ⨀🚹①(🔽(ta)(niggato) raso)
from earth / came out / the taste (of fruit etc.)
The taste came out from the earth.

  1. mātito sujāto putto

⏏️(mātito) ⨀🚹①(🔽(ta)(sujāto) putto)
from mother’s side / well-bred, well-born / the son
The son was well-bred, well-born from mother’s side.

  1. ubhato sujāto putto

⏏️(pitito) ⨀🚹①(🔽(ta)(sujāto) putto)
from father’s side / well-bred, well-born / the son
The son was well-bred, well-born from father’s side.

  1. ā brahmalokā saddo abbhuggacchati

🔼(ā) 🚹⨀⑤(brahmalokā) ⨀(🚹①(saddo) 🟢🤟▶️(abbhuggacchati))
till, up to / the high heavens of Brahmā / the sound / rises up
The sound (of applause) rises up to the high heavens of Brahmā.

  1. upari pabbatā devo vassati

🔼(upari) 🚹⨀⑤(pabbatā) ⨀(🚹①(devo) 🟢🤟▶️(vassati))
above / the mountain / the rain / pours
The rain pours above the mountain.

  1. buddhasmā pati sāriputto dhammadesanāya bhikkhū ālapati temāsaṁ

🚹⨀⑤(buddhasmā) 🔼(pati) ⨂🚹②(bhikkhū) ⨀(🚹①(sāriputto) 🚺④(dhammadesanāya) 🟢🤟▶️(ālapati)) ⨀🚻②(temāsaṁ)
from Buddha / on behalf of, representing / monks / Venerable Sāriputta / for the purpose of teaching Dhamma / addresses / for three months
representing (from) Buddha, Venerable Sāriputta addresses the monks in order to teach Dhamma for three months.

  1. uppala’massa padumasmā pati dadāti

🚻⨀②(uppalaṁ) *️⃣🤟🚹⨀④(assa) 🚻⨀⑤(padumasmā) 🔼(pati) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(dadāti)
white lotus / to that person / from red lotus / instead of / [he] gives
[He] gives him white lotus instead of red lotus.

  1. kanaka’massa hiraññasmā pati dadāti

🚻⨀②(kanakaṁ) *️⃣🚹⨀④(assa) 🚻⨀⑤(hiraññasmā) 🔼(pati) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(dadāti)
gold / to that person / from silver / instead of / [he] gives
[He] gives him gold instead of silver.

  1. kosā vijjhati kuñjaraṁ

🚹⨀⑤(kosā) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(vijjhati) 🚹⨀②(kuñjaraṁ)
from a distance of a Kosa* / [he] shoots / the elephant
[He] shoots the elephant from (a distance of) a kosa.
*A kosa is a unit of measurement representing the distance a human voice could be heard from (roughly 3 km)

  1. māsasmā bhuñjati bhojanaṁ

🚹⨀⑤(māsasmā) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(bhuñjati) 🚻⨀②(bhojanaṁ)
from a period of a month / [he] eats / food
[He] eats food from (since) a month.

  1. rite saddhammā kuto sukhaṁ labhati (saddhammaṁ, saddhammena)

🚹⨀⑤(rite saddhammā) ⏏️(kuto) 🚻⨀②(sukhaṁ) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(labhati)
except noble way of Dhamma / where? / happiness / alms / [one can] get
Where (one) can get happiness without (except) the noble way of Dhamma?

  1. te bhikkhū nānā kulā pabbajitā

🚹⨂①(*️⃣🤟(te) bhikkhū 🔽(ita)(pabbajitā)) 🚻⨀⑤(⏏️(nānā) kulā)
those monks / from various families and homes / came forth (become)
Those monks became [monks] [after] leaving various families.

  1. vinā saddhammā nattha’ñño koci nātho loke vijjati (saddhammaṁ, saddhammena)

🚹⨀⑤(vinā saddhammā) ⏏️(nattha’ñño) ⏏️(koci) 🚹⨀①(nātho) 🚹⨀⑦(loke) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(vijjati)
except noble way of Dhamma / no other / refuge/help / in the world / [there] is
There is no other refuge/help in the world except the noble way of Dhamma.

  1. vinā buddhasmā nattha’ñño koci nātho loke vijjati (buddhaṁ, buddhena)

🚹⨀⑤(vinā buddhasmā) ⏏️(nattha’ñño) ⏏️(koci) 🚹⨀①(nātho) 🚹⨀⑦(loke) 🟢⨀🤟▶️(vijjati)
except from Buddha / no other / refuge/help / in the world / [there] is
There is no other refuge/help in the world except from Buddha.

  1. yato sarāmi attānaṁ

⏏️(yato) 🟢⨀👆▶️(sarāmi) 🚹⨀②(attānaṁ)
since / [I] remember / oneself
Since or as far as I remember myself.

  1. yato patto’smi viññutaṁ

⏏️(yato) ⨀🚹①(🔽(ta)(patto)) 🟢⨀👆▶️(asmi) 🚺⨀②(viññutaṁ)
since / the one who attained / [I] am / to a state of being mature, wise
Since [I] reach a state of being wise (capable of knowing right and wrong, mature adulthood).

  1. yatvā’dhikaraṇa’menaṁ cakkhundriyaṁ asaṁvutaṁ viharantaṁ abhijjhā, domanassā pāpakā akusalā dhammā anvā’saveyyuṁ

⏏️(yatvā’dhikaraṇaṁ) 🚻⨀①(*️⃣🤟(enaṁ) cakkhundriyaṁ 🔽(ta)(asaṁvutaṁ) 🔽(anta)(viharantaṁ)) ⨂①(🚺(abhijjhā) 🚻(domanassā pāpakā akusalā dhammā)) 🟢⨂🤟⏯(anvā’saveyyuṁ)
for the reason which / to that (person) / the faculty of eye / without restraining / (to the one who is) living / desire / aversion / those which are bad / unwholesome / mental states / may repeatedly arise
For (such a) reason of (casually) living without restraining one’s eye, bad, unwholesome mental states (such as) desire, and aversion etc., may repeatedly arise to (the mind of) that person.

2.1.3 To protect or prevent from {273}

Example

kāke rakkhanti taṇḍulā

⨂(🚹②(kāke) 🟢🤟▶️(rakkhanti)) 🚹⨀⑤(taṇḍulā)
crows / [people] prevent / from [snatching] rice
[People] prevent crows from [eating] the rice.

Exercises

  1. yavā paṭisedhenti gāvo

Answers

  1. yavā paṭisedhenti gāvo

🚻⨀⑤(yavā) 🟢⨂🤟▶️(paṭisedhenti) 🚹⨀②(gāvo)
from [eating] barley / [people] prevent / the cattle
[People] prevent cattle from [eating] the barley.

2.1.4 Hiding from {274}

When one wishes not to be seen by someone, that person from which one wants to hide is an apādāna.

Example

upajjhāyā antaradhāyati sisso

🚹⨀⑤(upajjhāyā) ⨀(🟢🤟▶️(antaradhāyati) 🚹①(sisso))
from preceptor (teacher) / hides / the pupil
The pupil hides from the preceptor.

Sometimes the ⑦ case ending is used rather than ⑤ in connection with a disappearance.

jetavane antaradhāyati bhagavā

🚻⨀⑦(jetavane) ⨀(🟢🤟▶️(antaradhāyati) 🚹①(bhagavā))
at Jetavana temple / disappears / Buddha
Lord Buddha disappears at Jetavana temple.

Exercises

  1. mātarā ca pitarā ca antaradhāyati putto

Answers

  1. mātarā ca pitarā ca antaradhāyati putto

🚺⨀⑤(mātarā) ⏏️(ca) 🚹⨀⑤(pitarā) ⏏️(ca) ⨀(🟢🤟▶️(antaradhāyati) 🚹①(putto))
from mother / also / from father / also / hides / son
The son hides from mother and father also.

2.1.5 Additional usage {275}

Used for expressing measurement of distance, time, direction along with words such as dura (distant, far) or antika (near) or similar words.

Also used for analytical comparison, abstinence, purity, release/freedom from, reason, arrested, result (from virtue) etc.

2.1.5.1 dura (“distant and far”)

kīva dūro ito naḷakāragāmo

⏏️(kīva) 🚹⨀①(dūro) ⏏️(ito) 🚹⨀①(naḷakāragāmo)
how much / far / from here / bamboo-crafter’s village
How far is from here to bamboo-crafter’s village?

Can also use with ① and ③ vibhatti endings (eg. dūraṁ, dūrena)

2.1.5.2 antika (“near”)

antikaṁ gāmā

🚹⨀(①(antikaṁ) ⑤(gāmā))
[is] near / from village
[is] near village

Can also use with ① and ③ vibhatti endings (eg. gāmaṁ, gāmena)

2.1.5.3 Measure of geographic distance

ito mathurāya catūsu yojanesu saṅkassaṁ nāma nagaraṁ atthi, tattha bahū janā vasanti

⏏️(ito) 🚺⨀⑤(mathurāya) 🚻⨂⑦(catūsu yojanesu) ⨀(🚹①(saṅkassaṁ nāma nagaraṁ) 🤟▶️(atthi)) ⏏️(tattha) ⨂(🚹①(bahū janā) 🤟▶️(vasanti))
from here / from city of “Mathurā” / at 4 yojana (~20 km) / city named “Saṅkassa” / [there] is / there / many / people / live
At four “yojana” distance from Mathurā, there is a city named “Saṅkassa”. Many people live there.

2.1.5.4 Measure of time

ito bhikkhave ekanavutikappe vipassī nāma bhagavā loke udapādi

⏏️(ito) 🚹⨂⓪(bhikkhave) 🚻⨂⑦(ekanavutikappe) 🚻⨂⑦(loke) ⨀(🚹①(vipassī nāma bhagavā) 🤟⏮(udapādi))
from here / monks! / at a time of 91 eons / in the world / Buddha named Vipassī / appeared
Monks! at a time of 91 eons from now, the Buddha named “Vipassī”, appeared in the world.

2.1.5.5 Implied absolutive

pāsādā saṅkameyya

🚹⨀⑤(pāsādā) ⨀🤟🔀(saṅkameyya)
from mansion or palace / (he should) move
He should move from mansion.

This implies previously he has moved (ascended) to mansion.

pāsādaṁ abhiruhitvā

🚹⨀②(pāsādaṁ) 🔽(tvā)(abhiruhitvā)
to the mansion or palace / having gone up
Having gone up to mansion.

2.1.5.6 Direction and physical points

avicito yāva upari bhavagga’mantare bahū sattanikāyā vasanti

⏏️(avicito) ⏏️(yāva) ⏏️(upari) 🚹⨀②(bhavaggaṃ) ⏏️(antare) ⨂(🚹①(bahū sattanikāyā) 🤟▶️(vasanti))
from lowest hell / up to / above / the highest heaven / in between / many diverse groups of living beings / live
Many diverse groups of beings live in between from the lowest hell (underneath) to the highest heaven above.

2.1.5.7 Comparison / distinction

yato paṇītataro vā visiṭṭhataro vā natthi

⏏️(yato) ⨀(🚹①(paṇītataro) ⏏️(vā) 🚹①(visiṭṭhataro) ⏏️(vā) ⏏️(na) 🤟▶️(atthi))
from which / the best / or / the most outstanding thing / or / no / [there] is
There is nothing better or more outstanding [than the Dhamma].

2.1.5.8 Abstinence

gāmadhammā vasaladhammā asaddhammā ārati virati paṭivirati

⨀(🚹⑤(gāmadhammā vasaladhammā asaddhammā) 🤟▶️(ārati virati paṭivirati))
from the way of villagers / from impious way / from ignoble way / (mental) abstinence / (physical) abstinence / sustained abstinence

pāṇātipātā veramaṇī

⨀(🚹⑤(pāṇātipātā) 🤟▶️(veramaṇī))
from killing / abstinence

2.1.5.9 Purity

lobhaniyehi dhammehi suddho asaṅsaṭṭho

🚹⨂⑤(lobhaniyehi dhammehi) 🚹⨀①🔽(ta)(suddho asaṅsaṭṭho)
from greed-causing / phenomenon / (is) pure / (is) dissociated
It is pure and dissociated from greed-causing phenomenon.

2.1.5.10 Freedom and release

parimutto dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi

🚹⨀①🔽(ta)(parimutto) 🚻⨂⑤(dukkhasmā) ⏏️(iti) 👆⨀▶️(vadāmi)
is free / phenomenon / from suffering / (quote) / (I) say
I say “It is freedom from suffering”.

2.1.5.11 Reason

kasmā hetunā

🚹⨂⑤(kasmā hetunā)
for what / reason
for what reason, why?

Similarly, can also use ③ and ⑥ vibhatti endings:

🚹⨂③(kena hetunā)
🚹⨂⑥(kissa hetunā)

2.1.5.12 Dissociation

vivitto pāpakā dhammā

🚹⨀①🔽(ta)(vivitto) 🚹⨀⑤(pāpakā dhammā)
is dissociated, being detached from / unwholesome / mental state
Being detached from unwholesome mental state.

2.1.5.13 Measurement

dīghaso navavidatthiyo sugatavidatthiyā pamāṇikā kāretabbā. majjhimassa purisassa aḍḍha-teḷasahatthā

⏏️(dīghaso) 🚺⨂①(navavidatthiyo) 🚺⨀⑤(sugatavidatthiyā) 🚺⨂①(pamāṇikā 🔽(tabba)(kāretabbā)) 🚹⨀⑥(majjhimassa purisassa) 🚹⨂①(aḍḍha-teḷasahatthā)
by length / by Buddha’s vidatthi (length between outstretched thumb and little finger) measurements / measurement / should be made measured / of medium / of man / half / thirteen / measure of length (measure from elbow to extended little-finger tip)
By measure of Buddha’s vidatthi measurement, nine vidatthi in length, half-thirteen feet by measure of a medium height man are to be measured.

2.1.5.14 Before, previously

pubbe’va sambodhā

🚹⨀⑦(pubbe) ⏏️(eva) 🚹⨀⑤(sambodhā)
before, previously / only / from (the time of) enlightenment
at the previous time from enlightenment (prior to enlightenment)

2.1.5.15 To arrest

satasmā bandho naro

🚹⨀⑤(satasmā) 🚹⨀①(bandho naro)
for hundred / arrested / man
Man got arrested for a hundred.

Can also use ③ vibhatti ending:

satena bandho naro raññā iṇatthena

🚹⨀③(satena) 🚹⨀①(bandho naro) 🚹⨀③(raññā) 🚹⨀③(iṇatthena)
for hundred / arrested / man / by king / by reason of debt
Man was arrested by king for reasons of (unpaid) debt of a hundred.

2.1.5.16 Result or benefit

extolling the result or benefit of a virtue or a specific quality (note ③ vibhatti ending):

puññāya sugatiṁ yanti

🚻⨀③(puññāya) 🚺⨀①(sugatiṁ) 🤟⨂▶️(yanti)
by meritorious deed / to good destiny (re-birth). / (people) go
People go to a good (destiny of) re-birth by virtue of meritorious deed.

2.1.5.17 Questioning and Answering (of teachings)

Used together without a tvā-gerund Kita verb:

abhidhammā pucchanti

🚹⨀⑤(abhidhammā) 🤟⨂▶️(pucchanti)
from abhidhamma / (they) ask
They ask question from (i.e. regarding) Abhidhamma.

Also used with ② and ③ vibhatti endings:

abhidhammaṁ pucchanti
abhidhammena pucchanti

This implies they have previously listened to the Abhidhamma, and have a “standing” question to ask:

abhidhammaṁ sutvā
abhidhamme ṭhatvā

🚹⨀②(abhidhammaṁ) ⏏️🔽(tvā)(sutvā) 🚹⨀⑦(abhidhamme) ⏏️🔽(tvā)(sutvā)
abhidhamma / having listened / abhidhamma / standing (there as point of question)
Having listened to Abhidhamma, having stood on Abhidhamma, …

Also used with answering:

abhidhammā pucchanti

🚹⨀⑤(abhidhammā) 🤟⨂▶️(kathayanti)
from abhidhamma / (they) answer
They answer question from (i.e. regarding) Abhidhamma.

Some other words that can be used in this manner (replacing abhidhamma):

  • vinaya
  • suttā
  • geyyā (stanza)
  • gāthāya (verse)
  • veyyākaraṇā (explanatory non-stanza discourses)
  • udānā (joyous utterances)
  • itivuttakā ((re-narrated) discourses)
  • jātakā (Buddha’s former life stories)
  • abbhutadhammā (inspirational discourses)
  • vedallā (joyous sayings)

2.1.5.18 A little, a meagre amount

thokā muccanti

🚹⨀⑤(thokā) 🤟⨂▶️(muccanti)
from reasons of little (excuse) / (they) are free (from confinement)
They are free by means of a little excuse.

Some other words that can be used in this manner (replacing thokā):

  • appamattakā (from little amount. muccanti)
  • kicchā (from being weary)

Also used with ③ vibhatti ending:

thokena muccanti

2.1.5.19 Non-agent words indicative of obvious reason

kammassa katattā upacitattā ussannattā vipulattā cakkhuviññāṇaṁ uppannaṁ hoti

🚹⨀⑥(kammassa) 🚻⨀⑤(katattā upacitattā ussannattā vipulattā) 🚻⨀⑤(cakkhuviññāṇaṁ 🔽(tā)(uppannaṁ)) 🤟⨀▶️(hoti)
of (good) kamma / for having done / for having collected / for having accumulated / for having increased / the eye-consciousness / act of arising / is
For reasons of having done, for having collected, for having accumulated, for having increased the (good) kamma, the eye-consciousness arises.

Exercises

  1. dūrato vā gamma
  2. ārakā te moghapurisā imasmā dhammavinayā
  3. ārakā te moghapurisā imasmā dhammavinayaṁ
  4. anena te moghapurisā imasmā dhammavinayena
  5. āsannaṁ gāmā
  6. samīpaṁ gāmā
  7. samīpaṁ saddhammā
  8. ito tiṇṇaṁ māsānaṁ accayena parinibbāyissati. icceva’mādi
  9. pabbatā saṅkameyya. pabbataṁ abhiruhitvā
  10. hatthikkhandhā saṅkameyya. hatthikkhandhaṁ abhiruhitvā
  11. āsanā vuṭṭhaheyya. āsane nisīditvā
  12. yato khemaṁ tato bhayaṁ
  13. puratthimato dakkhiṇato pacchimato uttarato aggī pajjalanti
  14. yato assosuṁ bhagavantaṁ
  15. uddhaṁ pādatalā adho kesamatthakā
  16. channavutīnaṁ pāsaṇḍānaṁ dhammānaṁ pavaraṁ yadidaṁ sugatavinayo
  17. mātito ca pitito ca suddho asaṅsaṭṭho anu’pakuddho agarahito
  18. mutto’smi mārabandhanā
  19. na te muccanti maccunā
  20. kasmā nu tumhaṁ daharā na mīyare
  21. kasmā idhe’va maraṇaṁ bhavissati
  22. vivicce’va kāmehi
  23. vivicca akusalehi dhammehi
  24. cāgāya vipulaṁ dhanaṁ
  25. paññāya vimutti mano
  26. issariyāya janaṁ rakkhati rājā
  27. vinayā pucchanti. vinayaṁ sutvā. vinaye ṭhatvā

Answers

  1. dūrato vā gamma

⏏️(dūrato) ⏏️(evā) 🚻⨀①🔽(ṇya)(gamma)
from afar / only / having come.
Having come from a distance only.

  1. ārakā te moghapurisā imasmā dhammavinayā

🚹⨀⑤(ārakā) 🚹⨂①(*️⃣🤟️(te) moghapurisā) 🚹⨀⑤(*️⃣🤟️(imasmā) dhammavinayā)
far from / those empty men / from this teaching of Buddha
Those “empty men” are far from this noble teaching of Buddha.

  1. ārakā te moghapurisā imasmā dhammavinayaṁ

🚹⨀②(ārakā) 🚹⨂①(*️⃣🤟️(te) moghapurisā) 🚹⨀②(*️⃣🤟️(imasmā) dhammavinayaṁ)
far from / those empty men / from this teaching of Buddha
Those “empty men” are far from this noble teaching of Buddha.

  1. anena te moghapurisā imasmā dhammavinayena

🚹⨀③(anena) 🚹⨂①(*️⃣🤟️(te) moghapurisā) 🚹⨀③(*️⃣🤟️(imasmā) dhammavinayena)
far from / those empty men / from this teaching of Buddha
Those “empty men” are far from this noble teaching of Buddha.

  1. āsannaṁ gāmā

🚹⨀(①(āsannaṁ) ⑤(gāmā))
[is] near / from village
[is] near village

  1. samīpaṁ gāmā

🚹⨀(①(samīpaṁ) ⑤(gāmā))
[is] near / from village
[is] near village

  1. samīpaṁ saddhammā

🚹⨀(①(samīpaṁ) ⑤(saddhammā))
[is] near / from noble Dhamma
[is] near noble Dhamma

  1. ito tiṇṇaṁ māsānaṁ accayena parinibbāyissati

⏏️(ito) 🚻⨂⑥(tiṇṇaṁ māsānaṁ) 🚻⨂③(accayena) ⨀🤟⏭(parinibbāyissati)
from here / of three months / on passing / (the Buddha) will expire
On passing of three months from now, the Buddha will enter into parinibbāna.

  1. pabbatā saṅkameyya. pabbataṁ abhiruhitvā

🚹⨀⑤(pabbatā) ⨀🤟🔀(saṅkameyya) 🚹⨀②(pabbataṁ) 🔽(tvā)(abhiruhitvā)
from mountain / (he should) move / to mountain / having gone up
He should move from mountain. Having gone up to mountain

  1. hatthikkhandhā saṅkameyya. hatthikkhandhaṁ abhiruhitvā

🚹⨀⑤(hatthikkhandhā) ⨀🤟🔀(saṅkameyya) 🚹⨀②(hatthikkhandhaṁ) 🔽(tvā)(abhiruhitvā)
from the back of elephant / (he should) move / to the back of elephant / having gone up
He should move from back of elephant. Having gone up to back of elephant

  1. āsanā vuṭṭhaheyya. āsane nisīditvā

🚻⨀⑤(āsanā) ⨀🤟🔀(vuṭṭhaheyya) 🚻⨀②(āsane) 🔽(tvā)(nisīditvā)
from seat / (he) should get up / to seat / having seated
He should get up from seat. Having sat on seat

  1. yato khemaṁ tato bhayaṁ

⏏️(yato) 🚻⨀①(khemaṁ) ⏏️(tato) 🚻⨀①(bhayaṁ)
from where / (it is) safe / from there / (it is) unsafe
Where (it used to be) safe (before), is no longer safe.

  1. puratthimato dakkhiṇato pacchimato uttarato aggī pajjalanti

🚹⨀⑤(puratthimato dakkhiṇato pacchimato uttarato) ⨂(🚹①(aggī) 🤟▶️(pajjalanti))
from East, South, West, North / fires / are aflame
From East, South, West, North fires are aflame.

  1. yato assosuṁ bhagavantaṁ

⏏️(yato) ⨂🤟⏮(assosuṁ) 🚹⨀②(bhagavantaṁ)
since / (they) heard / the Buddha
Since they heard the Buddha’s (words).

  1. uddhaṁ pādatalā adho kesamatthakā

🚻⨀⑤(pādatalā) ⏏️(adho) 🚻⨀⑤(kesamatthakā)
since / from the feet / down below / the tip of hair
From above the feet and bewlow the tip of the hair.

  1. channavutīnaṁ pāsaṇḍānaṁ dhammānaṁ pavaraṁ yadidaṁ sugatavinayo

🚹⨀⑥(channavutīnaṁ pāsaṇḍānaṁ dhammānaṁ) ⏏️(adho) 🚹⨀①(pavaraṁ *️⃣🤟(yadidaṁ) sugatavinayo)
since / of ninety-six / impious / ideas / (is) the most excellent / that which is / the discipline of Buddha
Of the ninety-six impious ideas, the discipline (teaching) of Buddha [is] the most excellent.

  1. mātito ca pitito ca suddho asaṅsaṭṭho anu’pakuddho agarahito

🚺⨀⑥(mātito) ⏏️(ca) 🚹⨀⑥(pitito) ⏏️(ca) 🚹⨀①🔽(ta)(suddho asaṅsaṭṭho anu’pakuddho agarahito)
from mother’s side / and / from father’s side / and / (is) pure / (is) not mixed (with other castes). / (is) not censured / (is) not reproached
(He) is not to be censured nor to be reproached as he is pure and not racially mixed either from the mother’s side or from the father’s side.

  1. mutto’smi mārabandhanā

🚹⨀①🔽(ta)(mutto) 👆⨀▶️(asmi) 🚻⨂⑤(mārabandhanā)
free / (I) am / from Māra’s bonds
I am free from Māra’s bonds.

  1. na te muccanti maccunā

⏏️(na) *️⃣🤟🚹⨂①(te) 👆⨂▶️(muccanti) 🚻⨂⑤(maccunā)
not / they / are free / from death
They are not being free from death.

  1. kasmā nu tumhaṁ daharā na mīyare

🚹⨀⑤(kasmā) ⏏️(nu) *️⃣🤘⚧⨂⑥(tumhaṁ) ⨂(🚹①(daharā) ⏏️(na) 🔵🤟▶️(mīyare))
why / (?) / of you / the young ones / no / die
Why the young ones among you (in the family) do not die young?

  1. kasmā idhe’va maraṇaṁ bhavissati

🚹⨀⑤(kasmā) ⏏️(idha eva) ⨀(🚹①(maraṇaṁ) 🤟⏭(bhavissati))
why / here / only / death / will be
Why [my] death will be only here?

  1. vivicce’va kāmehi

⨀🤘⏹(vivicca) ⏏️(eva) 🚹⨂⑤(kāmehi)
being detached / only / from sensual pleasures
Being detached from sensual pleasures only.

  1. vivicca akusalehi dhammehi

⨀🤘⏹(vivicca) 🚹⨂⑤(akusalehi dhammehi)
being detached / from unwholesome / from mental states
Being detached from unwholesome mental states.

  1. cāgāya vipulaṁ dhanaṁ

🚹⨀③(cāgāya) 🚻⨀①(vipulaṁ dhanaṁ)
by alms / is abundant / wealth
abundance of wealth is by virtue of alms.

  1. paññāya vimutti mano

🚹⨀③(paññāya) 🚹⨀①(vimutti mano)
by wisdom / is free / the mind
The mind is free by virtue of wisdom.

  1. issariyāya janaṁ rakkhati rājā

🚹⨀③(issariyāya) 🚹⨀②(janaṁ) 🤟⨀▶️(rakkhati) 🚹⨀①(rājā)
by authority / people / protects or governs / the king
The king governs people by virtue of authority.

  1. vinayā pucchanti. vinayaṁ sutvā. vinaye ṭhatvā

🚹⨀⑤(vinayā) 🤟⨂▶️(pucchanti) 🚹⨀②(vinayaṁ) ⏏️🔽(tvā)(sutvā) 🚹⨀⑦(vinaye) ⏏️🔽(tvā)(sutvā)
from vinaya / (they) ask / vinaya / having listened / vinaya / standing (there as point of question)
Having listened to Vinaya, having stood on Vinaya, they ask question from (i.e. regarding) Vinaya.

2.4 - 3: Awakening

Translation of the bodhisutta Ud 1.1-1.3 PTS 1-3 Verses 1-3

Paṭhamabodhisutta

Evaṁ me sutaṁ— ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā uruvelāyaṁ viharati najjā nerañjarāya tīre bodhirukkhamūle paṭhamābhisambuddho. Tena kho pana samayena bhagavā sattāhaṁ ekapallaṅkena nisinno hoti vimuttisukhapaṭisaṁvedī. Atha kho bhagavā tassa sattāhassa accayena tamhā samādhimhā vuṭṭhahitvā rattiyā paṭhamaṁ yāmaṁ paṭiccasamuppādaṁ anulomaṁ sādhukaṁ manasākāsi:

“Iti imasmiṁ sati idaṁ hoti, imassuppādā idaṁ uppajjati, yadidaṁ— avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā, saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṁ, viññāṇapaccayā nāmarūpaṁ, nāmarūpapaccayā saḷāyatanaṁ, saḷāyatanapaccayā phasso, phassapaccayā vedanā, vedanāpaccayā taṇhā, taṇhāpaccayā upādānaṁ, upādānapaccayā bhavo, bhavapaccayā jāti, jātipaccayā jarāmaraṇaṁ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hotī”ti.

Atha kho bhagavā etamatthaṁ viditvā tāyaṁ velāyaṁ imaṁ udānaṁ udānesi:

“Yadā have pātubhavanti dhammā,
Ātāpino jhāyato brāhmaṇassa;
Athassa kaṅkhā vapayanti sabbā,
Yato pajānāti sahetudhamman”ti.

Dutiyabodhisutta

Evaṁ me sutaṁ— ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā uruvelāyaṁ viharati najjā nerañjarāya tīre bodhirukkhamūle paṭhamābhisambuddho. Tena kho pana samayena bhagavā sattāhaṁ ekapallaṅkena nisinno hoti vimuttisukhapaṭisaṁvedī. Atha kho bhagavā tassa sattāhassa accayena tamhā samādhimhā vuṭṭhahitvā rattiyā majjhimaṁ yāmaṁ paṭiccasamuppādaṁ paṭilomaṁ sādhukaṁ manasākāsi:

“Iti imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti, imassa nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati, yadidaṁ— avijjānirodhā saṅkhāranirodho, saṅkhāranirodhā viññāṇanirodho, viññāṇanirodhā nāmarūpanirodho, nāmarūpanirodhā saḷāyatananirodho, saḷāyatananirodhā phassanirodho, phassanirodhā vedanānirodho, vedanānirodhā taṇhānirodho, taṇhānirodhā upādānanirodho, upādānanirodhā bhavanirodho, bhavanirodhā jātinirodho, jātinirodhā jarāmaraṇaṁ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā nirujjhanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hotī”ti.

Atha kho bhagavā etamatthaṁ viditvā tāyaṁ velāyaṁ imaṁ udānaṁ udānesi:

“Yadā have pātubhavanti dhammā,
Ātāpino jhāyato brāhmaṇassa;
Athassa kaṅkhā vapayanti sabbā,
Yato khayaṁ paccayānaṁ avedī”ti.

Tatiyabodhisutta

Evaṁ me sutaṁ— ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā uruvelāyaṁ viharati najjā nerañjarāya tīre bodhirukkhamūle paṭhamābhisambuddho. Tena kho pana samayena bhagavā sattāhaṁ ekapallaṅkena nisinno hoti vimuttisukhapaṭisaṁvedī. Atha kho bhagavā tassa sattāhassa accayena tamhā samādhimhā vuṭṭhahitvā rattiyā pacchimaṁ yāmaṁ paṭiccasamuppādaṁ anulomapaṭilomaṁ sādhukaṁ manasākāsi:

“Iti imasmiṁ sati idaṁ hoti, imassuppādā idaṁ uppajjati, imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti, imassa nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati; yadidaṁ— avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā, saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṁ, viññāṇapaccayā nāmarūpaṁ, nāmarūpapaccayā saḷāyatanaṁ, saḷāyatanapaccayā phasso, phassapaccayā vedanā, vedanāpaccayā taṇhā, taṇhāpaccayā upādānaṁ, upādānapaccayā bhavo, bhavapaccayā jāti, jātipaccayā jarāmaraṇaṁ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti.

Avijjāya tveva asesavirāganirodhā saṅkhāranirodho, saṅkhāranirodhā viññāṇanirodho, viññāṇanirodhā nāmarūpanirodho, nāmarūpanirodhā saḷāyatananirodho, saḷāyatananirodhā phassanirodho, phassanirodhā vedanānirodho, vedanānirodhā taṇhānirodho, taṇhānirodhā upādānanirodho, upādānanirodhā bhavanirodho, bhavanirodhā jātinirodho, jātinirodhā jarāmaraṇaṁ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā nirujjhanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hotī”ti.

Atha kho bhagavā etamatthaṁ viditvā tāyaṁ velāyaṁ imaṁ udānaṁ udānesi:

“Yadā have pātubhavanti dhammā,
Ātāpino jhāyato brāhmaṇassa;
Vidhūpayaṁ tiṭṭhati mārasenaṁ,
Sūriyova obhāsayamantalikkhan”ti.

2.5 - A: Symbols and Glossary of Pali technical terms

List of symbols used in this book and their meanings
symbolmeaningexplanation
🚹pulliṅgamajor (masculine) gender
🚻napuṁsakaliṅgaspecial (neuter) gender
🚺itthiliṅgaminor (feminine) gender
⨀ekavacanasingular
⨂bahuvacanaplural
🟢parassapada, kattuactive voice
🔵attanopada, bhāvamiddle voice - impersonal
🔴kammapassive voice
🟠kāritacausative
🤟paṭhama purisafirst person, equivalent to ’third person’ in English
🤘majjima purisamiddle person, equivalent to ‘second person’ in English
👆uttama purisaprimary person, equivalent to ‘first person’ in English
⓪ālapanavocative
①paṭhamāfirst case (nominative)
②dutiyāsecond case (accusative)
③tatiyāthird case (instrumental)
④catutthīfourth case (dative)
⑤pañcamīfifth case (ablative)
⑥chaṭṭhīsixth case (genitive)
⑦sattamīseventh case (locative)
⏏️nipātaparticle
🔼upasaggaprefix
🆎samāsacompound noun
🔽taddhitaaffix
*️⃣sabbanāmapronoun
▶️vattamānapresent
⏹piñcamīimperative
⏯sattamīpotential
🔄parokkhāperfect
↩️hiyyattanīimperfect
⏮ajjatanīaorist
⏭bhavissantifuture
🔀kālātipatticonditional

Phonological Terminology

dīgha
long
rassa
short
garuka
metrically long
lahuka
metrically short
sambaddha
connected utterance
vavatthita
disjoint utterance
sithila
non-aspirated stops
dhanita
aspirated stops
niggahīta
nasal
vimutta
oral

Case terminology

SymbolEnglishAṭṭhakathā
①nominativepaccatta
②accusativeupayoga
③instrumentalkaraṇa
④dativesampadāna
⑤ablativenissakka
⑥genitivesāmi
⑦locativebhumma
⓪vocativeālapana

Types of nominals

  • Technical Terms and Technique of the Pali and the Sanskrit Grammars, Mahesh A Deokar, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies (2008)

2.6 - B: The Pali Alphabet

Concise summary of the romanised Pali Alphabet

Alphabet Order

Pali consists of 8 vowels (sara) and 33 consonants (vyañjana), arranged in the following order (the letters in round brackets are unused in the dictionary):

sara: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū
kaṇṭhatāluja: e
kaṇṭhoṭṭhaja: o
niggahīta: (ṃ1)
kavagga: k, kh, g, gh, (ṅ)
cavagga: c, ch, j, jh, ñ
ṭavagga: ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, (ḍh), (ṇ)
tavagga: t, th, d, dh, n
pavagga: p, ph, b, bh, m
antaṭṭha: y, r, l, (ḷ), (ḷh)
dantoṭṭhaja: v
sakāra: s
hakāra: h

Alphabet Groups

Articulation Placerassadīghakaṇṭhatāluja kaṇṭhoṭṭhajaanunāsikaaghosa sithilaaghosa dhanitaghosa sithilaghosa dhanitanāsikaantaṭṭhahakārasakāra
kaṇṭhajaaākkhgghṅh
tālujaiīecchjjhñy
muḍḍhajaoṃṭṭhḍḍhṇr ḷ
dantajatthddhnv ls
oṭṭhajauūpphbbhm

How to form sounds

vaggaGroupSound
kaṇṭhajaGutturalspronounced in the throat
tālujaPalatalspressing the tongue on the front-palate
muḍḍhajaLinguals (Cerebrals, Retroflex)bringing the up-turned tip of the tongue in contact with the back of the palate
dantajaDentalspronounced with the aid of the teeth
oṭṭhajaLabialsformed by means of the lips
hakāraSpiranta strong aspirated breathing
sakāraSibilanthas a hissing sound
anunāsikaNasalnasal breathing found only after the short vowels: aṃ, iṃ, uṃ
aghosaVoiceless (Surds, stops)hard, flat, and toneless
ghosaVoiced (Sonants)soft and uttered with a checked tone
dhanitaAspiratespronounced with a strong breathing or h sound added to them
sithilaNonaspiratespronounced naturally, without effort and without the h sound
nāsikaNasalssounded through the nose
antaṭṭhaLiquids (Resonants, semi-vowels)readily combine with other consonants: (except, perhaps, ḷ)
-Mutes (Nonsurds)not being readily pronounced without the aid of a vowel

Pronunciation

LetterPronunciation
abut, cut
āart, father
imill, pin
ībee, machine
uput
ūcool, rule
eten, fate
ohot, note
kkey, kite
gget, good
ṅring, singer
cchurch, rich
jjam, jug
ñsignor
ṭhat, not
ḍgood, hid
ṇhint, now
tthumb
dthey
nnow
plip, put
bbut, rib
mhim, mind
yyard, yes
rrat, right
llight, sell
vvile, vine
ssing, sit
hhot, hut
ḷfelt, light
ṃsing

  1. ṃ (niggahīta) can be written η, ṁ or ṃ ↩︎

2.7 - C: Pali Grammar Specification

A concise diagrammatic representation of Pali Grammar

This chapter presents a concise summary of the structure of Pali grammar and the technical terms used in Kaccāyana. It is structured using EBNF notation and presented as Syntax Diagrams (also known as “Railroad” diagrams).

The Pali Alphabet or Orthography (saññā)

Phonemes {2}

Pali is an oral language consisting of sounds, but can be transcribed in written form using a combination of phonemes. Overall, there are 41 phonemes, which are grouped as consonants and vowels. These phonemes can be rendered in various scripts, or using Roman letters.

@startebnf
title Phonemes (akkharā)
phoneme = 33 * consonant (* byañjanā *) | 8 * vowel (* sarā *);
@endebnf

Vowels {3}-{5}

The vowels can be short (1 mora in length) or long (2 morae). Some vowels can be short or long depending of circumstances.

@startebnf
title Vowels (sarā)
vowel =
  short (* rassaṃ, light (lahu), one mora (mattā) in length  *) |
  long (* dīghaṃ, heavy (garu), two mattā in length *) |
  variable (* can be long or short *);
short = "a" | "i" | "u";
long = "ā" | "ī" | "ū";
variable = "e" | "o";
@endebnf

Consonants {6}-{9}

Consonants can be grouped.

@startebnf
Title Consonants (byañjanā)
consonant =
  25 * grouped (* vagga *) |
  7 * ungrouped (* avaggā *) |
  1 * niggahita (* niggahita *) ;
grouped =
  5 * ka_group (* kavagga, velar (guttural) *) |
  5 * ca_group (* cavagga, palatal *) |
  5 * dot_ta_group (* ṭavagga, retroflex *) |
  5 * ta_group (* tavagga, dental *) |
  5 * pa_group (* pavagga, labial *) ;
ka_group = "ka" | "kha" | "ga" | "gha" | "ṅa" ;
ca_group = "ca" | "cha" | "ja" | "jha" | "ña" ;
dot_ta_group = "ṭa" | "ṭha" | "ḍa" | "ḍha" | "ṇa" ;
ta_group = "ta" | "tha" | "da" | "dha" | "na" ;
pa_group = "pa" | "pha" | "ba" | "bha" | "ma" ;
ungrouped = "ya" | "ra" | "la" | "va" | "sa" | "ha" | "ḷa" ;
niggahita = "aṃ" ;
@endebnf

Voicing

The grouped consonants can be either voiced or unvoiced.

@startebnf
Title Voicing
grouped =
  7 * voiceless (* aghosā *) |
  25 * voiced (* ghosā *) ;
voiceless = "ka" | "kha" | "ca" | "cha" | "ṭa" | "ṭha" | "ta" | "tha" | "pa" | "pha" ;
voiced = "ga" | "gha" | "ṅa" | "ja" | "jha" | "ña" | "ḍa" | "ḍha" | "ṇa" | "da" | "dha" | "na" | "ba" | "bha" | "ma" ;
@endebnf

Sentence structure

Pali text consist of sentences which contain one or more words. Words can be nouns, verbs, prefixes and particles. There is no strictly defined word order in sentences, but is proto-typically subject-object-verb.

@startebnf
title Sentence Structure
text = {sentence (* vakyā *)};
sentence = {word (* padajāti *)}- ;
sentence = ?subject?, ?object?, ?verb? ;
word =
  noun (* nāma *) |
  verb (* ākhyāta *) |
  prefix (* upasagga *) |
  particle (* nipāta *) ;
@endebnf

Nouns

@startebnf
title Noun types
noun =
  substantive (* nāmanāma *) |
  adjective (* guṇanāma, visesana *) |
  pronoun (* sabbanāma *) |
  numeral (* saṅkhyā *) |
  complex_noun (* vutti *) ;
substantive =
  common (* sādhārananāma *) |
  proper (* asādhārananāma *) ;
@endebnf

Nouns are constructed from a base, or stem. Kaccāyana refers to the nominal base as the liṅga, but this word is also used to refer to the grammatical gender of nouns. liṅga technically means defining “characteristic” or “attribute” and hence the term is appropriate for both, as the defining characteristic of a noun is the base together with the gender. Other words that can be used to represent the base are pāṭipadika or sadda.

A fully formed noun-word is constructed by combining the base with optional prefixes, infixes, affixes and suffixes. The final suffix is the inflectional-ending and expresses the syntactic case (relationship of the noun to other parts of a sentence), number (singular or plural) and gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter).

@startebnf
title Noun formation
noun =
  {prefix (* upasagga *)},
  {root (* dhātu *)}-,
  [infix (* āgama *)],
  {affixes}- (* paccaya *) ;
affixes = 
  (primary_affix (* kitapaccaya *) |
  secondary_affix (* taddhitapaccaya *)),
  noun_ending (* vibhatti *) ;
noun_ending =
  gender (* liṅga*),
  multiplicity (* vacana *),
  syntactic_case (* vibhatti *) ;
gender =
  ?🚹 masculine (pulliṅga)? |
  ?🚺 feminine (itthiliṅga)? |
  ?🚻 neuter (napuṃsakaliṅga)? ;
multiplicity =
  ?⨀ singular (ekavacana)? |
  ?⨂ plural (bahuvacana)? ;
syntactic_case = case0 | case1 | case2 | case3 | case4 | case5 | case6 | case7 ;
@endebnf

Semantic cases

Semantic cases (kāraka) represent the relationship between words in a sentence (representing various participants) in the context of an action (verb). Pali has 7 different semantic cases, in addition to a vocative case which is sometimes denoted as an 8th case.

There is a strong association between semantic cases and syntactic cases, but the association is not an equivalance as a semantic case can be represented by more than one syntactic case, and a syntactic case can be used to represent more than one semantic case.

@startebnf
semantic_case =
  vocative (* ālapana *) | 
  nominative (* kattar, agent or "doer" of action *) |
  accussative (* kamma, object or "deed" of action *) |
  instrumental (* karaṇa, means or implement of agent *) |
  dative (* sampadāna, beneficiary of action *) |
  ablative (* apādāna, source or cause of action *) |
  genitive (* sāmi, owner of object *) |
  locative (* okāsa, place of action *) ;
@endebnf

Verbs

Technically, verbs in Pali are finite verbs, conjugated by applying verb endings which represent the perspective and voice of the actor, multiplicity, and the mood/tense of the action.

Infinitives, participles (past, present, future), absolutives and other forms of words considered as verbs in other languages are technically nouns in Pali - they are created by combining a verbal stem (root) with an affix (kita or kicca) and then inflected/declined by adding a noun ending.

@startebnf
title Verb types
verb = Bhuvadi | Rudhadi | Divadi | Svadi | Kiyadi| Tanadi | Curadi;
voice_affixes = Kattupaccaya | Kammapaccaya | Bhavapaccaya | Hetukattupaccaya | Hetukammapaccaya;
@endebnf

@startebnf
title Verb formation
verb =
  {prefix (* upasaggo *)},
  {root (* dhātu *)}-,
  [infix (* āgamo *)],
  voice_affixes (* paccaya *),
  verb_ending (* vibhatti *) ;
verb_ending =
  case_relation (* kāraka *),
  person (* purisa *),
  multiplicity (* vacana *),
  (tense (* kāla *) | mood);
time =
  past |
  present |
  future ;
case_relation =
  ?Kattukaraka : Active voice? |
  ?Kammakaraka : passive? ;
person =
  third_person (* paṭhamapurisa *) |
  second_person (* majjhimapurisa*) |
  first_person (* uttamapurisa *) ;
multiplicity =
  ?⨀ singular (ekavacanaṃ)? |
  ?⨂ plural (bahuvacanaṃ)? ;
voice =
  ?parassapada : active, action favours non-agent? |
  ?attanopada : reflective, action favours self/object?;
mood =
  ?pañcamī : Imperative, command or wish? |
  ?sattamī : Optative, permission or thought? |
  ?kālātipatti : Conditional, should have happened except for ...? ;
tense = 
  ?vattamānā : Present tense (paccupannakāla)? |
  ?parokkhā : Perfect, actions completed that was not witnessed? |
  ?hīyyattanī : Imperfect, past action excluding today? |
  ?ajjattanī : Aorist, past action completed today? |
  ?bhavissantī : Future tense? ;
@endebnf

Complex nouns

Complex nouns include compounds, verbal derivatives (primary) and nominal derivatives (secondary).

Derivatives are nouns formed by combining either a verbal or nominal stem with an affix, and then inflected/declined by applying noun endings.

@startebnf
complex_noun =
  compound (* samāsanāma *) |
  noun_derivative (* taddhitanāma *) |
  verb_derivative (* kitanāma *) ;
compound = 
  ?avyayībhāva : Adverbial? |
  ?kammadhāraya : Apposidonal? |
  ?digu : Numerical? |
  ?tappurisa : Determinative? |
  ?bahubbīhi : Relative? |
  ?dvandva : Copulative? ;
verb_derivative = verb_stem (* liṅga *), primary_affix, noun_ending ;
noun_derivative = noun_stem (* liṅga *), secondary_affix (* taddhita *), noun_ending ;
primary_affix = kita | kicca | unadi;
@endebnf

Prefixes

Prefixes can be used as words in a sentence (in which case they are indeclinable), or embedded in another word (in which case they act as prepositions and form part of the word).

Particles

@startebnf

(* avyaya *)
indeclinable = particle (* nipāta *) | prefix (* upasagga *);
particle = conjunction | preposition | adverb | indeclinable ;
@endebnf

References

This appendix is drawn upon information provided in the following sources

  • Kaccāyana Pāli Vyākaraṇaṁ (Kaccāyana Pāli Grammar), Vols I and II, A. Thitzana, Pariyatti Press (2018)
  • Technical Terms and Technique of the Pali and the Sanskrit Grammars, Mahesh A Deokar, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies (2008)
  • RŪPASIDDHI: A study of some aspects, Phramaha Sriporn Rachiwong, Department Of Sanskrit And Prakrit Languages, University Of Pune (1995)
  • Pāli Grammar and Grammarians from Buddhaghosa to Vajirabuddhi: A Survey, O.H. Pind, The Journal of the Pali Text Society, Vol. XXXI (2012), pp. 57–124
  • MĀGADHABHĀSĀ (PĀḶI): A Compendious Grammar on the Language of Pāḷi Buddhism, A. Bhikkhu, Sāsanārakkha Buddhist Sanctuary (SBS), Revised 2nd Edition (2023)

2.8 - D: `dhātu` (roots)

A listing of Pali roots and conjugations

2.9 - E: `sandhi` Rules

sandhi rules from Kaccāyana {12}-{51}

Key

  • → = “becomes,” “changes into,” “results in.” ⎯ → ∅ = elision.
  • ∅ → = insertion.
  • / = “in the environment of.”
    • = meeting.
  • # = word boundary.
  • [] = optionality (only after symbols).
  • (V̆ ) = short vowel.
  • (V̄ ) = long vowel.
  • (C) = consonant.
  • (CC) = double consonant.

“vowel → (V̄ ) [usually] / __ vowel [same class]”

says that any vowel (vowel) in the environment before another vowel (/ __ vowel) of the same class is usually lengthened (→ (V̄ ) [usually]).

suttarulebeforeafter
{12}Vowel → ∅ / __ vowelyassa+indriyāniyass’indriyāni samathaṅ’gatāni
hi+etaṁno he’taṁ bhante
sametu+āyasmāsametā’yasmā saṁghena
{13}Vowel / __ dissimilar vowel, dissimilar vowel → ∅cattāro+imecattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā
kinnu+imā+evakinʼnu’mā’va samaṇiyo
(exception)pañca+indriyānipañci’ndriyāni
(exception)tayo+assutaya’ssu dhammā jahitā bhavanti
{14}a or ā→∅ [occasionally] / __ i or ī,i or ī→ebandhussa+ivabandhusse’va samāgamo
{14}a or ā→∅ [occasionally] / __ u or ū,u or ū→ona+upetisaṅkhyaṁ • no’peti vedagū
(exception)yassa+indriyāniyassi’ndriyāni
(exception)tathā+upamaṁtathū’pamaṁ dhammavaraṁ adesayi
{15}Vowel → ∅ [occasionally] / __ vowel, vowel → (V̄)saddhā+idhasaddhī’dha vittaṁ purisassa seṭṭhaṁ
ca+ubhayaṁanāgārehi •cū’bhayaṁ
(exception)pañcahi+upālipañcahu’pāli aṅgehi samannāgato
(exception)natthi+aññaṁ kiñcinattha’ññaṁ kiñci
{16}Vowel (V̆) → (V̄) [occasionally] / __ vowel, vowel → ∅kiṁsu+idhakiṁsū’dha vittaṁ purisassa seṭṭhaṁ
sādhu+itisādhū’ti paṭissuṇitvā
(exception)iti+assa muhuttaṁ+apiiti’ssa muhuttam’pi
{17}e[of me,te,ke,ye etc.]→y /__a followed by (CC) / __ vowel, vowel → ∅te+assatyā’ssa pahīnā honti
{17}e[of me,te,ke,ye etc.]→y / __ a followed by (C), a → (V̄) / __ vowel, vowel → ∅me+ayaṁadhigato kho • myā’yaṁ dhammo
te+ahaṁyā’haṁ evaṁ vadeyyaṁ
(exception)ne+anāgatāne’nāgatā
(exception)na+etthaiti ne’ttha
(exception)na+etthaiti ne’ttha
{18}o → v [occasionally] / __ dissimilar vowelkho+assaatha • khva’ssa
so+assasva’ssa hoti
(exception)cattāro+imecattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā
{18}u → v [occasionally] / __ dissimilar vowelbahu+ābādhobahvā’bādho
vatthu+etthavatthve’ttha vihitaṁ niccaṁ
cakkhu+āpāthaṁ+āgacchaticakkhvā’pātha’māgacchati
(exception)kinnu+imā’vakinnumā’va samaṇiyo
{19}ti → c [occasionally], c → cciti+etaṁicce’taṁ kusalaṁ
iti+assaicca’ssa vacanīyaṁ
pati+uttaritvāpaccu’ttaritvā
pati+āharatipaccā’harati
(exception)iti+assa muhuttaṁ+apiiti’ssa muhuttam’pi

(TBD: incomplete)

2.10 - F: `upasagga ` meanings

Detailed Meanings of upasagga Particles

pa

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
specifically, specially, in various wayspajānātipa + jānāti(he) knows specifically, in various ways
paññāpa + ñāknowing specifically, in various ways, i.e. wisdom, knowledge
uppaggaṇhātipa + gaṇhāti(He) takes up, lifts up by praise and support etc.
paggāhopa + gāhosuch an act
away, abroad, far awaypakkamatipa + kamati(He) goes away
pakkantopa + kantogone away
pavāsaṁpa + vāsaṁliving abroad, the distant place
pavāsīpa + vāsīlresident abroad, one who lives at a distant region or country
the sourcepabhavatipa + bhavati(It) originates. i.e. it starts to happen
pabhavopa + bhavoorigin
successivelypapitāmahopa + pitāmahogreat-grandfather
panattāpa + nattāgreat-grandchildren
pācariyāpa + ācariyāsuccessive generation of preceding teachers
chief, noblepadhānaṁpa + dhānaṁchief, principal
pāvacanaṁpa + vacanaṁthe noble words of Buddha, i.e. canonical texts
paṇītaṁpa + nītaṁnoble, the best
being clear and cleanpasīdatipa + sīdati(It) settles clear (as the mind being clear with joy and faith)
pasannopa + sannobeing joyous or pleased with joy etc.
insidepakkhipatipa + khipati(He) puts inside
pakkhittopa + khittohaving put inside
pasassatipa + sassati(He) breathes in
passāsopa + ssāsoinhalation
intensifierpadahatipa + dahati(He) puts inside
padhānaṁpa + khittoEffort in meditation practice or in any pursuit
pavassatipa + vassati(It) rains heavily
pavanaṁpa + vanaṁthick forest

parā

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
opposite ofparājayatiparā + jayati(He) fails or is defeated
parājayoparā + jayodefeat, failure (compare with jayati - conquers)
parābhavatiparā + bhavati(He) loses
parābhavoparā + bhavoloss, ruin (compare with bhavati - happens, arises)
again and again, continuouslyparakkamatiparā + kamati(He) makes effort again and again
parakkamoparā + kamocontinuous, successive effort
wronglyparāmasatiparā + āmasati(He) touches it wrongly, takes it in wrong way
parāmāsoparā + āmāsotouching wrongly, wrong view

ni

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
out, awaynikkhamatini + kamati(He) comes out
niggatoni + gatogone out, left
down, intonidahatini + dahati(He) keeps underneath, stores (as of precious things by burying) or takes it deeply
nidhānaṁni + dhānaṁsuch an act
nihitoni + hitohaving kept down
nikkhipatini + khipati(He) drops down
nikkhittoni + khittohaving dropped
nisīdatini + sīdati(He) settles down. i.e. sits
nisinnoni + sinnohaving sat
niggaṇhātini + gaṇhāti(he) takes down, i.e. censures (compare paggaṇhāti - lifts up by praise etc.)
niggahani + gahacensure (compare paggaha - encouragement and support)
back down, as in going or in an action, opposite ofnivattatini + vattatibacks down or gives up
nivattanaṁni + vattanaṁreturning or act of giving up
without, lack ofnidukkhoni + dukkhowithout suffering
nirogoni + rogowithout disease, healthy
nillajjoni + lajjowithout shame, shameless

nī

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
out, off, to removenīharatinī + harati(He) takes out, removes
nīharaṇaṁnī + haraṇaṁact of taking out, removal

u

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
up, upwarduggacchatiu + gacchati(It) goes upward
uggamanaṁu + gamanaṁact of going up
uṇṇamatiu + namati(It) leans up (as a young shoot of tree or like a person being arrogant)
uṇṇamanaṁu + namanaṁact of leaning up, arrogance, pride
uggaṇhātiu + gaṇhātitakes upward, i.e. learns
wrong, opposite ofummaggou + maggothe wrong path
uddhammaṁu + dhammaṁwrong Dhamma
ubbinayaṁu + vinayaṁwrong Vinaya (discipline)
intensifieruyyuñjantiu + yuñjantito make intensive effort
ubbādhatiu + bādhati(It) stresses out intensely, exhausts
ubbādhanaṁu + bādhanaṁsuch a condition

du

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
bad, unwholesome, poor in natureduccaratidu + carati(He) acts badly or unethically
dukkaṭaṁdu + kataṁbad deed
duggatidu + gatibad rebirth, bad destiny
ill, inauspiciousdumaṅgalaṁdu + maṅgalaṁinauspiciousness
dunnimittaṁdu + nimittaṁbad omen
without, lack ofdubbhikkhaṁdu + bhikhaṁwithout food, famine
dussīlodu + sīlowithout morality
duppaññodu + paññowithout wisdom, ignorant
dusassaṁdu + sassaṁlack of paddy, having poor crops of rice due to draught or pests etc.
being difficult ofdukkaraṁdu + karaṁhard to do
dullabhaṁdu + labhaṁhard to get
dujjānaṁdu + jānaṁhard to know

saṁ

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
together, in unionsaṁvasatisaṁ + vasati(He) lives together
saṁvāsosaṁ + vāsoact of being together, co-habitation
saṁyujjatisaṁ + yujjati(It) joins together
saṁyogosaṁ + yogoact of joining together
well, unitedlysaṅgāyatisaṁ + gāyati(He) sings or chants together
saṅgītisaṁ + gītiact of singing together
saṅkharotisaṁ + karotiact of singing together
saṅkhārosaṁ + karosuch an act or state, i.e. conditioned things
saṅgahṇātisaṁ + gaṇhāti(He) takes well, such as by means of praise, support etc.
saṅgahosaṁ + gahosuch an act
self, oneselfsambhujjhatisaṁ + bhujjhati(He) knows by himself (without any outside help)
sambuddhosaṁ + bhuddhothe one who knows by himself, i.e. a Buddha
sandiṭṭhikosaṁ + diṭṭhikoseen by oneself
again and againsandhāvatisaṁ + dhāvati(It) runs again and again (from one life to another etc)
saṁsaratisaṁ + sarati(It) happens again and again
intense, intensifiersārattosaṁ + rattoattached with strong lust or attachment (Note: “saṁ” becomes “sā” here)

vi

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
speciallyvipassativi + passati(He) sees specially
vipassanāvi + passanāact of seeing in a special way. i.e. insight meditation
transformedvikarotivi + karoti(He) makes so that it becomes something else
vikativi + katisuch an act, a non-natural state (Compare pakati “natural” with vikati “non-natural”)
vimukhovi + mukhoface being changed, the changed face due to unhappiness or anger etc.
vipatisārovi + patisārothinking with guilt, regret
variously, in different waysvimativi + mativarious thought, different view, doubt
opposite of, againstvivadativi + vadati(He) speaks against, disputes or quarrels
vivādovi + vādodispute, bickering, conflicting talk
vya’sanaṁvi + asanaṁruin, loss
without, outvirajjativi + rajjati(He) does not crave, detaches
virāgovi + rāgosuch an act, detachment
being off, separated, being apartviyujjativi + yujjati(It) does not join, disjoins
viyogovi + yogosuch an act
vippayuttovi + pa + yuttodisjoined
vigacchativi + gacchati(It) goes off, disappears
vigamovi + gamosuch an act

ava

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
down, insideavagacchati, oggacchatiava + gacchati(It) goes down
avagamanaṁ, oggamanaṁava + gamanaṁsuch an act
avagaṇhāti, oggaṇhātiava + gaṇhāti(It) submerges, goes down into water etc. or looks into the problem, ponders upon (figuratively used)
avagāhoava + gāhosuch an act
osaratiava + sarati(He) goes down into water etc.
contemptuously, meanavajānātiava + jānāti(He) knows contemptuously, looks down
avamānoava + mānosuch an act, disdain
avaharatiava + harati(He) takes it in a mean manner, i.e. steals
avahāroava + hārosuch an act, stealing

◊ anu

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
at every frequency of time, occurring at certain times, repeatedly*anumāsaṁanu + māsaṁevery month
anvaddhamāsaṁanu + addhamāsaṁevery half month
anudinaṁanu + dinaṁevery day
anusaṁvaccharaṁanu + saṁvaccharaṁevery year
following, afteranugacchatianu + gacchati(He) goes following, accompanies
anve’tianu + eti(same meaning)
anugatianu + gatisuch an act
anujānātianu + jānāti(He) knows accordingly as requested, i.e. permits
anuññāanu + ñāpermission
anuññātoanu + ñātoallowed, permitted
anukūlaṁanu + kūlaṁsuitable, appropriate, following the course of a person’s action
again and again, repeatedlyanuyuñjatianu + yuñjati(He) engages again and again, i.e. makes repeated effort, interrogates
anuyogoanu + yogosuch an act, questioning repeatedly, sustained effort
anussaratianu + sarati(He) remembers repeatedly
anumodatianu + modati(He) rejoices repeatedly
anumodanaṁ, anumodoanu + modatisuch an act
anusaṁvaṇṇetianu + saṁ + vaṇṇetiexplains again and again, re-explains
anusaṁvaṇṇanāanu + saṁ + vaṇṇanāre-explanation, sub-commentary
behindanurathaṁanu + rathaṁbehind chariot or vehicle
alongside, in imitation ofsoto nadiṁ anusandatianu + sandatithe current flows along the river
bhagavantaṁ anupavajjiṁsuanu + pavajjiṁsu(Young Sakyan princes too) ordained in imitating the Buddha
Sisso ācariyaṁ anugacchati ca anuvattati caanu + gacchati / vattatiThe pupil follows teacher and imitates too
inferior or lower in rank, sub-standardanutherāanu + therāthose below senior monks, i.e. less-senior monks
anunāyakāanu + nāyakāthose below senior leaders, i.e. less-senior leaders
in compliance with, suitable, being appropriate, favorable, agreeable, according toanurūpaṁanu + rūpaṁsuitable, appropriate (compare patirūpaṁ “suitable”)
anukūlaṁanu + kūlaṁsuitable, agreeable. following (the bank of a river etc. a figurative expression, compare paṭikūlaṁ “disagreeable, unlikable” - also a figurative expression)
anulomaṁanu + lomaṁin sequential order (“following the hair”, a figurative expression, compare paṭilomaṁ “in reverse order”, also a figurative expression)
anurujjhatianu + rujjhati(he) favors, likes
anurodhoanu + rodhofavour, agreement (compare virodho “disfavor, dislike”)
small, in detailanubyañjanaṁanu + byañjanaṁsmall bodily marks or parts and figure
anusaṁvaṇṇetianu + saṁ + vaṇṇetiexplains in detail

* (followed by descriptive word of time such as māsa “month”, addhamāsa “half month”, dina “day” or saṁvacchara “year” etc.)

pari

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
from all around, round and round, being surroundedparikkharitvāpari + karitvāhaving surrounded
parikkhāropari + karoaccessory, personal effects
paribhāsatipari + bhāsati(He) says condescendingly (as in giving instructions or yelling abusive language)
paribhāsāpari + bhāsāsuch an act as a directive or a revilement
paricchedatipari + chedati(He) cuts from all around, sets the limits
paricchedopari + chedosuch an act, limitation, section, chapter
parikhāpari + khāmoat, dug around the palace premises in ancient times
overallparijānātipari + jānāti(He) knows overall
pariññāpari + ñāoverall knowledge
being dominantparibhavatipari + bhavati(He) is from all around, dominates, bullies
Paribhavopari + bhavosuch an act

◊ adhi

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
up, above, overadhivāsetiadhi + vāseti(He) lets it on him, i.e. accepts or enjoys without resisting
adhivāsanāadhi + vāsanāsuch an act, acceptance of a request or desire etc.
adhiṭṭhātiadhi + ṭhāti(It) firmly stands, i.e. firmly resolves in mind
adhiṭṭhānaṁadhi + ṭhānaṁfirm mental resolve, strong decision
specially, superior, supremeadhisīlaṁadhi + sīlaṁsuperior Sīla
adhirājāadhi + rājāthe supreme king
adhidevatāadhi + devatāthe supreme deity
being dominant of, the lord over (usually followed by a noun in 7th case when it means being “the lord over” as an independently used word)Adhi devesu BuddhoadhiThe Buddha is supreme lord of deities
adhigahṇātiadhi + gahṇāti(It) takes up all, i.e. exceeds (as a prefix to a verb)
adhipatiadhi + patilord
ajjhāvasatiadhi + ā + vasati(He) lives as a lord or being dominant, reigns. (as a king or chief authority of a location)
ajjhāvāsoadhi + ā + vāsosuch an act
attain, reachadhigacchatiadhi + gacchatirealizes, knows, attains
adhigamoadhi + gamosuch an act
deeplyadhimuccatiadhi + muccati(One) keeps in depth (such as tendencies, thoughts etc.)
adhimuttiadhi + muttisuch a mental condition, inner tendency or preferences
excessively, very muchadhimaññatiadhi + maññati(He) thinks highly
adhimānoadhi + mānoviewing oneself highly, extreme self-pride, such as thinking oneself that one has attained a higher state of spiritual progress which is not true
with regard to, relating to, in connection withadhikiccaadhi + kiccaconcerning, in respect of

abhi

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
specially, being special, distinctiveabhijānātiabhi + jānāti(One) knows in a special manner
abhiññāabhi + ñāspecial knowledge, psychic powers etc.
abhidhammoabhi + dhammaspecial Dhamma
beyondabhikkamatiabhi + kamati(It) goes beyond, proceeds, pleased
abhikkantoabhi + kantogone ahead, pleased
very much, predominantlyabhicchatiabhi + icchati(He) wants it very much
abhibhavatiabhi + bhavati(It) dominates
abhibhūtoabhi + bhūtobeing overwhelmed
abhirūpoabhi + rūpovery beautiful
abhinandatiabhi + nandati(He) enjoys or likes very much
abhiniggaṇhātiabhi + ni + gaṇhāti(It) represses very much, restrains
abhijjhāabhi + jhālooking beyond, i.e. covetousness
towardsabhimukhaṁabhi + mukhaṁface-ward, toward oneself
opposite, recklessly, wronglyabbhācikkhatiabhi + ācikkhati(he) wrongly accuses, says the opposite
up, above, upwardAbhiruhatiabhi + ruhati(It) climbs up, grows up (as a tree)
abhisiñjatiabhi + siñjati(It) pours on, sprinkles on (as on a tree or on the hand or head)
abhisekoabhi + sekosuch an act of sprinkling, in times of coronation of kings in ancient times, coronation itself is called abhiseka

◊ pati

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
againpaccāgacchatipati + ā + gacchati(He) comes back, returns
paccāgamanaṁpati + ā + gamanaṁsuch an act, coming back (Note: Refer to {19} for Pacca-function)
patikarotipati + karoti(It) acts back, reacts, cures as with medicine
in response topatijānātipati + jānāti(He) knows back, admits
paṭiññāpati + ñāsuch an act, confession, promise
pativadatipati + vadatireplies or responds
patikarotipati + karotireacts, heals (an offence or a disease), repays a gratitude
patisuṇātipati + suṇātilistens or responds
pativacanaṁpati + vacanaṁreply word, response
instead of, in exchange for*telasmā pati ghataṁ dadātipatiInstead of sesame oil, (he) gives ghee
tilehi pati māse dadātipatiInstead of sesame, (he) gives beans
opposite of, against, contrary topativirujjhatipati + virujjhati(It) counteracts. opposes
pativirodhopati + virodhoopposition, disfavor
patipakkhopati + pakkhoopposite party
patimukhaṁpati + mukhaṁfacing against, face to face
patisotaṁpati + sotaṁagainst current, upstream
pativātaṁpati + vātaṁagainst the direction of the wind
patikūlaṁpati + kūlaṁdisagreeable, unfavorable
back, backwardpatikkamatipati + kamati(He) moves back, returns
patikkantepati + kantewhen returned
patilomaṁpati + lomaṁ (“hair”)backward order, reversely
patikkhipatipati + khipati(He) throws back, rejects
patikkhittopati + khittohaving thrown back, being rejected, given up on
representing, on behalf of*Buddhasmā pati sāriputto dhammaṁ desetipatiRepresenting Lord Buddha, Venerable Sāriputta teaches the Dhamma
similar to, an imitation of (a fake), being suitablepatirūpaṁpati + rūpaṁimage, suitable
minor parts or limbs of the body such as fingers etc.paccaṅgānipati + aṅgāniminor parts of the body
intensifierpatihaññatipati + haññati(he) feels hurt, stresses out
patighopati + ghoanger, stress
pativijjhatipati + vijjhatiknows penetratingly, enlightened

* (usually preceded by a word to be represented in the ablative case, used as independent word)

su

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
well, goodsucaritaṁsu + caritaṁgood conduct or action
sugandhosu + gandhogood smell
Sujanosu + janogood person
sugatisu + gatigood rebirth
auspicioussukhaṇosu + khaṇoauspicious moment
svāgataṁsu + ā + gataṁauspicious coming, good coming. i.e. Welcome!
being easy ofsukaraṁsu + karaṁeasy to do
sulabhaṁsu + labhaṁeasy to obtain
sujjānaṁsu + jānaṁeasy to know
abundancesukaraṁsu + bhikkhaṁabundance of food

◊ ā

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
till, up to (used as an independent word in a sentence)ā bhavaggāātill the uppermost heaven
ā Brahmalokāātill the world of Gods
modifier affecting opposite meaning of the root it prefixed, in reverse ofāgacchatiā + gacchati(He) comes (compare gacchati “(he) goes”)
āgamanaṁā + gamanaṁcoming (compare gamanaṁ “going”)
āyātiā + yāti(He) comes (compare yāti “(he) goes”)
ādātiā + dāti(He) takes (compare dāti “(he) gives”)
ādānaṁā + dānaṁtaking (compare dānaṁ “giving”)
ānetiā + neti(He) brings (compare neti “(he) carries”)
upwardāruhatiā + ruhati(He) climbs up
intensely, firmly, intensifierādānaṁā + dānaṁintensely grabbing, clinging
intensely, firmly, intensifierāhaññatiā + haññati(It) hurts intensely
āghātoā + ghātohurt feelings, grudge

ati

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
over, very much, excessivelyaticchatiati + icchati(He) wants it very much
aticchāati + icchāsuch an act
atirocatiati + rocati(It) looks very much beautiful
atipaṇītaṁati + paṇītaṁvery noble, the best.
beyond, transgress, acrossatikkamatiati + kamati(He) moves beyond, transgress
atikkantoati + kantogone beyond
accayoati + ayoact of going beyond, i.e. offense, fault

◊ api

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
also, tooDhammaṁ apiapito the Dhamma also
even though, although, even if, despiteApi dibbesu kāmesu-even in divine pleasuresapihe does not enjoy
introducing a questionApi bhante bhikkham labhittha?apiHave you got food
Venerable Sir?
above, cover up, close on (used as prefix)pidahatiapi + dahati(He) closes, covers (Here, a is to be elided always)
apidhānaṁapi + dhānaṁcover of a pot etc.

◊ apa

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
away from, offapakkamatiapa + kamati(He) moves away
apagacchatiapa + gacchati(It) moves away, disappears
apetiapa + i + ti(same meaning)
do away with, negatively, wronglyapavadatiapa + vadati(he) negatively says, rejects
apavādoapa + vādoverbal rejection of something
apakarotiapa + karoti(He) does ungratefully or does away with other’s good deed, ignores good-deed received from friends
apakāroapa + karoimproper deed, wrong action, act of ingratitude
aparajjhatiapa + rajjhati(He) offends, or sometimes (it) fails to hit the target
aparādhoapa + rādhoFault, offense, failure

upa

meaningexamplecombinationexample meaning
near to, close by, towardsupanisīdatiupa + ni + sīdati(He) sits near
upanisinnoupa + ni + sinnohaving sat closely
upanagaraṁupa + nagaraṁnear the city
upagacchatiupa + gacchatiapproaches, i.e. goes near, toward
upapajjatiupa + pajjaticlosely happens, i.e. conceives or born
Upapattiupa + patticonception or birth
firmly, intensifierupādānaṁupa + ā + dānaṁclinging
up, high (as in good-willed act, attaining a high condition etc.)upakarotiupa + karotihighly acts, i.e. helps
upakāroupa + karosuch an act, a good-willed help (done usually by parents, good friends etc.
upasampajjati*upa + saṁ + pajjatiattains higher state
upasampanno*upa + saṁ + pannohaving attained a higher state
allegationupavadatiupa + vadati(He) speaks closely, i.e. accuses
upavādoupa + vadoaccusation
deputy or assistant or the second in rank, subordinateuparājāupa + rājāthe crown prince
ppaukkaṭhoupa + ukkaṭhovice-chairman
over, exceeds (usually followed by a locative word in its context denoting the lesser amount or value)Upa khāriyaṁ doṇoupaA measure of “doṇais in excess of akhāri`

* (ṁ becomes m as it precedes p)

2.11 - G: `vibhatti` Rules

vibhatti rules from Kaccāyana

2.12 - H: `taddhita` (affixes)

taddhita affixes and their meanings

This appendix contains a subset of the examples provided in Kaccāyana - consult the book for a full set of examples.

tassā’pacca (“the son or descendant of someone”)

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{344}vasiṭṭhassa apaccaṁ vāvasiṭṭhaṇavasiṭṭha + ṇa + si [o/ī/aṁ]vāsiṭṭho(🚹) vāsiṭṭhī(🚺) vāsiṭṭhaṁ(🚻)Vasiṭṭha’s son/daughter/clan
{345}vacchassa apaccaṁ vāvacchaṇāyanavasiṭṭha + ṇāyana + si [o/ī/aṁ]vacchāyano(🚹) vacchāyanī(🚺) vacchāyanaṁ(🚻)Vaccha’s son/daughter/clan
{345}vacchassa apaccaṁ vāvacchaṇānavasiṭṭha + ṇāna + si [o/ī/aṁ]vacchāno(🚹) vacchānī(🚺) vacchānaṁ(🚻)Vaccha’s son/daughter/clan
{346}kattikāya apaccaṁ vākattikāṇeyyakattikā + ṇeyya + si (o)kattikeyyo(a woman) Kattikā’s son or descendant
{347}dakkhassa apaccaṁ vādakkhaṇidakkha + ṇi + si (o)dakkhiDakkha’s son or descendant
{347}sakyaputtassa apaccaṁsakyaputtaṇikasakyaputtaa + ṇika + si (o)sakyaputtikoSakyaputta’s son or descendant
{348}upakussa apaccaṁ vāupakuṇavau(o)pakua + ṇava + si (o)opakavoUpaku’s son or descendant
{349}vidhavāya apaccaṁ vāvidhavāṇeravi(e)dhavā + ṇera + si (o)vedhaverowidow’s son or descendant

ane’ka’ttha (various meanings)

suttaexpressionphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{350}saṁsaṭṭha “being mixed in as an ingredient”tilena saṁsaṭṭhaṁ bhojanaṁtilaṇikati(e)la + ṇika + si (ṁ)telikaṁfood mixed with sesame
{350}tarati “mode of crossing a river etc.”nāvāya taratī’tināvāṇikanāvā + ṇika + si (o)nāvikotraveler by boat
{350}carati “mode of travel or practice”sakaṭena caratī’tināvāṇikasakaṭa + ṇika + si (o)sākaṭikobullock-cart-traveler
{350}vahati “mode of carriage”sīsena vahatī’tisīsaṇikasīsa + ṇika + si (o)sīsikoone who carries (something) on head
{350}vasatī “residency”rājagahe vasatī’tirājagahaṇikarājagaha + ṇika + si (o)rājagahikoresident/native of Rājagaha city
{351}adhīte “learning or subject of study”rvinaya’madhītevinayaṇikavi(e)naya + ṇika + si (o)venayiko (i>e vuddhi)Vinaya-learner. i.e. the student of Vinaya texts
{351}tena kataṁ “modes of action”kāyena kataṁ kammaṁkāyaṇikakāya + ṇika + si (ṁ)kāyikaṁbodily action
{351}sannidhāna “originated in”sarīre sannidhānā vedanāsarīraṇikasarīra + ṇika + si (ā)sārīrikāthe bodily feeling. i.e. bodily pain etc.
{351}niyutta “being involved in or related to”dvāre niyuttodvāraṇikad(o)vāra + ṇika + si (o)dovārikothe door-keeper, guard
{351}sippa “profession or knowledge”vīṇā assa sippaṁvīṇāṇikavī(e)ṇā + ṇika + si (o)veṇiko (i>e vuddhi)the harp-professional, the harpist
{351}bhaṇḍaṁ “merchandise”gandho assa bhaṇḍaṁgandhaṇikagandha + ṇika + si (o)gandhikothe perfume-trader, perfumer
{351}jīvika “livelihood”urabbhaṁ hantvā jīvatī’tiurabbhaṇikau(o)rabbha + ṇika + si (o)orabbhiko (u>o vuddhi)sheep-butcher
{351}hata “mode of killing for a living”jālena hatojālaṇikajāla + ṇika + si (o)jālikofisherman
{351}āvudha “weapon”cāpo assa āvudhocāpaṇikacāpa + ṇika + si (o)cāpikoarcher
{351}ābādha “disease or pain”vāto assa ābādhovātaṇikavāta + ṇika + si (o)vātikogas-pain sufferer
{351}pasanna “being pleased with or being devoted to”buddhe pasannobuddhaṇikabuddha + ṇika + si (o)buddhikothe one who is pleased in Buddha. i.e. a devotee of Buddha
{351}santakaṁ “possession, being owned by”buddhassa santakaṁbuddhaṇikabuddha + ṇika + si (ṁ)buddhikaṁBuddha’s possession such as funds meant for shrine-renovation etc.
{351}kītaṁ “mode of purchase, being bartered with”vatthena kītaṁ bhaṇḍaṁvatthaṇikavattha + ṇika + si (ṁ)vatthikaṁthe thing bought by means of bartering with cloth
{351}parimāṇa “measurement”kumbho assa parimāṇaṁkumbhaṇikakumbha + ṇika + si (ṁ)kumbhikaṁa thing of one Kumbha measure of grain
{351}rāsi “heap”kumbhassa rāsikumbhaṇikakumbha + ṇika + si (ṁ)kumbhikaṁone-kumbha-measured heap of grains
{351}arahati “deserve”kumbhaṁ arahatī’tikumbhaṇikakumbha + ṇika + si (o)kumbhikosomeone deserving one-Kumbha of grains
{351}dibbati “to play a game of luck”akkhena dibbatī’tiakkhaṇikaakkha + ṇika + si (o)akkhikodice-player, gambler
{352}rāga “dye”kasāvena rattaṁ vatthaṁkasāvaṇakasāva + ṇa + si (ṁ)kāsāvaṁyellow-colored robe
{352}idaṁ “(this) belongs to”sūkarassa idaṁ maṁsaṁsūkaraṇasū(o)kara + ṇa + si (ṁ)sokaraṁpig’s meat, i.e. pork
{352}avidūra “not far off, in proximity”udumbarassa avidūre pavattaṁ vimānaṁudumbaraṇaudumbara + ṇa + si (ṁ)odumbaraṁthe mansion near fig tree
{352}jāta “native”mathurāya jātomathurāṇamathurā + ṇa + si (o)māthurothe native of Mathurā
{352}āgata “comer”mathurāya āgatomathurāṇamathurā + ṇa + si (o)māthurothe person coming from the city of Mathurā
{352}niyutta “being related to or with”mattikāya niyutto māsokattikāṇakattikā + ṇa + si (o)kattikothe month when the star named “Kattikā (Kṛittika)” is prominent
{352}samūha “collective grouping”sikkhānaṁ samūhosikkhāṇasikkhā + ṇa + si (o)sikkhothe collection of the precepts
{352}devatā “being devoted like a deity”buddho assa devatābuddhaṇabuddha + ṇa + si (o)buddhothe one who devotes Buddha like a deity
{352}“being related for a certain period such as a year etc.”saṁvacchara’madhītesaṁvaccharaṇasaṁvacchara + ṇa + si (o)saṁvaccharoannual learner, yearly student
{352}“being related to a skill of knowledge”vyākaraṇa’madhītevyākaraṇaṇavyākaraṇa + ṇa + si (o)veyyākaraṇothe one who studies grammar, the grammar-student
{352}visaya “domain or a specifically reserved place etc.”vasādānaṁ visayo desovasādaṇava(ā)sāda + ṇa + si (o)vāsādothe lion’s den
{352}different meaning from abovesāgarehi nibbattosāgaraṇasāgara + ṇa + si (o)sāgarothe place made by Sāgara, i.e. ocean
{352}“being resident and chief”sāgala’massa nivāsosāgalaṇasāgala + ṇa + si (o)sāgalothe resident of Sāgala
{353}“when and where it happens”pacchā jātopacchāimapacchā + ima + si (o)pacchimothat which happens later, the latter, the last
{353}“in which species one is born into etc.”bodhisattajātiyā jātobodhisattajātiiyabodhisattajāti + iya + si (o)bodhisattajātiyohe one who was born as a Bodhisatta
{353}“pertaining to”ante niyuttoantaimaanta + ima + si (o)antimothat which is related to the end, i.e. the end, the final
{353}“having something as an inherent quality etc”putto assa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tiputtaimaputta + ima + si (o)puttimois so called, the one who has son (child)
{353}“pertaining to”jātiyaṁ niyuttojātikiyajāti + kiya + si (o)jātikiyobirth-related, inborn, innate

samūha (collective grouping/assembly)

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{354}rājaputtānaṁ samūhorājaputtaṇarājaputta + ṇa + si (o)rājaputtothe collective group of princes
{354}rājaputtānaṁ samūhorājaputtakaṇrājaputta + kaṇ + si (o)rājaputtakothe collective group of princes
{355}gāmānaṁ samūhogāma, jana, bandhu, sahāyatāgāma + tā + si (ā)gāmatāthe collective group of villages

ta’dassaṭhāna (the source or the cause)

an instigating source or a cause for passion, arrest, release, joy, etc.

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{356}madanassa ṭhānaṁmadanaiyamadana + iya + si (ṁ)madaniyaṁthe source of infatuation or inebriation, something alluring or extremely tempting or attractive thus causing lust or madness etc.
{356}bandhanassa ṭhānaṁbandanaiyabandana + iya + si (ṁ)bandhaniyaṁthe cause of imprisonment

upamā (analogous similitude)

a simile or a metaphoric likeness

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{357}dhūmo viya dissati aduṁ vanaṁ ta’didaṁdhūmaāyitattadhūma + āyitatta + si (ṁ)dhūmāyitattaṁthe smoky forest (whose color is like green-greyish when seen from a distant)
{357}timiraṁ viya dissati aduṁ vanaṁ ta’didaṁṁtimiraāyitattatimira + āyitatta + si (ṁ)timirāyitattaṁthe darkish-looking forest

tannissita (“dependent nature and source”)

“on which something depends or being as- sociated to or being the source of”

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{358}duṭṭhu nissitaṁduṭṭhuladuṭṭhua + (l)la + si (ṁ)duṭṭhullaṁrelated to bad nature, indecent, obscene

tabbahula (the prominent nature)

“a state of being a common prominent nature”

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{359}abhijjhā assa pakatiabhijjhāāluabhijjhā + ālu + siabhijjhāluthe one whose nature is covetousness

bhāva (the abstract condition)

condition or state or a qualitative character of someone or something (a state of being so and so, a sit- uation, or a qualitative character of someone or something)

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{360}alasassa bhāvoalasaṇyaalasa + ṇya + si (ṁ)ālasyaṁthe state of being lazy, the laziness
{360}paṁsukūlikassa bhāvopaṁsukūlikattapaṁsukūlika + tta + si (ṁ)paṁsukūlikattaṁpractitioner-hood of Paṁsukūlika austerity-practice
{360}saṅgaṇikā’rāmassa bhāvosaṅgaṇikārāmatāsaṅgaṇikārāma + tā + sisaṅgaṇikā’rāmatāgregariousness, being fond of socializing
{360}puthujjanassa bhāvoputhujjanattanaputhujjana + ttana + si (ṁ)puthujjanattanaṁstate of being unenlightened, a common worldling who is still a victim of defilements
{361}visamassa bhāvovisamaṇavisama + ṇa + si (ṁ)vesamaṁstate of being uneven, ruggedness, uneven-ness, non-level place of the earth
{362}ramaṇīyassa bhāvoramaṇīyakaṇramaṇīya + kaṇ + si (ṁ)rāmaṇīyakaṁpleasantness

visesa (superlative-comparison)

a comparative comparison for the superlative

suttaexpressionphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{363}1. positivesabbe ime pāpā, aya’mimesaṁ visesena pāpo’tipāpatarapāpa + tara + si (o)pāpatarospecially bad among the bad. i.e. especially bad of the bad
{363}1. superlativesabbe ime pāpā, aya’mimesaṁ visesena pāpo’tipāpatamapāpa + tama + si (o)pāpatamothe most bad, the worst
{363}2. positivesabbe ime pāpā, aya’mimesaṁ visesena pāpo’tipāpaisikapāpa + isika + si (o)pāpisikospecially bad
{363}2. comparativesabbe ime pāpā, aya’mimesaṁ visesena pāpo’tipāpaiyapāpa + iya + si (o)pāpiyomore bad
{363}2. superlativesabbe ime pāpā, aya’mimesaṁ visesena pāpo’tipāpaiṭṭhapāpa + iṭṭha + si (o)pāpiṭṭhomore bad

ta’dassa’tthi (possessed quality or inherent nature)

a quality being possessed by someone (or something)

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{364}medhā yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’timedhāvīmedhā + vī + simedhāvīthe one who has intellect or wisdom, the wise
{364}sumedhā yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tisumedhāsosumedhā(a) + so + sisumedhasothe one who has good intellect
{365}tapo yassa atthi tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’titapassītapa + ssī + sitapassīthe one having austerity practices, an ascetic, a hermit
{366}daṇḍo yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tidaṇḍaikadaṇḍa + ika + si (o)daṇḍikothe one having stick
{366}daṇḍo yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tidaṇḍaīdaṇḍa + ī + sidaṇḍīthe one having stick
{367}madhu yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’timadhuramadhu + ra + si (o)madhurosomething having sweet taste, sweet
{368}guṇo yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tiguṇavantuguṇa + vantu + si (ā)guṇavāvirtuous or a dignitary
{369}sati yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tisatimantusati + mantu + si (ā)satimāthe one having mindfulness, mindful
{370}saddhā yassa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tisaddhāṇasaddhā + ṇa + si (o)saddhothe one having faith, the faithful
{371}āyu assa atthi, tasmiṁ vā vijjatī’tiāyumantuāyu(as) + mantu + si (ā)āyasmāthe one having life

ta’ppakati (made up of something)

by means of which something is made up of, or crafted with

suttaphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{372}suvaṇṇena pakataṁ kammaṁsuvaṇṇamayasuvaṇṇa + maya + si (ṁ)sovaṇṇamayaṁmade of gold

abyaya (Nouns in indeclinable affixes)

suttaexpressionphrasebaseaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{397}distributive adjective or adverbekena vibhāgenaekadhāeka + dhā + siekadhāby one portion, in one kind
{398}manner and mode (after sabbanāma)tena pakārotathāta + thā + sitathāby that manner
{398}manner and mode (after sabbanāma)so pakārotathattāta + thattā + sitathattāby that manner
{399}manner and mode (after kiṃ)ko pakārokathaṁka + thaṁ + sikathaṁwhat manner
{399}manner and mode (after ima)ayaṁ pakāroimathaṁima(t) + thaṁ + siitthaṁthis manner

2.13 - I: `ākhyāta` (verb endings)

ākhyāta ending rules

2.14 - J: `kibbidhāna` (`kita` affixes)

kita affixes and their meanings

kita affixed nouns {546} usually have a sense of a “doer” (someone who does something). This appendix contains a subset of the examples provided in Kaccāyana - consult the book for a full set of examples.

Kita’ntogadha dutiyā Tappurisa

saddūpapada ② (nearby noun eg. kamma-work, kumbha-pot, mālā-flower) + dhātu (eg. kara, gaha) + affix (eg. ṇa)

rulephrasesaddūpapadadhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{524}kammaṁ karotī’tikammakaraṇakamma + kara + ṇa (o)kammakārothe one who does work ie. “worker”, “laborer”
{525}ariṁ dametī’tiaridamuaari(n) + damu + a (o)arindamothe one who subdues enemies (eg. rājā)
{525}taṇhaṁ karotī’titaṇhākaraataṇhā(an) + kara + a (o)taṇhaṅkarothe one who overcomes cravings (eg. bhagavā)
{526}pure dānaṁ adāsī’tipuradadaapura(in) + dada + a (o)purindadothe one who gave alms in the previous past lives (eg. devarājā)
{527}taṁ karotī’titakaraata(k) + kara + a (o)takkarothe one who does that deed
{527}rathaṁ karotī’tirathakaraṇvuratha + ka(ā)ra(k) + ṇvu (o)rathakārakothe one who makes chariot, the chariot-maker
{527}taṁ karotī’titakaratuta(k) + kara(t) + tu (ā)takkattāthe one who does that deed
{527}bhayaṁ passatī’tibhayadisaāvībhaya + disa(ass) + āvībhayadassāvīthe one who sees danger

Miscellaneous

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{528}pavisatī’tivisaṇapa + vi(e)sa + ṇa (o)pavesothe one who enters
{528}rujatī’tirujaṇaruja(og) + + ṇa (o)rogothat which afflicts, pain or disease
{528}uppajjatī’tipadaṇau + (p)pa(ā)da + + ṇa (o)uppādothat which arises, the process of arising
{529}paccate, pacanaṁ vāpacaṇapaca(k) + + ṇa (o)pākoact of cooking (bhāva)
{530}sambhavatī’tibhūkvisaṁ + bhū + kvisambhūthe one which happens or arises well
{531}dharati tenā’tidhararammadhara + ramma (o)dhammothe wholesome righteous Dhamma by which good-result are carried
{538}samaggaṁ kammaṁ sa’mupagacchatī’tihanarasaṁ + hanagh + ra (o)saṁghothe community of brethren who congregates to (conduct) the sacred activities unitedly

tassīlā (habitual pattern)

  • a habit, habitual pattern, a consistent character (tassīlā)
  • an ingrained nature (taddhamma)
  • a dedicated habit of doing things well (tassādhukārī)
rulephrasesaddūpapadadhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{532}piyaṁ pasaṁsituṁ sīlaṁ yassa rañño, so hoti rājāpiyasaṁsaṇīpiya + pa + saṁsa + ṇīpiyapasaṁsīthe king who used to praise the loved ones
{532}pasayha pavattituṁ sīlaṁ yassa rañño, so hoti rājāpasayhavatutupasayha + pa + vatu + tu (ā)pasayhapavattāthe king who used to behave overbearingly
{532}bhayaṁ passituṁ sīlaṁ yassa samaṇassa so hoti samaṇobhayadisaāvībhaya + di(as)sa + āvībhayadassāvīthe monk who used to see dangers (of unwholesome actions)
{534}bhavapāraṁ gantuṁ sīlaṁ yassa purisassa, so hoti purisopāragamurūbhavapāra + gamu + rūbhavapāragūthe man whose habit is to go the other shore of life, i.e. an enlightened Arahanta monk
rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{533}ghosanasīlosadda, kudha, cala, maṇḍa, ruca, ghusayughu(o)sa + yu (no)ghosanothe one whose habit is to be vocal, the vocal one, noisy talker
{533}bhikkhanasīlo yācanasīlobhikkharūbhikkha + rū (u)bhikkhuthe one used to begging
{533}āhananasīlohanaṇukaā + (gh)hana(ā) + (t)ṇuka (o)āghātukothe executioner, killer

kicca affixes {545}

These affixes are associated with passive-voice (kamma) verbal nouns or middle-voice (bhāva) verbs. Some Pali grammar books refer to them as “future passive particles” but this only describes the kamma sense of these words.

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{540}bhavitabbaṁbhūanīyabhū(av) + anīya (ṁ)bhavanīyaṁ(It) should be (Kamma sense), or the state of being (Bhāva sense)
{541}kattabbaṁkaraṇyakara(i) + ṇya (ṁ)kāriyaṁ(It) should be done (kamma) or act of doing, an act (bhāva)
{541}ñātabbaṁñāteyyañā + teyya (ṁ)ñāteyyaṁit should be known (kamma) or act of knowing (bhāva)
{542}kattabbaṁkarariccakara + ricca (ṁ)kiccaṁsomething that should be done, i.e. a matter or a case or a duty to do
{543}bhavitabbobhūṇyabhū + ṇya(abba) (o)bhabbolikely to happen, likely to occur

yu affix (sādhana)

rulesensephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{547}bhāvanandīyatenandayunanda + yu(na) (ṁ)nandanaṁact of liking, the pleasure
{547}kammananditabbaṁnandayunanda + yu(na) (ṁ)nandanaṁsomething which should be pleased with, being pleasant or such a thing
{548}katturajaṁ haratī’tiharayuraja(o) + hara + yu(na) (ṁ)rajoharaṇaṁthe dust-remover
{548}karaṇakaroti tenā’tikarayukara + yu(na) (ṁ)karaṇaṁa supporting cause, a means or an instrument by which actions are accomplished
{548}padesatiṭṭhanti tasmin’tiṭhāyuṭhā + yu(na) (ṁ)ṭhānaṁpoint or location on which things stand or exist

sañña + i

rulesensephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{551}kammapaṭhamaṁ ādīyatī’tidāiā + dā + iādisomething taken initially, a beginning, an inception, a starting point
{551}udakaṁ dadhātī’tidhāiudaka + dhā + iudadhithat which carries water, an ocean
{551}kattumaho’dakāni dadhātī’tidhāimahodaka + dhā + imahodadhithat which carries great (amount of) water, an ocean
{551}adhikaraṇavālāni dadhāti tasmin’tidhāivāla + dhā + ivāladhithat which carries great (amount of) water, an ocean
{551}kammasammā dhīyatī’tidhāisaṁ(n) + dhā + isandhiact of combining well

sañña (well wishes)

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{552}jino enaṁ bujjhatū’tibudhatijina + bud(d)ha + tijinabuddhimay the Buddha know him
{552}dhanaṁ assa bhavatū’tibhūtidhana + bhū + tidhanabhūtimay he be prosperous or wealthy
{552}bhavatū’tibhūtabhū + ta (o)bhūtomay be, i.e. grow
{552}bhavatū’tibhūṇabhū(a) + ṇa(v) (o)bhāvobhāvo
{552}dhammo enaṁ dadātū’tidātadhamma + dā(i) + ta(nn) (o)dhammadinnomay the Dhamma give him (happiness)
{552}vaḍḍhatū’tivaḍḍhamānavaḍḍha + māna (o)vaḍḍhamānoprosperous

itthi

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{553}jīratī’tijaraajara + a (ā)jarāthat which degenerates, decaying, the old-age
{553}maññatī’timanatimana + timatithat which thinks, thought, view, opinion
{553}cetayatī’ticitiyuci(e)ti~~(a) + yun (ā)cetanāthat which motivates, motive, volition, intent
{553}vedayatī’tividayuvi(e)da + yun (ā)vedanāthat which feels, feeling

kara + ririya

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{554}kattabbākaraririyakara + ririya (ā)kiriyā(🚺)an action
{554}karaṇīyaṁkaraririyakara + ririya (ṁ)kiriyaṁ(🚻)an action

Atīta (past)

past perfect verbs and verbal nouns (also referred to as past participles)

ruledhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{555}hutahu + ta (o)hutogiven, sacrificed
{555}hutavantuhu + tavantu (ā)hutavāgiven, sacrificed
{555}hutāvīhu + tāvīhutāvīgiven, sacrificed

ta affix (voice)

rulesensephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{556}bhāvatassagetage(ī) + ta + (ṁ)gītaṁsinging, i.e. The singing act of that person
{556}kammatenabhāsatabhāsa(i) + ta + (ṁ)bhāsitaṁis said, i.e. said by that person
{557}kattāsabbe saṅkhatā’saṅkhate dhamme bujjhati, abujjhi, bujjhissatī’tibudhatabud(d)ha + ta + (o)buddhothe one who knows, who knew and who will know all conditioned and uncondi- tioned phenomena, the Buddha

ina affix

rulesensephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{558}kattāpāpake akusale dhamme jināti, ajini, jinissatī’tijiinaji + ina (o)jinothe one who subjugates, subjugated and will subjugate the evil, bad, unwholesome mental states, Buddha, the victor of evil
{559}kattāsupatī’tisupainasupa + ina (ṁ)supinaṁdream, (seen while sleeping)
{559}bhāvasupīyatesupainasupa + ina (ṁ)supinaṁsleep

īsaṁ, du, su + kha

ruledhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{560}siaīsaṁ(s) + si + a (yo)īsassayolittle-sleeping, a nap (bhavatā)
{560}siadu(s) + si + a (yo)dussayobadly-sleeping, bad sleep (bhavatā)
{560}siasu(s) + si + a (yo)sussayowell-sleeping sleep (bhavatā)

tuṁ affix

rulemeaningphrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{561}“wish” or “purpose”*puññānikaratavekara + tavekātaveto do, i.e. for the purpose of doing meritorious deeds
{561}“wish” or “purpose”*saddhammaṁsutuṁsu(o) + tuṁsotu’micchatiHe wants to listen to the Dhamma
{562}worthiness and abilitysaddhammaṁnindatuṁninda(i) + tuṁninditum’arahatiWho deserves to blame that person?
{563}“appropriateness” to do somethingala’meva dānānidātuṁdā + tuṁdātuṁto offer, i.e. It is only appropriate to offer alms (as it can enrich one in many ways)
{563}“appropriateness” to do somethingala’meva puññānikaratuṁkara + tuṁkātuṁto do, i.e. It is fitting or suitable to do meritorious deeds (as it can lead to wholesome results)

*in a sentence having one same Kattā (subject)

tuna, tvāna, tvā (gerund or absolutive)

To express concurrent actions of a single doer, one being a preceding action and the other being next subsequent action.

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{564}kātuna kammaṁ gacchatikaratunakara(ā) + tunakātunaHe goes (after) having done work
{564}akātuna puññaṁ kilissantikaratunana + kara(ā) + tunakātuna(He) will suffer for not having done meritorious deeds
{564}sattā sutvāna dhammaṁ modantisutvānasu + tvānasutvānahaving heard Dhamma, the living beings are delighted
{564}jitvāna vasatijitvānaji + tvānajitvānaHaving conquered the enemy (ripuṁ), (he) lives
{564}sutvāna’ssa eta’dahosisutvānasu + tvānasutvānahaving heard Dhamma, this thought arose in him (in his mind)
{564}sutvāna amutra kathayantisutunasu + tvānasutvānahaving heard here, they say there (what they heard)
{564}sutvā jānissāmasutvāsu + tvāsutvāWe must know (how to respond) (only after) having heard (from you)

māna, anta (present participle)

To express an on-going action being done or still taking place at present, (i.e. as yet unfinished action).

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{565}saramāno rodatisaramānasara + a + māna (o)saramāno(he) cries while remembering
{565}gacchanto gaṇhātigamuantagamu(cch) + anta (o)gacchanto(he) takes or grabs while going

ritu, ratthu, rātu, tuka, ika

rulephrasedhātuaffixtransformationwordmeaning
{566}sāsatī’tisāsaratthusāsa + ratthu (ā)satthāthe one who teaches, the teacher
{566}sāsati hiṁsatī’ti vāsāsaratthusāsa + ratthu (ā)satthāthe one who hurts the defilements, Buddha who hurts defilements
{567}pāti puttan’tipāritupā + ritu (ā)pitāthe one who protects one’s offspring, the father
{568}dhammena puttaṁ mānetī’timānarātumāna + rātu (ā)mātāthe one who justly adores (her) offspring, the mother
{568}pubbe bhāsatī’tibhāsarātubhāsa + rātu (ā)bhātāthe one who speaks (first before other young siblings) i.e. Brother.
{568}mātāpitūhi dhārīyatī’tidhararitudhara + ri(ī)tu (ā)dhītāthe one who speaks (first before other young siblings) i.e. Brother
{569}āgacchatī’tigamutukaā + gamu(n) + tuka (o)āgantukothe one who comes (to visit) (bhikkhu)
{570}gamissati, gantuṁ bhabbo’tigamuikagamu + ika (o)gamikothe one who will go or who is likely (be going on a trip). the would-be-traveler, the tourist (bhikkhu)

2.15 - K: `uṇādi` (`kita` affixes)

uṇādi affixes and their meanings

2.16 - L: `sabbanāma` (Pronouns)

List of sabbanāma and their vibhatti endings

Kinds of sabbanāma

  1. Personal pronoun (puggalanāmaṃ).
  2. Demonstrative pronoun (nidassananāmaṃ).
  3. Relative pronoun (anvayīnāmaṃ).
  4. Interrogative pronoun (pucchānāmaṃ).
  5. Indefinite pronoun (anīyamanāmaṃ).
  6. Possessive pronoun

List of sabbanāma

nosabbanāmameaning
1sabba“all”
2katara“which [of two]?”
3katama“which [of many]?”
4ubbaya“both”
5itara“other [of two]”
6añña“other [of many]”
7aññatara“other [of many]”
8aññatama“a certain [of two]”
9pubba“former”
10para“another”
11apara“another”
12dakkhiṇa“right,” “south”
13uttara“upper,” “north,” “more than”
14adhara“lower”
15ya“who,” “what”
16ta“he,” “that”
17eta“this”
18ima“this”
19amu“that”
20kiṃ“what?”, “why?”
21eka“one”
22ubha“both”
23dvi“two”
24ti“three”
25catu“four”
26tumha“you”
27amha“I,” “we”

ma(d), mam

This is used as the pronoun for uttama purisa (in English, “1st” person)

vibhatti⨀⨂
①ahaṃ (amhi, asmi, mhi)amhā, amhe, mayaṃ, mayhaṃ, no, vayaṃ
②maṃ, mamaṃ, mayhaṃ, mām-, meamhākaṃ, amhe, asmākaṃ, asme, no
③mayā, meamhebhi, amhehi, asmāhi, asmābhi, no
⑤mamato, mayā, meamhebhi, amhehi, asmāhi, asmābhi, no
④⑥amhaṃ, mama(ṃ), mamā, maṃ, mayha(ṃ), meamhaṃ, amhāka(ṃ), asmākaṃ, no (ne)
⑦mayi, meamhesu, asmāsu, asmesu

ta(d)

This is used as the pronoun for majjima purisa (in English, “2nd” person)

vibhatti⨀⨂
①taṃ, tuvaṃ, tvaṃtumhe, vo
②taṃ, tavaṃ, tuvaṃ, tvaṃ, tyaṃ, tetumhākaṃ, tumhe, vaṃ, ve, vo
③tayā, te, tvāyatumhebhi, tumhehi, vaṃ, ve, vo
⑤tayā, te, tvāyatumhebhi, tumhehi
④⑥tava(ṃ), tayā, te, tumhaṃ, tuyha(ṃ)tumhaṃ, tumhāka(ṃ), tuyhaṃ (possibly), vaṃ, ve, vo
⑦tayi, tvayitumhesu

This is used as the pronoun for paṭhama purisa (in English, “3rd” person)

⨀ ekavacana

vibhatti🚹🚻🚺
①sa, se, so, sūtad-, tadaṃ, taṃ (naṃ), sesā
②taṃ (naṃ), tetad-, taṃ (naṃ), setaṃ
③tena (nena)tena (nena)tāya (nāya)
⑤tamhā, tasmā (nasmā), tato, tātotamhā, tasmā (nasmā), tato, tātotāya (nāya)
④⑥asmā, assa, tassa (nassa), tāya (④)asmā, assa, tassa (nassa), tāya (④)assā, tassā (nassā), tassāya (nassāya), tāya, tissā, tissāya
⑦asmiṃ, tamhi, tamhī, tasmiṃ (nasmiṃ)asmiṃ, tamhi, tamhī, tasmiṃ (nasmiṃ)assaṃ, tassaṃ, tāsaṃ (nassaṃ), tāya(ṃ) (nāyaṃ), tissaṃ

⨂ bahuvacana

vibhatti🚹🚻🚺
①te (ne)tānitā, tāyo
②te (ne)tānitā (nā), tāyo
③tebhi, tehi (nehi)tebhi, tehi (nehi)tābhi, tāhi (nāhi)
⑤tebhi, tehi (nehi)tebhi, tehi (nehi)tābhi, tāhi (nāhi)
④⑥tesaṃ (nesaṃ), tesānaṃtesaṃ (nesaṃ), tesānaṃtāsaṃ (nāsaṃ), tāsānaṃ, sānaṃ
⑦tesu (nesu)tesu (nesu)tāsu (nāsu)

2.17 - M: Overview of Kaccāyana

An overview of Kaccāyana and interpretation guidelines

The material in this appendix is mostly drawn from a class called A Short Introduction to the Kaccāyana Pali Grammar: Its Background, Techniques and Terminology taught by Aleix Ruiz-Falqués, Shan State Buddhist University, Taunggyi, Myanmar in 2020.

Genesis of Kaccāyana

There are actually two components of Kaccāyana:

  • Kaccāyana-byājkarana (circa 6th century CE) and the author is not known (but ascribed to Mahā Kaccāyana Thera) - this contains the concisely stated rules (called sutta) that form the basis of Pali grammar; and
  • Kaccāyana-vutti (circa 8th centure CE) by Saṅghanandin, which represents a commentary and explanation of the rules together with examples.

Kaccāyana itself draws from multiple earlier sources such as:

  • Prātiśākya treatises, Vedic phonetics (various authors)
  • Pānini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī (“Eight Lessons”)
  • Kātantravyākarana by Šarvavarman

So, Kaccāyana draws and inherits from a long tradition of Sanskrit grammar and technical terms. According to Pind (2012) approximately 215 sutta from Kaccāyana are based on Kātantravyākarana, and approximately 300 sutta are modifications from Panini. However, more than half the sutta in Kaccāyana are not derived from Sanskrit, so the grammar as a whole does not reflect Sanskrit usage and vocabulary.

Kaccāyana structure

mindmap
  Kaccāyana
    I. Sandhi
      i. Definitions
      ii. Vowel sandhi
      iii. Consonant sandhi
      Iiv("iv. niggahīta (ṃ) sandhi")
      v. Miscellanea
    II. Nāma
      i. Definitions, Internal sandhis, Default Declensions
      ii. Pronominal declension, an-stems
      iii. Pronominal dec. continued, mano-gaṇa, an-stems, tar-stems.
      iv. an-stems cont., feminine stems, adv. pronouns, nta-stems
      v. Adverbial affixes
      vi. KĀRAKA
      vii. SAMĀSA
      viii. TADDHITA
    III. Ākhyāta
      i. Definitions
      ii. Special stems, causatives, bhāva, vb. classes
      iii. Reduplication, Special stems
      iv. Special affixes and stems
    IV. Kibbidhāna
      i. Definition of kicca and kit affixes
      ii. Use of affixes with tenses, voices, etc.
      iii. niṭṭhā affixes
      iv. Modification of vb. stems in primary derivation
      v. UṆĀDI

Types of rules in Kaccāyana

Several saññā “technical terms”, within an adhikāra “domain”, following paribhāsā “metarules”, will be subject to vidhi “operations” in order to derive words or sentences.

@startebnf
grammar (* Kaccāyana *) = 675 * rule (* sutta *);
rule =
  technical_term (* saññā *) |
  domain (* adhikāra *) |
  metarule (* paribhāsā *) |
  operation (* vidhi *) ;
technical_term =
  meaningful (* anvattha *) |
  artificial (* rūḷhī *) ;
domain =
  lion_way (* sīhagatika *) |
  frog_way (* maṇḍūkagatika *) |
  progressive (* yathānupubbika *) ;
metarule =
  meta_definition (* saññaṅga *) |
  meta_operation (* vidhyaṅga *) |
  meta_other (* aññaṅga *) ;
operation =
  replacement (* ādesa *) |
  insertion (* āgama *) |
  modification (* vikāra *) |
  elision (* lopa *) |
  metathesis (* viparīta *) ;
@endebnf

@startyaml
saññā:
  - anvattha
  - rūḷhī
adhikāra:
  - sīhagatika
  - maṇḍūkagatika
  - yathānupubbika
paribhāsā:
  - saññaṅga
  - vidhyaṅga
  - aññaṅga
vidhi:
  - ādesa
  - āgama
  - vikāra
  - lopa
  - viparīta
@endyaml

How does a vidhi (operation) work

Most vidhi “operational” rules teach paccaya “affixation” or ādesa “replacement” using previous definitions (saññā-s). It is all about adding particles to a base, and then replacing them if/when needed.

To understand vidhi-s, we should keep in mind the following code of case endings:

  • ABL. = “after X”
  • GEN. = “instead of X”
  • NOM., ACC. = “X”, ādesa (“replacement”)
  • LOCATIVE1: “before X”
  • LOCATIVE2: “in the sense of X”

Affixation (paccaya)

timeline
  Left : Ablative
    : After X
  A : Nominative
    : Affix A is inserted
@startebnf
affixation = ablative (* After X *), nominative (* A is inserted *);
ablative = 
  (nominal_base (* liṅga *) |
  verbal_base (* dhātu *)), "smā" ;
@endebnf

Replacement (ādesa)

timeline
  Left : Ablative
    : Ablative
    : Ablative
    : After X
  A : Genitive
    : Nominative
    : Nominative
    : Replace A
  B : Nominative
    : Nominative
    : Accusative
    : With B
  Right : Locative
    : Locative
    : Locative
    : Before Y
  Marker : ca (and)
    : api (also)
    : vā (or)
    : kvaci (sometimes)
    : na (not)
    : niccam (required)
  Semantic : Locative
    : "in the sense of ..."
@startebnf
replacement = [ablative (* After X *)],
  (
    (
      genitive (* Instead of A *),
      nominative (* replace with B *)
    ) |
    (
      nominative (* Replace A *),
      nominative (* with B *)
    ) |
    (
      nominative (* A *),
      accusative (* becomes B *)
    )
  ),
  [locative (* Before Y *)], [marker], [semantic (* "in the sense of" *)];
marker =
  "ca" (* and *) |
  "api" (* also *) |
  "vā" (* or *) |
  "kvaci" (* sometimes *) |
  "na" (* not *) |
  "niccam" (* required *) ;
@endebnf

Elision (lopaṃ)

timeline
  Left : Ablative
    : After X
  A : Nominative
    : Instead of A
  lopaṃ: Accusative
    : elision
  Right : Locative
    : Before Y
@startebnf
elision =
  [ablative (* After X *)],
  genitive (* Instead of A *),
  "lopaṃ" (* elision *),
  [locative (* Before Y *)];
@endebnf

Structure of a rule (sutta)

@startebnf
rule =
  aphorism (* sutta *),
  gloss (* vutti *),
  {example} (* udāharaṇa *),
  {counter_example} (* kimudāharaṇa *),
  [application] (* payojana *),
  [result] (* gahaṇaphala *);
@endebnf

stateDiagram-v2
  direction LR
  [*] --> upasagga
  [*] --> dhātu
  upasagga --> upasagga
  upasagga --> dhātu
  dhātu --> paccaya

3 - Sutta Piṭaka

Summary of key concepts from the Basket of Discourses

Daṭṭhabbasutta (Five faculties) SN 48.8 PTS SN v 196

mindmap
pañcindriyāni
  saddhindriyaṁ
    sotāpattiyaṅgesu
  vīriyindriyaṁ
    sammappadhānesu
  satindriyaṁ
    satipaṭṭhānesu
  samādhindriyaṁ
    jhānesu
  paññindriyaṁ
    ariyasaccesu

Daṭṭhabbasutta (Five powers) AN 5.15 PTS 3.12

mindmap
pañcabalāni
  saddhābalaṁ
    sotāpattiyaṅgesu x4
  vīriyabalaṁ
    sammappadhānesu x4
  satibalaṁ
    satipaṭṭhānesu x4
  samādhibalaṁ
    jhānesu x4
  paññābalaṁ
    ariyasaccesu x4

Theravāda Vibhaṅga 5 aggregates pañcupādānakkhandhā 12 sense media dvādas’āyatanāni 36 elements 18dhātuyo 4 noble truths cattāri ariyasaccāni 22 faculties Dependent origination paṭiccasamuppādo 4 satipaṭṭhānas cattāro_satipaṭṭhānā 4 right efforts cattāro_sammappadhānāti 4 bases of power cattāro_iddhipādā 7 awakening-factors satta_bojjhaṅgā 8-fold path ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo 4 jhānas jhānaṁ 4 divine abidings catasso_appamaññāyo 5 precepts pañca_sikkhāpadāniā 4 discriminations atasso_paṭisambhidā Khuddakavatthu3 Ñāṇavibhaṅga4 Dhammahadaya5 Sarvāstivāda Dharmaskandha 5 precepts 4 stream-entry factors 4 confirmed faiths 4 fruits of asceticism 4 ways of practice 4 noble lineages 4 right efforts 4 bases of power 4 satipaṭṭhānas 4 noble truths 4 jhānas 4 divine abidings 4 formless 4 samādhis 7 awakening-factors Khuddakavatthu 22 faculties 12 sense media 5 aggregates 62 elements Dependent origination Dharmagupta Śāriputrābhidharma 12 sense media 18 elements 5 aggregates 4 noble truths 22 faculties 7 awakening-factors 3 unskilful roots 3 skilful roots 4 great elements 5 precepts Elements Kamma Persons1 Knowledge2 Dependent origination 4 satipaṭṭhānas 4 right efforts 4 bases of power 4 jhānas 8-fold path Unskilful dhammas6 Saṅgraha7 Sampayoga Prasthāna

classDiagram
dvādasāyatanāni --> aniccaṁ
dvādasāyatanāni --> dukkhaṁ
dvādasāyatanāni --> anattā
dvādasāyatanāni --> vipariṇāmadhammaṁ
---
title: Class Diagram of Core Teachings
config:
  theme: base
  themeVariables:
    primaryColor: "#f4dede"
---
classDiagram
direction LR
namespace 4ariyasaccāni {
  class cattāri_ariyasaccāni {
    english(noble truths)
  }
  class dukkhaṁ {
    english(suffering)
  }
  class dukkhasamudayaṁ {
    english(origin of suffering)
  }
  class dukkhanirodhaṁ {
    english(cessation of suffering)
  }
  class dukkhanirodhagāminī_paṭipadā {
    english(way leading to cessation of suffering)
  }
}
class nibbāna {
  english(enlightenment)
}
cattāri_ariyasaccāni *-- dukkhaṁ
cattāri_ariyasaccāni *-- dukkhasamudayaṁ
cattāri_ariyasaccāni *-- dukkhanirodhaṁ
cattāri_ariyasaccāni *-- dukkhanirodhagāminī_paṭipadā
dukkhanirodhaṁ --> nibbāna
dukkhanirodhagāminī_paṭipadā --> ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo

namespace ariyo_8_maggo {
  class ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo {
    english(noble 8fold path)
  }
  class sammādiṭṭhi {
    english(right views)
  }
  class sammāsaṅkappo {
    english(right intentions)
    nekkhammasaṅkappo
    abyāpādasaṅkappo
    avihiṁsāsaṅkappo
  }
  class sammāvācā {
    musāvādā veramaṇī
    pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī
    pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī
    samphappalāpā veramaṇī
    english(right speech)
  }
  class sammākammanto {
    pāṇātipātā veramaṇī
    adinnādānā veramaṇī
    abrahmacariyā veramaṇī
    english(right action)
  }
  class sammāājīvo {
    micchāājīvaṁ pahāya
    sammāājīvena jīvitaṁ kappeti
    english(right livelihood)
  }
  class sammāvāyāmo {
    english(right effort)
  }
  class sammāsati {
    english(right mindfulness)
  }
  class sammāsamādhi {
    english(right concentration)
  }
}
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammādiṭṭhi
sammādiṭṭhi --> cattāri_ariyasaccāni
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammāsaṅkappo
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammāvācā
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammākammanto
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammāājīvo
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammāvāyāmo
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammāsati
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo *-- sammāsamādhi

class pañcakkhandhā {
  rūpakkhandho
  vedanākkhandho
  saññākkhandho
  saṅkhārakkhandho
  viññāṇakkhandho
  english(aggregates)
}
dukkhaṁ --> pañcakkhandhā
class aniccaṁ {
  english(impermanent)
}
class anattā {
  english(not eternal self)
}
pañcakkhandhā --> aniccaṁ
pañcakkhandhā --> anattā

namespace paṭiccasamuppādā {
  class paṭiccasamuppādo {
    english(Dependent Origination)
  }
  class avijjā {
    dukkhe aññāṇaṁ
    dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṁ
    dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṁ
    dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya aññāṇaṁ
  }
  class saṅkhārā {
    kāyasaṅkhāro
    vacīsaṅkhāro
    cittasaṅkhāro
  }
  class viññāṇaṁ {
    cakkhuviññāṇaṁ
    sotaviññāṇaṁ
    ghānaviññāṇaṁ
    jivhāviññāṇaṁ
    kāyaviññāṇaṁ
    manoviññāṇaṁ
  }
  class nāmarūpaṁ {
    vedanā
    saññā
    cetanā
    phasso
    manasikāro
  }
  class saḷāyatanaṁ {
    cakkhāyatanaṁ
    sotāyatanaṁ
    ghānāyatanaṁ
    jivhāyatanaṁ
    kāyāyatanaṁ
    manāyatanaṁ
  }
  class phasso {
    cakkhusamphasso
    sotasamphasso
    ghānasamphasso
    jivhāsamphasso
    kāyasamphasso
    manosamphasso

  }
  class vedanā {
    cakkhusamphassajā vedanā
    sotasamphassajā vedanā
    ghānasamphassajā vedanā
    jivhāsamphassajā vedanā
    kāyasamphassajā vedanā
    manosamphassajā vedanā
  }
  class taṇhā {
    rūpataṇhā
    saddataṇhā
    gandhataṇhā
    rasataṇhā
    phoṭṭhabbataṇhā
    dhammataṇhā
  }
  class upādānaṁ {
    kāmupādānaṁ
    diṭṭhupādānaṁ
    sīlabbatupādānaṁ
    attavādupādānaṁ
  }
  class bhavo {
    kāmabhavo
    rūpabhavo
    arūpabhavo
  }
  class jāti {
    jāti
    sañjāti
    okkanti
    abhinibbatti
    khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo
    āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho
  }
}
avijjā .. cattāri_ariyasaccāni
dukkhasamudayaṁ --> paṭiccasamuppādo
dukkhanirodhaṁ --> paṭiccasamuppādo
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- avijjā
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- saṅkhārā
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- viññāṇaṁ
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- nāmarūpaṁ
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- saḷāyatanaṁ
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- phasso
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- vedanā
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- taṇhā
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- upādānaṁ
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- bhavo
paṭiccasamuppādo *-- jāti
avijjā --> saṅkhārā
saṅkhārā --> viññāṇaṁ
viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
phasso --> vedanā
vedanā --> taṇhā
taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
upādānaṁ --> bhavo
bhavo --> jāti

class cattāro_sammappadhānā {
    anuppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ anuppādāya
    uppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ pahānāya
    anuppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ uppādāya
    uppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ ṭhitiyā asammosāya bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya bhāvanāya pāripūriyā
    english(right efforts)
}
sammāvāyāmo --> cattāro_sammappadhānā

class cattāro_satipaṭṭhānā {
    kāye kāyānupassī
    vedanāsu vedanānupassī
    citte cittānupassī
    dhammesu dhammānupassī
    english(mindfulness)
}
sammāsati --> cattāro_satipaṭṭhānā

class jhānā {
  <<jhana>>
    paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ
    dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ
    tatiyaṁ jhānaṁ
    catutthaṁ jhānaṁ
    english(calmness states)
}

sammāsamādhi --> jhānā

class cattāro_iddhipādā {
    chandasamādhipadhānasaṅkhārasamannāgataṁ
    vīriyasamādhipadhānasaṅkhārasamannāgataṁ
    cittasamādhipadhānasaṅkhārasamannāgataṁ
    vīmaṁsāsamādhipadhānasaṅkhārasamannāgataṁ
    english(success factors)
}
ariyo_aṭṭhaṅgiko_maggo --> cattāro_iddhipādā

class satta_bojjhaṅgā {
    satisambojjhaṅgo
    dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo
    vīriyasambojjhaṅgo
    pītisambojjhaṅgo
    passaddhisambojjhaṅgo
    samādhisambojjhaṅgo
    upekkhāsambojjhaṅgo
    english(awakening factors)
}
dukkhanirodhagāminī_paṭipadā --> satta_bojjhaṅgā

class dvādasāyatanāni {
  cakkhāyatanaṁ
  rūpāyatanaṁ
  sotāyatanaṁ
  saddāyatanaṁ
  ghānāyatanaṁ
  gandhāyatanaṁ
  jivhāyatanaṁ
  rasāyatanaṁ
  kāyāyatanaṁ
  phoṭṭhabbāyatanaṁ
  manāyatanaṁ
  dhammāyatanaṁ
  english(sense bases)
}
saḷāyatanaṁ --> dvādasāyatanāni

namespace elements {
    class catasso_dhātuyo {
    Pathavīdhātu
    āpodhātu
    tejodhātu
    vāyodhātu
    englist(elements)
  }
  class chadhātuyo1 {
    pathavīdhātu
    āpodhātu
    tejodhātu
    vāyodhātu
    ākāsadhātu
    viññāṇadhātu
  }
  class chadhātuyo2 {
    sukhadhātu
    dukkhadhātu
    somanassadhātu
    domanassadhātu
    upekkhādhātu
    avijjādhātu
  }
  class chadhātuyo3 {
    kāmadhātu
    byāpādadhātu
    vihiṁsādhātu
    nekkhammadhātu
    abyāpādadhātu
    avihiṁsādhātu
  }
}
nāmarūpaṁ --> chadhātuyo1
nāmarūpaṁ --> catasso_dhātuyo
vedanā --> chadhātuyo2
taṇhā --> chadhātuyo3

class catasso_appamaññāyo {
    mettā
    karuṇā
    muditā
    upekkhā
    english(illimitables)
}
sammāsaṅkappo --> catasso_appamaññāyo

class pañca_sikkhāpadāniā {
    pāṇātipātā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṁ
    adinnādānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṁ
    kāmesumicchācārā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṁ
    musāvādā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṁ
    surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṁ
    english(precepts)
}
sammākammanto --> pañca_sikkhāpadāniā

class catasso_paṭisambhidā {
    atthapaṭisambhidā
    dhammapaṭisambhidā
    niruttipaṭisambhidā
    paṭibhānapaṭisambhidā
    english(analytical insight)
}
sammādiṭṭhi --> catasso_paṭisambhidā

namespace 5indriyāni {
  class pañcindriyāni {
    english(faculties)
  }
  class saddhindriyaṁ {
    english(confidence)
  }
  class vīriyindriyaṁ {
    english(energy)
  }
  class satindriyaṁ {
    english(mindfulness)
  }
  class samādhindriyaṁ {
    english(immersion)
  }
  class paññindriyaṁ {
    english(wisdom)
  }
}
pañcindriyāni *-- saddhindriyaṁ
pañcindriyāni *-- vīriyindriyaṁ
pañcindriyāni *-- satindriyaṁ
pañcindriyāni *-- samādhindriyaṁ
pañcindriyāni *-- paññindriyaṁ
saddhindriyaṁ --> cattāri_sotāpattiyaṅgāni
vīriyindriyaṁ --> cattāro_sammappadhānā
satindriyaṁ --> cattāro_satipaṭṭhānā
samādhindriyaṁ --> jhānā
paññindriyaṁ --> cattāri_ariyasaccāni

class cattāri_sotāpattiyaṅgāni {
  sappurisasaṁsevo
  saddhammassavanaṁ
  yonisomanasikāro
  dhammānudhammappaṭipatti
  english(stream entry factors)
}

namespace 5balāni {
  class pañcabalāni {
    english(powers)
  }
  class saddhābalaṁ {
    english(faith)
  }
  class vīriyabalaṁ  {
    english(energy)
  }
  class satibalaṁ {
    english(mindfulness)
  }
  class samādhibalaṁ {
    english(immersion)
  }
  class paññābalaṁ {
    english(wisdom)
  }
}
pañcabalāni *-- saddhābalaṁ
pañcabalāni *-- vīriyabalaṁ
pañcabalāni *-- satibalaṁ
pañcabalāni *-- samādhibalaṁ
pañcabalāni *-- paññābalaṁ
saddhābalaṁ --> cattāri_sotāpattiyaṅgāni
vīriyabalaṁ --> cattāro_sammappadhānā
satibalaṁ --> cattāro_satipaṭṭhānā
samādhibalaṁ --> jhānā
paññābalaṁ --> cattāri_ariyasaccāni

class sāmaññaphalāni {
  sotāpattiphalaṁ
  sakadāgāmiphalaṁ
  anāgāmiphalaṁ
  arahattaphalaṁ
  english(fruits of ascetic life)
}

Seven Sets

Somestimes called “Wings to Awakening”, originally intended for communal recital as described in in Pāsādikasutta DN 29 PTS 3.117–3.141

Also mentioned several other places:

  • Mahāparinibbānasutta DN 16 PTS 2.72–2.168
  • Sampasādanīyasutta DN 28 PTS 3.99–3.116
  • Pahārādasutta AN 8.19 PTS 4.198–4.204
  • Kintisutta MN 103 PTS 2.239–2.243
  • Sāmagāmasutta MN 104 PTS 2.244–2.251
# bodhipākṣika-dharma
- cattāro satipaṭṭhānā
- cattāro sammappadhānā
- cattāro iddhipādā
- pañcindriyāni
- pañca balāni
- satta bojjhaṅgā
- ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo

3.1 - cattāri ariyasaccāni

The Four Noble Truths.

The basic teaching of the four noble truths (dukkham samudayo nirodho magga) can be expressed as a medical diagnosis (The Dawn of Abhidharma p. 113):

  • disease: duḥkha
  • pathogen: craving
  • health: nirvāṇa
  • cure: eightfold path

cattāri ariyasaccāni

# cattāri ariyasaccāni
## dukkham
- pain
- incapable of suffering
## dukkha-samudayo
- origin
- arising
## dukkha-nirodha
- cease
- suppress
## dukkha-nirodha-gamini patipada
- leading to
- path, way

This is not mine, I am not this, this is not my essence.

netaṁ mama, nesohamasmi, na meso attāti— evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya daṭṭhabbaṁ.

Reference

3.1.1 - dukkhaṁ ariyasaccaṁ

noble truth of suffering
# dukkhā
## jāti
- (re)birth
## jarā
- old age
## maraṇaṁ
- death
## sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā
### soko
### paridevo
### dukkho
### domanassaṃ
### upāyāso
## appiyehi sampayogo
- association with dislikes
## piyehi vippayogo
- separation from loved ones
## yampicchaṁ na labhati tam
- not getting what you want
## [pañcupādānakkhandhā](/buddhavacana/docs/sutta/5aggregates/)
- five grasping aggregates

jāti

## jāti
### jāti
- rebirth
### sañjāti
- inception
### okkanti
- conception
### abhinibbatti
- reincarnation
### khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo
- manifestation of the sets of phenomena
### āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho
- acquisition of the sense fields

jarā

## jarā
### jarā
- old age
### jīraṇatā
- decrepitude
### khaṇḍiccaṁ
- broken teeth
### pāliccaṁ
- grey hair
### valittacatā
- wrinkly skin
### āyuno saṁhāni
- diminished vitality
### indriyānaṁ paripāko
- failing faculties

maraṇaṁ

## maraṇaṁ
### cuti
- passing away
- perishing
### cavanatā
- demise
- mortality
### bhedo antaradhānaṁ
- disintegration
### maccu
- death
### maraṇaṁ
- decease
### kālakiriyā khandhānaṁ
- breaking up of the aggregates
### bhedo kaḷevarassa
- laying to rest of the corpse
### nikkhepo jīvitindriyassupacchedo
- cutting off of the life faculty

soko

# soko
## aññataraññatarena byasanena samannāgatassa
## aññataraññatarena dukkhadhammena phuṭṭhassa
## soko
## socanā
## socitattaṁ
## antosoko
## antoparisoko

paridevo

# paridevo
## aññataraññatarena byasanena samannāgatassa
## aññataraññatarena dukkhadhammena phuṭṭhassa
## ādevo
## paridevo
## ādevanā
## paridevanā
## ādevitattaṁ
## paridevitattaṁ

dukkhaṁ

# dukkhaṁ
## kāyikaṁ dukkhaṁ
## kāyikaṁ asātaṁ
## kāyasamphassajaṁ dukkhaṁ asātaṁ vedayitaṁ

domanassaṁ

# domanassaṁ
## cetasikaṁ dukkhaṁ
## cetasikaṁ asātaṁ
## manosamphassajaṁ dukkhaṁ asātaṁ vedayitaṁ

upāyāso

# upāyāso
## aññataraññatarena byasanena samannāgatassa
## aññataraññatarena dukkhadhammena phuṭṭhassa
## āyāso upāyāso āyāsitattaṁ upāyāsitattaṁ

Reference

3.1.2 - dukkhasamudayaṁ ariyasaccaṁ

noble truth of the origin of suffering
---
markmap:
  maxWidth: 300
---
# dukkhasamudayaṁ ariyasaccaṁ
## yāyaṁ taṇhā ponobbhavikā nandīrāgasahagatā tatratatrābhinandinī
- the craving that leads to rebirth, that comes with delight and sensual desire, ever delighting in this and that
## kāmataṇhā
- craving for worldly pleasures
## bhavataṇhā
- craving for existence
## vibhavataṇhā
- craving for prosperity

Reference

3.1.3 - dukkhanirodhaṁ ariyasaccaṁ

noble truth of the cessation of suffering
# dukkhanirodhaṁ ariyasaccaṁ
## taṇhāya asesavirāganirodho
- full fading away and ending of all craving
## cāgo
- giving it up
## paṭinissaggo
- relinquishing it
## mutti
- releasing it
## anālayo
- letting it go

Reference

3.1.4 - dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccaṁ

noble truth of the path leading to the end of suffering

ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo (noble eightfold path)

# ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo
## sammādiṭṭhi
- right belief
## sammāsaṅkappo
- right intention
## sammāvācā
- right speech
## sammākammanto
- right conduct
## sammāājīvo
- right livelihood
## sammāvāyāmo
- right effort
## sammāsati
- right mindfulness
## sammāsamādhi
- right concentration

mindmap
ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo
  sammādiṭṭhi
    dukkhe ñāṇaṁ
    dukkhasamudaye ñāṇaṁ
    dukkhanirodhe ñāṇaṁ
    dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya ñāṇaṁ
  sammāsaṅkappo
    nekkhammasaṅkappo
    abyāpādasaṅkappo
    avihiṁsāsaṅkappo
  sammāvācā
    musāvādā veramaṇī
    pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī
    pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī
    samphappalāpā veramaṇī
  sammākammanto
    pāṇātipātā veramaṇī
    adinnādānā veramaṇī
    abrahmacariyā veramaṇī
  sammāājīvo
    micchāājīvaṁ pahāya
    sammāājīvena jīvitaṁ kappeti
  sammāvāyāmo
    anuppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ anuppādāya
    uppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ pahānāya
    anuppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ uppādāya
    uppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ ṭhitiyā asammosāya bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya bhāvanāya pāripūriyā
  sammāsati
    kāye kāyānupassī
    vedanāsu vedanānupassī
    citte cittānupassī
    dhammesu dhammānupassī
  sammāsamādhi
    paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ
    dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ
    tatiyaṁ jhānaṁ
    catutthaṁ jhānaṁ

Reference

3.2 - adantavaggo

Restraining, Guarding and Protecting the Mind

AN 1.4 31-40:

  1. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ adantaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, adantaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  2. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ dantaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, dantaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  3. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ aguttaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, aguttaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  4. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ guttaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, guttaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  5. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ arakkhitaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, arakkhitaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  6. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ rakkhitaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, rakkhitaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  7. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ asaṃvutaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, asaṃvutaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  8. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ saṃvutaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, saṃvutaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  9. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ adantaṃ aguttaṃ arakkhitaṃ asaṃvutaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, adantaṃ aguttaṃ arakkhitaṃ asaṃvutaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  10. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ dantaṃ guttaṃ rakkhitaṃ saṃvutaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ. cittaṃ, bhikkhave, dantaṃ guttaṃ rakkhitaṃ saṃvutaṃ mahato atthāya saṃvattatī"ti.
classDiagram
  class sentence["nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ adantaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(I don't perceive, bhikkhus, yet another thing which untrained leads to great harm as this, bhikkhus, the mind.)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class ahaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    english(I)
  }
  class bhikkhave {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨂⓪
  }
  class aññaṃ {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(other)
  }
  class ekadhammaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(one thing)
  }
  class pi {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(too)
  }
  class samanupassāmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀👆vattamāna
    english(I perceive)
  }
  class yaṃ {
    <<anvayīnāma>>
    🚻⨀②
    english(which)
  }
  class evaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(thus)
  }
  namespace adjective {
    class adantaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(unrestrained)
    }
  }
  class mahato {
    <<guṇanāma>>
     ⨀⑥
    english(of great)
  }
  namespace result {
    class anatthāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of harm)
    }
  }
  class saṃvattati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀🤟vattamāna
    english(leads to)
  }
  class yatha {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(as)
  }
  class idaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    🚻⨀②
    english(this)
  }
  class cittaṃ {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚻⨀①
    english(mind)
  }
  sentence *-- na
  sentence *-- ahaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- bhikkhave
  sentence *-- aññaṃ
  sentence *-- ekadhammaṃ
  sentence *-- pi
  sentence *-- samanupassāmi : kiriyā
  sentence *-- yaṃ
  sentence *-- evaṃ
  sentence *-- adantaṃ
  sentence *-- mahato
  sentence *-- anatthāya
  sentence *-- saṃvattati
  sentence *-- yatha
  sentence *-- idaṃ
  sentence *-- cittaṃ
  na -- samanupassāmi
  anatthāya <-- mahato
  anatthāya <-- saṃvattati
  aññaṃ .. ekadhammaṃ
  ahaṃ --> samanupassāmi : kattar
  ekadhammaṃ --> samanupassāmi : kamma
  ekadhammaṃ .. idaṃ
  evaṃ .. yaṃ
  yaṃ ..> adantaṃ
  pi .. ekadhammaṃ
  yaṃ <.. ekadhammaṃ
  adantaṃ -- cittaṃ
  yatha .. idaṃ
  idaṃ .. cittaṃ
  cittaṃ --> saṃvattati
classDiagram
  class sentence["cittaṃ, bhikkhave, adantaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattatī"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The mind, bhikkhus, untrained, leads to great harm.)
  }
  class cittaṃ {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚻⨀①
    english(mind)
  }
  class bhikkhave {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨂⓪
  }
  namespace adjective {
    class adantaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(unrestrained)
    }
  }
  class mahato {
    <<guṇanāma>>
     ⨀⑥
    english(of great)
  }
  namespace result {
    class anatthāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of harm)
    }
  }
  class saṃvattati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀🤟vattamāna
    english(leads to)
  }
  sentence *-- cittaṃ
  sentence *-- bhikkhave
  sentence *-- adantaṃ
  sentence *-- mahato
  sentence *-- anatthāya
  sentence *-- saṃvattati
  anatthāya <-- mahato
  anatthāya <-- saṃvattati
  adantaṃ -- cittaṃ
  cittaṃ --> saṃvattati
classDiagram
  namespace adjective {
    class adantaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(unrestrained)
    }
    class dantaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(restrained)
    }
    class aguttaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(unguarded)
    }
    class guttaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(guarded)
    }
    class arakkhitaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(unprotected)
    }
    class rakkhitaṃ {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      ⨀②
      english(protected)
    }
  }
  namespace result {
    class anatthāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of harm)
    }
    class atthāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of benefit)
    }
  }
  adantaṃ .. anatthāya
  aguttaṃ .. anatthāya
  arakkhitaṃ .. anatthāya
  dantaṃ .. atthāya
  guttaṃ .. atthāya
  rakkhitaṃ .. atthāya
sequenceDiagram
participant ahaṃ as (ahaṃ)
participant citta
participant harm as mahato anatthāya
participant benefit as mahato atthāya
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> harm : adantaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> benefit : dantaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> harm : aguttaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> benefit : guttaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> harm : arakkhitaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> benefit : rakkhitaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> harm : adantaṃ aguttaṃ arakkhitaṃ saṃvattati
  ahaṃ ->> citta : (na) aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi
  citta ->> benefit : dantaṃ guttaṃ rakkhitaṃ saṃvattati
stateDiagram-v2
  state fork1 <<fork>>
  state join1 <<join>>
  state fork2 <<fork>>
  state join2 <<join>>
  state "mahato anatthāya" as harm
  state "mahato atthāya" as benefit
  [*] --> fork1 : citta
  fork1 --> adantaṃ
  fork1 --> aguttaṃ
  fork1 --> arakkhitaṃ
  adantaṃ --> join1
  aguttaṃ --> join1
  arakkhitaṃ --> join1
  join1 --> harm : saṃvattati
  [*] --> fork2 : citta
  fork2 --> dantaṃ
  fork2 --> guttaṃ
  fork2 --> rakkhitaṃ
  dantaṃ --> join2
  guttaṃ --> join2
  rakkhitaṃ --> join2
  join2 --> benefit : saṃvattati

3.3 - nīvaraṇappahānavaggo

Giving up hindrances

AN 1.2 11-20:

  1. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppanno vā kāmacchando uppajjati uppanno vā kāmacchando bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, subhanimittaṃ. subhanimittaṃ, bhikkhave, ayoniso manasi karoto anuppanno ceva kāmacchando uppajjati uppanno ca kāmacchando bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  2. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppanno vā byāpādo uppajjati uppanno vā byāpādo bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, paṭighanimittaṃ. paṭighanimittaṃ, bhikkhave, ayoniso manasi karoto anuppanno ceva byāpādo uppajjati uppanno ca byāpādo bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  3. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannaṃ vā thinamiddhaṃ uppajjati uppannaṃ vā thinamiddhaṃ bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, arati tandī vijambhitā bhattasammado cetaso ca līnattaṃ. līnacittassa, bhikkhave, anuppannañceva thinamiddhaṃ uppajjati uppannañca thinamiddhaṃ bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  4. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannaṃ vā uddhaccakukkuccaṃ uppajjati uppannaṃ vā uddhaccakukkuccaṃ bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cetaso avūpasamo. avūpasantacittassa, bhikkhave, anuppannañceva uddhaccakukkuccaṃ uppajjati uppannañca uddhaccakukkuccaṃ bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  5. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā vicikicchā uppajjati uppannā vā vicikicchā bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro. ayoniso, bhikkhave, manasi karoto anuppannā ceva vicikicchā uppajjati uppannā ca vicikicchā bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattatī"ti.
  6. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppanno vā kāmacchando nuppajjati uppanno vā kāmacchando pahīyati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, asubhanimittaṃ. asubhanimittaṃ, bhikkhave, yoniso manasi karoto anuppanno ceva kāmacchando nuppajjati uppanno ca kāmacchando pahīyatī"ti.
  7. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppanno vā byāpādo nuppajjati uppanno vā byāpādo pahīyati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, mettā cetovimutti. mettaṃ, bhikkhave, cetovimuttiṃ yoniso manasi karoto anuppanno ceva byāpādo nuppajjati uppanno ca byāpādo pahīyatī"ti.
  8. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannaṃ vā thinamiddhaṃ nuppajjati uppannaṃ vā thinamiddhaṃ pahīyati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ārambhadhātu nikkamadhātu parakkamadhātu. āraddhavīriyassa, bhikkhave, anuppannañceva thinamiddhaṃ nuppajjati uppannañca thinamiddhaṃ pahīyatī"ti.
  9. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannaṃ vā uddhaccakukkuccaṃ nuppajjati uppannaṃ vā uddhaccakukkuccaṃ pahīyati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, cetaso vūpasamo. vūpasantacittassa, bhikkhave, anuppannañceva uddhaccakukkuccaṃ nuppajjati uppannañca uddhaccakukkuccaṃ pahīyatī"ti.
  10. “nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā vicikicchā nuppajjati uppannā vā vicikicchā pahīyati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, yonisomanasikāro. yoniso, bhikkhave, manasi karoto anuppannā ceva vicikicchā nuppajjati uppannā ca vicikicchā pahīyatī"ti.
classDiagram
  class sentence["nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppanno vā kāmacchando uppajjati [n'] uppanno vā kāmacchando [bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya/pahīyati] saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, [subhanimittaṃ/asubhanimittaṃ]"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(I don't perceive, bhikkhus, yet another thing which [does not] leads to sensual desire arising [from nonexistence] when it appears, or sensual desire [increasing when it grows/ceasing], as this, bhikkhus, [beauty/repulsiveness].)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class ahaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    english(I)
  }
  class bhikkhave {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨂⓪
  }
  class aññaṃ {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(other)
  }
  class ekadhammaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(one thing)
  }
  class pi {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(too)
  }
  class samanupassāmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀👆vattamāna
    english(I perceive)
  }
  class yena {
    <<anvayīnāma>>
    🚻⨀②
    english(by when)
  }
  namespace result {
    class kāmacchando {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(sensual desire)
    }
  }
  namespace alternates {
    class vā {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(or)
    }
    class anuppanno {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(nonexistent)
    }
    class uppajjati {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟vattamāna
      english(arises)
    }
    class uppanno {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(appeared)
    }
    class bhiyyobhāvāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀④
      english(increase of)
    }
    class vepullāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀④
      english(growth of)
    }
  }
  class saṃvattati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀🤟vattamāna
    english(leads to)
  }
  class yatha {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(as)
  }
  class idaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    🚻⨀②
    english(this)
  }
  namespace trigger {
    class subhanimittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀②
      english(beauty)
    }
    class asubhanimittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(repulsiveness)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- na
  sentence *-- ahaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- bhikkhave
  sentence *-- aññaṃ
  sentence *-- ekadhammaṃ
  sentence *-- pi
  sentence *-- samanupassāmi : kiriyā
  sentence *-- yena
  sentence *-- vā
  sentence *-- anuppanno
  sentence *-- kāmacchando
  sentence *-- uppajjati
  sentence *-- uppanno
  sentence *-- bhiyyobhāvāya
  sentence *-- vepullāya
  sentence *-- saṃvattati
  sentence *-- yatha
  sentence *-- idaṃ
  sentence *-- subhanimittaṃ
  na -- samanupassāmi
  aññaṃ .. ekadhammaṃ
  ahaṃ --> samanupassāmi : kattar
  ekadhammaṃ --> samanupassāmi : kamma
  ekadhammaṃ .. idaṃ
  pi .. ekadhammaṃ
  yena <.. ekadhammaṃ
  yena ..> anuppanno
  yatha .. idaṃ
  kāmacchando --> uppajjati : kattar
  kāmacchando --> bhiyyobhāvāya
  uppajjati --> uppanno
  bhiyyobhāvāya --> vepullāya
  anuppanno <-- saṃvattati
  uppanno <-- saṃvattati
  vepullāya <-- saṃvattati
  idaṃ -- subhanimittaṃ
  subhanimittaṃ --> saṃvattati
classDiagram
  class sentence["[subhanimittaṃ/asubhanimittaṃ], bhikkhave, ayoniso manasi karoto anuppanno ceva kāmacchando [n'] uppajjati uppanno ca kāmacchando [bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya/pahīyati] saṃvattatī"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english([Beauty/Repulsiveness], bhikkhus, when [a person] dwells on it imprudently, [does not] leads to sensual desire arising [from nonexistence] when it appears, and sensual desire [increasing when it grows/ceasing].)
  }
  namespace trigger {
    class subhanimittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(beauty)
    }
  }
  class bhikkhave {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨂⓪
  }
  class ayoniso {
    <<kriyā>>
    english(imprudently)
  }
  class manasi {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(mind)
  }
  class karoto {
    <<missakiriya>>
    ⨀①
    english(doing)
  }
  namespace result {
    class kāmacchando {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(sensual desire)
    }
  }
  class ceva {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(but then)
  }
  namespace conjunction {
    class ca {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(and)
    }
    class anuppanno {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(nonexistent)
    }
    class uppajjati {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟vattamāna
      english(arises)
    }
    class uppanno {
      <<atītakiriya>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(appeared)
    }
    class bhiyyobhāvāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀④
      english(increase of)
    }
    class vepullāya {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀④
      english(growth of)
    }
  }
  class saṃvattati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀🤟vattamāna
    english(leads to)
  }
  sentence *-- subhanimittaṃ
  sentence *-- bhikkhave
  sentence *-- ayoniso
  sentence *-- manasi
  sentence *-- karoto
  sentence *-- ceva
  sentence *-- ca
  sentence *-- anuppanno
  sentence *-- kāmacchando
  sentence *-- uppajjati
  sentence *-- uppanno
  sentence *-- bhiyyobhāvāya
  sentence *-- vepullāya
  sentence *-- saṃvattati
  ayoniso --> karoto
  manasi --> karoto
  karoto ..> ceva
  ceva ..> anuppanno
  kāmacchando --> uppajjati : kattar
  kāmacchando --> bhiyyobhāvāya
  uppajjati --> uppanno
  bhiyyobhāvāya --> vepullāya
  anuppanno <-- saṃvattati
  uppanno <-- saṃvattati
  vepullāya <-- saṃvattati
  subhanimittaṃ --> saṃvattati
  subhanimittaṃ --> karoto
classDiagram
  class līnacitta["arati tandī vijambhitā bhattasammado cetaso ca līnattaṃ"] {
    <<pada>>
    english(thoughts of boredom, laziness, sleepiness, food coma and sluggishness)
  }
  class avūpasantacitta["cetaso avūpasamo"] {
    <<pada>>
    english(thoughts of agitation)
  }
  class ayonisomanasikāro {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(imprudent use of mind)
  }
  namespace trigger {
    class subhanimittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(beauty)
    }
    class paṭighanimittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(dislike)
    }
    class līnacittassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀⑥
      english(of sluggish mind)
    }
    class avūpasantacittassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀⑥
      english(of agitated mind)
    }
    class ayoniso {
      <<kriyā>>
      english(imprudently)
    }
  }
  namespace result {
    class kāmacchando {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(sensual desire)
    }
    class byāpādo {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(ill will)
    }
    class thinamiddhaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(sloth and torpor)
    }
    class uddhaccakukkuccaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(restlessness and fidgetiness)
    }
    class vicikicchā {
      <<nāma>>
      🚺⨀①
      english(doubt)
    }
  }
  namespace nontrigger {
    class asubhanimittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(repulsiveness)
    }
    class mettaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(benevolence)
    }
    class āraddhavīriyassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀⑥
      english(who is energetic)
    }
    class vūpasantacittassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀⑥
      english(of calm mind)
    }
    class yoniso {
      <<kriyā>>
      english(prudently)
    }
  }
  subhanimittaṃ .. kāmacchando
  kāmacchando .. asubhanimittaṃ
  paṭighanimittaṃ .. byāpādo
  byāpādo .. mettaṃ
  līnacitta .. līnacittassa
  līnacittassa .. thinamiddhaṃ
  thinamiddhaṃ .. āraddhavīriyassa
  avūpasantacitta .. avūpasantacittassa
  avūpasantacittassa .. uddhaccakukkuccaṃ
  uddhaccakukkuccaṃ .. vūpasantacittassa
  ayonisomanasikāro .. ayoniso
  ayoniso .. vicikicchā
  vicikicchā .. yoniso

3.4 - saraṇattaya

The Three Refuges

Khp. 1:

buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi,
dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi,
saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi.
dutiyampi buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi,
dutiyampi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi,
dutiyampi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi.
tatiyampi buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi,
tatiyampi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi,
tatiyampi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi.

classDiagram
  class sentence["dutiyampi/tatiyampi buddhaṃ/dhammaṃ/saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english((For the second/third time) I go to the Buddha/Dhamma/Sangha as refuge)
  }
  namespace saṅkhyāpūraṇa {
    class dutiyaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      ②
      english(second time)
    }
    class tatiyaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      ②
      english(third time)
    }
  }
  class pi {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(too)
  }
  namespace saraṇa {
    class buddhaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
    }
    class dhammaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
    }
    class saṅghaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
    }
  }
  class saraṇaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
     🚹⨀②
    english(as refuge)
  }
  class gacchāmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆vattamāna
    english(I go)
  }
  sentence *-- dutiyaṃ
  sentence *-- tatiyaṃ
  sentence *-- pi
  sentence *-- buddhaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- dhammaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- saṅghaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- saraṇaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- gacchāmi: kiriya
  buddhaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
  dhammaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
  saṅghaṃ .. saraṇaṃ
sequenceDiagram
participant ahaṃ as (ahaṃ)
participant buddhaṃ
participant dhammaṃ
participant saṅghaṃ
  loop (paṭhama), dutiyampi, tatiyampi
    ahaṃ ->> buddhaṃ : gacchāmi
    buddhaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
    ahaṃ ->> dhammaṃ : gacchāmi
    dhammaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
    ahaṃ ->> saṅghaṃ : gacchāmi
    saṅghaṃ ->> saraṇaṃ : (hoti)
  end
stateDiagram-v2
  state fork_state <<fork>>
  state join_state <<join>>
  [*] --> fork_state : gacchāmi
  fork_state --> buddhaṃ
  fork_state --> dhammaṃ
  fork_state --> saṅghaṃ
  buddhaṃ --> join_state
  dhammaṃ --> join_state
  saṅghaṃ --> join_state
  join_state --> saraṇaṃ
  saraṇaṃ --> fork_state : dutiyampi, tatiyampi

3.5 - saḷāyatanavibhaṅgo

Analysis of the Six Sense Fields
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# saḷāyatanavibhaṅgo
## cha ajjhattikāni āyatanāni
### cakkhāyatanaṁ
### sotāyatanaṁ
### ghānāyatanaṁ
### jivhāyatanaṁ
### kāyāyatanaṁ
### manāyatanaṁ
## cha bāhirāni āyatanāni
### rūpāyatanaṁ
### saddāyatanaṁ
### gandhāyatanaṁ
### rasāyatanaṁ
### phoṭṭhabbāyatanaṁ
### dhammāyatanaṁ
## cha viññāṇakāyā
### cakkhuviññāṇaṁ
### sotaviññāṇaṁ
### ghānaviññāṇaṁ
### jivhāviññāṇaṁ
### kāyaviññāṇaṁ
### manoviññāṇaṁ
## cha phassakāyā
### cakkhusamphasso
### sotasamphasso
### ghānasamphasso
### jivhāsamphasso
### kāyasamphasso
### manosamphasso
## aṭṭhārasa manopavicārā
### cakkhunā rūpaṁ disvā
#### somanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### domanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### upekkhāṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
### Sotena saddaṁ sutvā
#### somanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### domanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### upekkhāṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
### ghānena gandhaṁ ghāyitvā
#### somanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### domanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### upekkhāṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
### jivhāya rasaṁ sāyitvā
#### somanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### domanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### upekkhāṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
### kāyena phoṭṭhabbaṁ phusitvā
#### somanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### domanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
#### upekkhāṭṭhānīyaṁ rūpaṁ upavicarati
### manasā dhammaṁ viññāya
#### somanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ dhammaṁ upavicarati
#### domanassaṭṭhānīyaṁ dhammaṁ upavicarati
#### upekkhāṭṭhānīyaṁ dhammaṁ upavicarati
## chattiṁsa sattapadā
### cha gehasitāni somanassāni
- Cakkhuviññeyyānaṁ rūpānaṁ iṭṭhānaṁ kantānaṁ manāpānaṁ manoramānaṁ lokāmisapaṭisaṁyuttānaṁ paṭilābhaṁ vā paṭilābhato samanupassato pubbe vā paṭiladdhapubbaṁ atītaṁ niruddhaṁ vipariṇataṁ samanussarato uppajjati somanassaṁ. Yaṁ evarūpaṁ somanassaṁ idaṁ vuccati nekkhammasitaṁ somanassaṁ.
- Sotaviññeyyānaṁ saddānaṁ …
- ghānaviññeyyānaṁ gandhānaṁ …
- jivhāviññeyyānaṁ rasānaṁ …
- kāyaviññeyyānaṁ phoṭṭhabbānaṁ …
- manoviññeyyānaṁ dhammānaṁ …
### cha nekkhammasitāni somanassāni
- Rūpānaṁ tveva aniccataṁ viditvā vipariṇāmavirāganirodhaṁ, ‘pubbe ceva rūpā etarahi ca sabbe te rūpā aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā’ti evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya passato uppajjati somanassaṁ. Yaṁ evarūpaṁ somanassaṁ idaṁ vuccati nekkhammasitaṁ somanassaṁ
- Saddānaṁ tveva …
- gandhānaṁ tveva …
- rasānaṁ tveva …
- phoṭṭhabbānaṁ tveva …
- dhammānaṁ tveva aniccataṁ viditvā vipariṇāmavirāganirodhaṁ, ‘pubbe ceva dhammā etarahi ca sabbe te dhammā aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā’ti evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya passato uppajjati somanassaṁ. Yaṁ evarūpaṁ somanassaṁ idaṁ vuccati nekkhammasitaṁ somanassaṁ.
### cha gehasitāni domanassāni
- Cakkhuviññeyyānaṁ rūpānaṁ … pe…
- sotaviññeyyānaṁ saddānaṁ …
- ghānaviññeyyānaṁ gandhānaṁ …
- jivhāviññeyyānaṁ rasānaṁ …
- kāyaviññeyyānaṁ phoṭṭhabbānaṁ …
- manoviññeyyānaṁ dhammānaṁ iṭṭhānaṁ kantānaṁ manāpānaṁ manoramānaṁ lokāmisapaṭisaṁyuttānaṁ appaṭilābhaṁ vā appaṭilābhato samanupassato pubbe vā appaṭiladdhapubbaṁ atītaṁ niruddhaṁ vipariṇataṁ samanussarato uppajjati domanassaṁ. Yaṁ evarūpaṁ domanassaṁ idaṁ vuccati gehasitaṁ domanassaṁ.
### cha nekkhammasitāni domanassāni
- Rūpānaṁ tveva aniccataṁ viditvā vipariṇāmavirāganirodhaṁ, ‘pubbe ceva rūpā etarahi ca sabbe te rūpā aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā’ti evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya disvā anuttaresu vimokkhesu pihaṁ upaṭṭhāpeti: ‘kudāssu nāmāhaṁ tadāyatanaṁ upasampajja viharissāmi yadariyā etarahi āyatanaṁ upasampajja viharantī’ti iti anuttaresu vimokkhesu pihaṁ upaṭṭhāpayato uppajjati pihapaccayā domanassaṁ. Yaṁ evarūpaṁ domanassaṁ idaṁ vuccati nekkhammasitaṁ domanassaṁ.
- Saddānaṁ tveva …pe…
- gandhānaṁ tveva …
- rasānaṁ tveva …
- phoṭṭhabbānaṁ tveva …
- dhammānaṁ tveva aniccataṁ viditvā vipariṇāmavirāganirodhaṁ, ‘pubbe ceva dhammā etarahi ca sabbe te dhammā aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā’ti evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya disvā anuttaresu vimokkhesu pihaṁ upaṭṭhāpeti: ‘kudāssu nāmāhaṁ tadāyatanaṁ upasampajja viharissāmi yadariyā etarahi āyatanaṁ upasampajja viharantī’ti iti anuttaresu vimokkhesu pihaṁ upaṭṭhāpayato uppajjati pihapaccayā domanassaṁ. Yaṁ evarūpaṁ domanassaṁ idaṁ vuccati nekkhammasitaṁ domanassaṁ.
### cha gehasitā upekkhā
- Cakkhunā rūpaṁ disvā uppajjati upekkhā bālassa mūḷhassa puthujjanassa anodhijinassa avipākajinassa anādīnavadassāvino assutavato puthujjanassa. Yā evarūpā upekkhā, rūpaṁ sā nātivattati. Tasmā sā upekkhā ‘gehasitā’ti vuccati.
- Sotena saddaṁ sutvā …
- ghānena gandhaṁ ghāyitvā …
- jivhāya rasaṁ sāyitvā …
- kāyena phoṭṭhabbaṁ phusitvā …
- manasā dhammaṁ viññāya uppajjati upekkhā bālassa mūḷhassa puthujjanassa anodhijinassa avipākajinassa anādīnavadassāvino assutavato puthujjanassa. Yā evarūpā upekkhā, dhammaṁ sā nātivattati. Tasmā sā upekkhā ‘gehasitā’ti vuccati.
### cha nekkhammasitā upekkhā
- Rūpānaṁ tveva aniccataṁ viditvā vipariṇāmavirāganirodhaṁ, ‘pubbe ceva rūpā etarahi ca sabbe te rūpā aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā’ti evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya passato uppajjati upekkhā. Yā evarūpā upekkhā, rūpaṁ sā ativattati. Tasmā sā upekkhā ‘nekkhammasitā’ti vuccati.
- Saddānaṁ tveva …
- gandhānaṁ tveva …
- rasānaṁ tveva …
- phoṭṭhabbānaṁ tveva …
- dhammānaṁ tveva aniccataṁ viditvā vipariṇāmavirāganirodhaṁ, ‘pubbe ceva dhammā etarahi ca sabbe te dhammā aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā’ti evametaṁ yathābhūtaṁ sammappaññāya passato uppajjati upekkhā. Yā evarūpā upekkhā, dhammaṁ sā ativattati. Tasmā sā upekkhā ‘nekkhammasitā’ti vuccati.

Reference

3.6 - paṭiccasamuppādo

Dependent Origination

(DN15):

  • hetu (root, cause, reason, condition)
  • nidānaṁ (cause, ground, underlying and determining factor)
  • samudayo (rise, origin)
  • paccayo (support, requirement, reason, cause, ground, motive, means, condition)

kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo (origin of the entire mass of suffering)

dvādasaṅga

12 link dependent origination

stateDiagram-v2
  [*] --> avijjā
  state fork_state <<fork>>
  state join_state <<join>>
  avijjā --> saṅkhārā
  saṅkhārā --> viññāṇaṁ
  viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
  nāmarūpaṁ --> viññāṇaṁ : SN 12.67
  nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
  saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
  phasso --> vedanā
  vedanā --> taṇhā
  taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
  upādānaṁ --> bhavo
  bhavo --> jāti
  jāti --> fork_state
  fork_state --> jarāmaraṇaṁ
  fork_state --> sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā
  jarāmaraṇaṁ --> join_state
  sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā --> join_state
  state jarāmaraṇaṁ {
    [*] --> jarā
    [*] --> maraṇaṁ
  }
  state sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā {
    [*] --> soko
    [*] --> paridevo
    [*] --> dukkho
    [*] --> domanassaṃ
    [*] --> upāyāso
  }
  join_state --> [*]

Transcendental Dependent Origination

flowchart TB
  subgraph paṭiccasamuppādo
    direction LR
    avijjā --> saṅkhārā
    saṅkhārā --> viññāṇaṁ
    viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
    nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
    saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
    phasso --> vedanā
    vedanā --> taṇhā
    taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
    upādānaṁ --> bhavo
    bhavo --> jāti
  end
  subgraph transcendental
    direction LR
    saddho --> pāmojjaṃ
    pāmojjaṃ --> pīti
    pīti --> passaddhi
    passaddhi --> sukho
    sukho --> samādhi
    samādhi --> yathābhūtañāṇadassanaṃ
    yathābhūtañāṇadassanaṃ --> nibbidā
    nibbidā --> virāgo
    virāgo --> vimutti
    vimutti --> khayeñāṇaṁ
  end
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> transcendental

Wrong vs Right practice (SN 12.3)

sequenceDiagram
  alt micchāpaṭipadā
    avijjā->>saṅkhārā: paccayā
    saṅkhārā ->> viññāṇaṁ: paccayā
    viññāṇaṁ ->> nāmarūpaṁ: paccayā
    nāmarūpaṁ ->> saḷāyatanaṁ: paccayā
    saḷāyatanaṁ ->> phasso: paccayā
    phasso ->> vedanā: paccayā
    vedanā ->> taṇhā: paccayā
    taṇhā ->> upādānaṁ: paccayā
    upādānaṁ ->> bhavo: paccayā
    bhavo ->> jāti: paccayā
  else sammāpaṭipadā
    avijjā->>saṅkhārā: asesavirāganirodhā
    saṅkhārā ->> viññāṇaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    viññāṇaṁ ->> nāmarūpaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    nāmarūpaṁ ->> saḷāyatanaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    saḷāyatanaṁ ->> phasso: asesavirāganirodhā
    phasso ->> vedanā: asesavirāganirodhā
    vedanā ->> taṇhā: asesavirāganirodhā
    taṇhā ->> upādānaṁ: asesavirāganirodhā
    upādānaṁ ->> bhavo: asesavirāganirodhā
    bhavo ->> jāti: asesavirāganirodhā
  end

Analysis (SN 12.2)

# paṭiccasamuppādo
## avijjā
- dukkhe aññāṇaṁ
- dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṁ
- dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṁ
- dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya aññāṇaṁ
## saṅkhārā
- kāyasaṅkhāro
- vacīsaṅkhāro
- cittasaṅkhāro

mindmap
avijjā
  dukkhe aññāṇaṁ
  dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṁ
  dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṁ
  dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya aññāṇaṁ
mindmap
saṅkhārā
  kāyasaṅkhāro
  vacīsaṅkhāro
  cittasaṅkhāro
mindmap
viññāṇaṁ
  cakkhuviññāṇaṁ
  sotaviññāṇaṁ
  ghānaviññāṇaṁ
  jivhāviññāṇaṁ
  kāyaviññāṇaṁ
  manoviññāṇaṁ
mindmap
nāmarūpaṁ
  nāmaṁ
    vedanā
    saññā
    cetanā
    phasso
    manasikāro
  rūpaṁ
    cattāro mahābhūtā
    catunnañ mahābhūtānaṁ upādāyarūpaṁ
mindmap
saḷāyatanaṁ
  cakkhāyatanaṁ
  sotāyatanaṁ
  ghānāyatanaṁ
  jivhāyatanaṁ
  kāyāyatanaṁ
  manāyatanaṁ
mindmap
phasso
  cakkhusamphasso
  sotasamphasso
  ghānasamphasso
  jivhāsamphasso
  kāyasamphasso
  manosamphasso
mindmap
vedanā
  cakkhusamphassajā vedanā
  sotasamphassajā vedanā
  ghānasamphassajā vedanā
  jivhāsamphassajā vedanā
  kāyasamphassajā vedanā
  manosamphassajā vedanā
mindmap
taṇhā
  rūpataṇhā
  saddataṇhā
  gandhataṇhā
  rasataṇhā
  phoṭṭhabbataṇhā
  dhammataṇhā
mindmap
upādānaṁ
  kāmupādānaṁ
  diṭṭhupādānaṁ
  sīlabbatupādānaṁ
  attavādupādānaṁ
mindmap
bhavo
  kāmabhavo
  rūpabhavo
  arūpabhavo
mindmap
jāti
  jāti
  sañjāti
  okkanti
  abhinibbatti
  khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo
  āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho
mindmap
jarāmaraṇaṁ
  jarā
    jarā
    jīraṇatā
    khaṇḍiccaṁ
    pāliccaṁ
    valittacatā
    āyuno saṁhāni
    indriyānaṁ paripāko
  maraṇaṁ
    cuti
    cavanatā bhedo
    antaradhānaṁ
    maccu
    maraṇaṁ
    kālakiriyā
    khandhānaṁ bhedo
    kaḷevarassa nikkhepo
mindmap
āhāro
  kabaḷīkāro āhāro
    oḷāriko
    sukhumo
  phasso
  manosañcetanā
  viññāṇaṁ
mindmap
dasabalasamannāgato
  rūpaṁ
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  vedanā
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  saññā
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  saṅkhārā
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
  viññāṇaṁ
    samudayo
    atthaṅgamo
mindmap
vesārajjaṃ
  imasmiṁ sati idaṁ hoti
  imassuppādā idaṁ uppajjati
  imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti
  imassa nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati

paṭiccasamuppannā dhammā (Dependent origination characteristics) SN 12.20

This sutta is written in a satirical style (similar to that in AN 3.136) where the Buddha uses the formula for dependent origination to refute core Vedic beliefs, including the Vedic creation myth. The satirical text plays on the Vedic preoccupation with dhamma as regular, invariant natural principles.

The parallels between the Dependent Origination links and core Vedic beliefs are explored by Joanna Jurewicz in Playing with Fire: The pratītyasamutpāda from the perspective of Vedic thought, Journal of the Pali Text Society 26 (2000) pp. 77 – 103.

flowchart LR
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> aniccaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> saṅkhataṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> paṭiccasamuppannaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> khayadhammaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> vayadhammaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> virāgadhammaṁ
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> nirodhadhammaṁ

Naḷakalāpīsutta (SN 12.67)

flowchart LR
  c1>na sayaṅkataṁ]
  c2>na paraṅkataṁ]
  c3>na sayaṅkatañca paraṅkatañca]
  c4>nāpi asayaṅkāraṁ aparaṅkāraṁ adhiccasamuppannaṁ]
  subgraph paṭiccasamuppādo
    direction TB
    viññāṇaṁ --> nāmarūpaṁ
    nāmarūpaṁ --> saḷāyatanaṁ
    saḷāyatanaṁ --> phasso
    phasso --> vedanā
    vedanā --> taṇhā
    taṇhā --> upādānaṁ
    upādānaṁ --> bhavo
    bhavo --> jāti
    jāti --> jarāmaraṇaṁ
  end
  c1 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  c2 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  c3 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  c4 --> paṭiccasamuppādo
  paṭiccasamuppādo --> bhikkhu
  subgraph bhikkhu
    direction LR
    nibbidāya --> dhammaṁ
    nibbidāya --> paṭipanno
    nibbidāya --> vimutto
    virāgāya --> dhammaṁ
    virāgāya --> paṭipanno
    virāgāya --> vimutto
    nirodhāya --> dhammaṁ
    nirodhāya --> paṭipanno
    nirodhāya --> vimutto
  end

Training (SN 12.93)

#  jarāmaraṇe yathābhūtaṁ ñāṇāya
- sikkhā karaṇīyā
- yogo karaṇīyo
- chando karaṇīyo
- ussoḷhī karaṇīyā
- appaṭivānī karaṇīyā
- ātappaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
- vīriyaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
- sātaccaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
- sati karaṇīyā
- sampajaññaṁ karaṇīyaṁ
- appamādo karaṇīyo

Reference

3.7 - cattāro satipaṭṭhānā

the four kinds of mindfulness meditation

cattāri ariyasaccāni

viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṁ (keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world)

---
markmap:
  zoom: false
  pan: false
---
# cattāri ariyasaccāni
## kāye kāyānupassī
- body
## vedanāsu vedanānupassī
- feelings
## citte cittānupassī
- mind
## dhammesu dhammānupassī
- principles

Reference

3.7.1 - Kāyānupassanā

body

Kāyānupassanāānāpānapabba

---
markmap:
  zoom: false
  pan: false
---
# kāyānupassanā
## Kāyānupassanāānāpānapabba
- Mindfulness of Breathing
## Kāyānupassanāiriyāpathapabba
- The Postures
## Kāyānupassanāsampajānapabba
- Situational Awareness
## Kāyānupassanāpaṭikūlamanasikārapabba
- Focusing on the Repulsive
## Kāyānupassanādhātumanasikārapabba
- Focusing on the Elements
## Kāyānupassanānavasivathikapabba
- The Charnel Ground Contemplations

Reference

3.7.2 - Kāyānupassanāānāpānapabba

breathing

Kāyānupassanāānāpānapabba

stateDiagram-v2
    state bhikkhu <<choice>>
    [*] --> bhikkhu
    bhikkhu --> araññagato
    bhikkhu --> rukkhamūlagato
    bhikkhu --> suññāgāragato
    araññagato --> nisīdati_pallaṅkaṁ
    rukkhamūlagato --> nisīdati_pallaṅkaṁ
    suññāgāragato --> nisīdati_pallaṅkaṁ
    nisīdati_pallaṅkaṁ --> ābhujitvā_ujuṁ
    ābhujitvā_ujuṁ --> parimukhaṁ_satiṁ_upaṭṭhapetvā
    parimukhaṁ_satiṁ_upaṭṭhapetvā --> [*]

Reference

3.8 - pañcupādānakkhandhā

five grasping aggregates
mindmap
pañcupādānakkhandhā
  rūpupādānakkhandho
  vedanupādānakkhandho
  saññupādānakkhandho
  saṅkhārupādānakkhandho
  viññāṇupādānakkhandho
---
markmap:
  zoom: false
  pan: false
---
# pañcupādānakkhandhā
## rūpupādānakkhandho
- form
## vedanupādānakkhandho
- feeling
## saññupādānakkhandho
- perception
## saṅkhārupādānakkhandho
- choices (intentional activities)
## viññāṇupādānakkhandho
- consciousness

Reference

4 - Abhidhamma Piṭaka

Summary of key concepts from the Abhidhamma

4.1 - Abhidhamm Sangaha

Ācariya Anuruddha’s Abhidhammattha Sangaha is the main primer for the study of Abhidhamma used throughout the Theravādin Buddhist world.

thutivacana (Words of Praise)

Sammāsambuddham atulaṁ
Sasaddhammagaṇuttamaṁ
Abhivādiya bhāsissaṁ
Abhidhammatthasangahaṁ.

4.1.1 - Catudhā Paramattha

The Fourfold Ultimate Reality

Tattha vutt’ábhidhammatthá
Catudhá paramatthato
Cittaí cetasikaí rúpaí
Nibbánam iti sabbathá.

C4Context
      title catudhá paramattha
      Enterprise_Boundary(b0, "Abhidhamma") {
        System(citta, "citta", "consciousness")
        System(cetasika, "cetasika", "mental factors")
        System(rupa, "rūpa", "matter")
        System(nibbana, "Nibbāna", "Nirvana")
      }

4.1.2 - Cittasangahavibhāga

Compendium of Consciousness

Tattha cittaṁ tāva catubbidhaṁ hoti:

  1. kāmāvacaraṁ;
  2. rūpā-vacaraṁ;
  3. arūpāvacaraṁ;
  4. lokuttarañ cā ti.
lakkhaṇa (salient quality)
vijānana (knowing of an object)
rasa (function), kicca (performance of a concrete task), sampatti (achievement of a goal)
pubbangama (forerunner of mental factors)
paccupaṭṭhāna (manifestation)
sandhāna (continuity of process)
padaṭṭhāna (proximate cause)
nāmarūpa (mind and matter)
@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
package "jāti (nature)" as jati {
  class kusala {
    Karmically wholesome
  }
  class akusala {
    Karmically unwholesome
  }
  package avyākata {
    class vipāka {
      Karmic resultant
    }
    class kiriya {
      Functional
    }
  }
}
package "kāmāvacara (Sense Sphere)" as kamavacara {
  class sobhana {
    Beautiful
    ..
    #kusala/vipāka/kiriya
    #somanassa/upekkhā
    #+/- ñāṇa
    #asaṁkhārika/sasaṁkhārika
  }
  class kusalavipāka <<enum>> {
    Wholesome-Resultant
    ..
    cakkhuviññāṇa + upekkhā (eye)
    sotaviññāṇa + upekkhā (ear)
    ghānaviññāṇa + upekkhā (nose)
    jivhāviññāṇa + upekkhā (tongue)
    kāyaviññāṇa + sukkha (body)
    sampaṭicchanacitta + upekkhā (receiving)
    santīraṇacitta + somanassa (investigating)
    santīraṇacitta + upekkhā (investigating)
  }
  class dosa {
    Hatred
    ..
    +domanassa
    +paṭigha
    #asaṁkhārika/sasaṁkhārika
  }
  class lobha {
    Greed
    ..
    #somanassa/upekkhā
    #+/- diṭṭhigata
    #asaṁkhārika/sasaṁkhārika
  }
  class moha {
    Delusion
    ..
    #upekkhā
    +vicikicchā/uddhacca
  }
  class akusalavipāka <<enum>> {
    Unwholesome-Resultant
    ..
    cakkhuviññāṇa + upekkhā (eye)
    sotaviññāṇa + upekkhā (ear)
    ghānaviññāṇa + upekkhā (nose)
    jivhāviññāṇa + upekkhā (tongue)
    kāyaviññāṇa + dukkha (body)
    sampaṭicchanacitta + upekkhā (receiving)
    santīraṇacitta + upekkhā (investigating)
  }
  class ahetukakiriya <<enum>> {
    Functional
    ..
    pañcadvārāvajjanacitta + upekkhā (sense door)
    manodvārāvajjanacitta + upekkhā (mind door)
    hasituppādacitta + somanassa (smile producing)
  }
}

class domanassa {
  displeasure
}
class paṭigha {
  aversion
}
class somanassa {
  joy
}
class upekkhā {
  equanimity
}
class sukkha {
  pleasure
}
class dukkha {
  pain
}
class ñāṇa {
  knowledge
}
class diṭṭhigata {
  wrong view
}
class vicikicchā {
  doubt
}
class uddhacca {
  restlessness
}

kiriya *-- "3" ahetukakiriya
kiriya *-- "8" sobhana
vipāka *-- "7" akusalavipāka
vipāka *-- "8" kusalavipāka
vipāka *-- "8" sobhana
kusala *-- "8" sobhana : mūla
kusala *-- "8" kusalavipāka : ahetuka
akusala *-- "7" akusalavipāka : ahetuka
akusalavipāka --> upekkhā : sahagata
akusalavipāka --> dukkha : sahagata
kusalavipāka --> upekkhā : sahagata
kusalavipāka --> sukkha : sahagata
kusalavipāka --> somanassa : sahagata
sobhana --> somanassa : sahagata
sobhana --> upekkhā : sahagata
sobhana --+ ñāṇa : sampayutta
akusala *-- "8" lobha : mūla
akusala *-- "2" dosa : mūla
akusala *-- "2" moha : mūla
dosa --> domanassa : sahagata
dosa --+ paṭigha : sampayutta
lobha --+ diṭṭhigata : sampayutta
lobha --> somanassa : sahagata
lobha --> upekkhā : sahagata
moha --+ vicikicchā : sampayutta
moha --+ uddhacca : sampayutta
moha --> upekkhā : sahagata

@enduml

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
package "jāti (nature)" as jati {
  class kusala {
    Karmically wholesome
  }
  class akusala {
    Karmically unwholesome
  }
  package avyākata {
    class vipāka {
      Karmic resultant
    }
    class kiriya {
      Functional
    }
  }
}
package "rūpāvacara (Fine Material Sphere)" as rupavacara {
  class rūpāvacaracitta {
    Fine Material
    ..
    #kusala/vipāka/kiriya
    1. Vitakka-vicāra-pīti-sukh’-ekaggatā-sahitaṁ paṭhamajjhāna
    2. Vicāra-pīti-sukh’-ekaggatā-sahitaṁ dutiyajjhāna
    3. Pīti-sukh’-ekaggatā-sahitaṁ tatiyajjhāna
    4. Sukh’-ekaggatā-sahitaṁ catutthajjhāna
    5. Upekkh’-ekaggatā-sahitaṁ pañcamajjhāna
  }
}
class vitakka {
  Initial application
}
class vicāra {
  Sustained application
}
class pīti {
  zest
}
class sukkha {
  happiness
}
class upekkhā {
  equanimity
}
class ekaggatā {
  one-pointedness
}
kusala *-- "5" rūpāvacaracitta
vipāka *-- "5" rūpāvacaracitta
kiriya *-- "5" rūpāvacaracitta
rūpāvacaracitta --> vitakka
rūpāvacaracitta --> vicāra
rūpāvacaracitta --> pīti
rūpāvacaracitta --> sukkha
rūpāvacaracitta --> upekkhā
rūpāvacaracitta --> ekaggatā

package "arūpāvacara (Immaterial Sphere)" as arupavacara {
  class arūpāvacaracitta {
    Immaterial
    ..
    #kusala/vipāka/kiriya
    1. Ākāsānañcāyatana
    2. Viññāṇañcāyatana
    3. Ākiñcaññāyatana
    4. N’evasaññān’āsaññāyatana
  }
}
class Ākāsānañcāyatana {
  Infinity of Space
}
class Viññāṇañcāyatana {
  Infinity of Consciousness
}
class Ākiñcaññāyatana {
  Nothingness
}
class "N’evasaññān’āsaññāyatana" {
  Neither perception nor non perception
}
kusala *-- "4" arūpāvacaracitta
vipāka *-- "4" arūpāvacaracitta
kiriya *-- "4" arūpāvacaracitta
arūpāvacaracitta --> Ākāsānañcāyatana
arūpāvacaracitta --> Viññāṇañcāyatana
arūpāvacaracitta --> Ākiñcaññāyatana
arūpāvacaracitta --> "N’evasaññān’āsaññāyatana"

package "lokuttarañ (Supramundane)" as lokuttaran {
  class lokuttaracitta {
    Supra Mundane
    ..
    #magga/phala
    #jhána (5)
    1. Sotāpatti
    2. Sakadāgāmī
    3. Anāgāmī
    4. Arahatta
  }
}
class sotāpatti {
  stream entry
}
class sakadāgāmī {
  once returning
}
class anāgāmī {
  non-returning
}
class arahatta {
  arahantship
}
kusala *-- "4 (x5)" lokuttaracitta
vipāka *-- "4 (x5)" lokuttaracitta
lokuttaracitta --> sotāpatti
lokuttaracitta --> sakadāgāmī
lokuttaracitta --> anāgāmī
lokuttaracitta --> arahatta
@enduml

cittasangahavibhāga 89

cittasangahavibhāga 121

4.1.3 - Cetasikasangahavibhāga

Compendium of Mental Factors

Ekuppāda-nirodhā ca ekālambana-vatthukā
Cetoyuttā dvipaññāsa dhammā cetasikā matā.

@startmindmap
*:==aññasamānacetasika
----
Ethically Variable Factors;
**:===sabbacittasādhāraṇa
----
Universals;
***_ 1. Contact (phassa)
***_ 2. Feeling (vedanā)
***_ 3. Perception (saññā)
***_ 4. Volition (cetanā)
***_ 5. One-pointedness (ekaggatā)
***_ 6. Mental life faculty (jīvitindriya)
***_ 7. Attention (manasikāra)
**:===pakiṇṇaka
----
Occasionals;
***_ 8. Initial application (vitakka)
***_ 9. Sustained application (vicāra)
***_ 10. Decision (adhimokkha)
***_ 11. Energy (viriya)
***_ 12. Zest (pīti)
***_ 13. Desire (chanda)
*:==akusalacetasika
----
Unwholesome Factors;
**:===sabbacittasādhāraṇa
----
Universals;
***_ 14. Delusion (moha)
***_ 15. Shamelessness (ahirika)
***_ 16. fearlessness of wrongdoing (anottappa)
***_ 17. Restlessness (uddhacca)
**:===pakiṇṇaka
----
Occasionals;
***_ 18. Greed (lobha)
***_ 19. Wrong view (diṭṭhi)
***_ 20. Conceit (māna)
***_ 21. Hatred (dosa)
***_ 22. Envy (issā)
***_ 23. Avarice (macchariya)
***_ 24. Worry (kukkucca)
***_ 25. Sloth (thīna)
***_ 26. Torpor (middha)
***_ 27. Doubt (vicikicchā)
*:==sobhanacetasika
----
Beautiful Factors;
**:===sobhanasādhāraṇa
----
Universals;
***_ 28. Faith (saddhā)
***_ 29. Mindfulness (sati)
***_ 30. Shame (hiri)
***_ 31. fear of wrongdoing (ottappa)
***_ 32. Non-greed (alobha)
***_ 33. Non-hatred (adosa)
***_ 34. Neutrality of mind (tatramajjhattatā)
***_ 35. Tranquillity of the (mental) body (kāyapassaddhi)
***_ 36. Tranquillity of consciousness (cittapassaddhi)
***_ 37. Lightness of the (mental) body (kāyalahutā)
***_ 38. Lightness of consciousness (cittalahutā)
***_ 39. Malleability of the (mental) body (kāyamudutā)
***_ 40. Malleability of consciousness (cittamudutā)
***_ 41. Wieldiness of the (mental) body (kāyakammaññatā)
***_ 42. Wieldiness of consciousness (cittakammaññatā)
***_ 43. Proficiency of the (mental) body (kāyapāguññatā)
***_ 44. Proficiency of consciousness (cittapāguññatā)
***_ 45. Rectitude of the (mental) body (kāyujjukatā)
***_ 46. Rectitude of consciousness (cittujjukatā)
**:===virati
----
Abstinences;
***_ 47. Right speech (sammāvācā)
***_ 48. Right action (sammākammanta)
***_ 49. Right livelihood (sammā-ājīva)
**:===appamaññā
----
Illimitables;
***_ 50. Compassion (karuṇā)
***_ 51. Appreciative joy (muditā)
**:===amoha
----
Non-Delusion;
***_ 52. wisdom faculty (paññā)
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members

class appamaññā {
  Illimitables
}
class brahmavihāra {
  divine abodes
  sublime states
}
class tatramajjhattatā {
  neutrality of mind
}
class upekkhā {
  equanimity
}
adosa <|-- mettā
tatramajjhattatā <|-- upekkhā
appamaññā <|-- upekkhā
appamaññā <|-- mettā
appamaññā <|-- karuṇā
appamaññā <|-- muditā
brahmavihāra <--> appamaññā

class mettā {
  loving-kindness
}
class karuṇā {
  compassion
}
class muditā {
  appreciative joy
}

class dosa {
  hatred
}
class adosa {
  non-hatred
}
dosa <-> adosa
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
class moha {
  delusion
}
class amoha {
  nondelusion
}
class ñāna {
  knowledge
}
class paññā {
  wisdom
}
moha <-> amoha
amoha <|-- ñāna
amoha <|-- paññā
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members

class ahiri {
  shamelessness
}
class hiri {
  shame
}
ahiri <-> hiri

class anottappa {
  fearlessness of wrongdoing
}
class ottappa {
  fear of wrongdoing
}
anottappa <-> ottappa
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
class lobha {
  greed
}
class alobha {
  non-greed
}
alobha <-> lobha

class vicikicchā {
  doubt
}
class saddhā {
  faith
}
vicikicchā <-> saddhā
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
class viriya {
  energy
}
class lahutā {
  lightness
}
class thīna {
  sloth
}
class middha {
  torpor
}
viriya <-> thīna
thīna <-> lahutā
lahutā <-> middha
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
class uddhacca {
  restlessness
}
class kukkucca {
  worry
}
class passaddhi {
  tranquility
}
uddhacca <-> passaddhi
passaddhi <-> kukkucca
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
class diṭṭhi {
  wrong view
}
class māna {
  conceit
}
class mudutā {
  malleability
}
diṭṭhi <-> mudutā
mudutā <-> māna
@endmindmap

@startuml
hide circle
hide empty members
class virati {
  abstinences
}
class sampattavirati {
  natural abstinence
}
class samādānavirati {
  abstinence by undertaking precepts
}
class sammucchedavirati {
  abstinence by eradication
}
virati *-- sampattavirati
virati *-- samādānavirati
virati *-- sammucchedavirati
@enduml

4.1.4 - Citta-Cetasika

Compendium of Mental Factors
  • cetasikasampayoganaya (Association of Mental Factors)
  • cetasikasangahanaya (Combinations of Mental Factors)

4.1.5 - kiccasangaha

Compendium of Functions
stateDiagram-v2
   direction TB

   classDef notMoving fill:white
   classDef movement font-style:italic
   classDef badBadEvent fill:#f00,color:white,font-weight:bold,stroke-width:2px,stroke:yellow


   paṭisandhi --> bhavanga
   bhavanga --> bhavanga
   bhavanga --> pañcadvāravīthi
   State pañcadvāravīthi {
    bhavangacalana: bhavanga-calana
    bhavangupaccheda: bhavang’-upaccheda
    javana: javana x7
    tadārammaṇa: tadārammaṇa x2
    bhavangacalana --> bhavangupaccheda
    bhavangupaccheda --> pañcadvārāvajjana
    state fork_state <<fork>>
    pañcadvārāvajjana --> fork_state
    fork_state --> cakkhuviññāṇaṁ
    fork_state --> sotaviññāṇaṁ
    fork_state --> ghānaviññāṇaṁ
    fork_state --> jivhāviññāṇaṁ
    fork_state --> kāyaviññāṇaṁ
    state join_state <<join>>
    cakkhuviññāṇaṁ --> join_state
    sotaviññāṇaṁ --> join_state
    ghānaviññāṇaṁ --> join_state
    jivhāviññāṇaṁ --> join_state
    kāyaviññāṇaṁ --> join_state
    join_state --> sampaṭicchana
    sampaṭicchana --> santīraṇa
    santīraṇa --> votthapana
    votthapana --> javana
    javana --> tadārammaṇa
   }
   pañcadvāravīthi --> bhavanga
   bhavanga--> cuti
   cuti --> paṭisandhi

5 - English Resources

Notes on the English Language

This section contains various English language resources, including descriptions of various English grammars.

5.1 - English in EBNF

The English language grammar, expressed in Extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF).

Grammatical levels

@startebnf
grammar = { sentence  (* unit of language *) }- ;

sentence = { clause (* word or phrase forming all or part of sentence *) }- ;
clause = { phrase (* group of words based on headword *) }- ;
phrase = { word (* self contained units of meaning *) }- ;
word = { morpheme (* lowest unit of language that can convey meaning *) }- ;
@endebnf

block-beta
columns 6
  sentence[["Sentence"]] s("The children watched a television programme
  while their mother made the tea."):5
  space:6
  clause[["Clause"]] c1("The children watched a television programme"):4 c2("their mother made the tea")
  c1-->s
  c2-->s
  space:6
  phrase[["Phrase"]] p1("The children"):2 p2("watched") p3("a television programme") space
  p1-->c1
  p2-->c1
  p3-->c1
  space:6
  word[["Word"]] w1("The") w2("children") space:3
  w1-->p1
  w2-->p1
  space:6
  morpheme[["Morpheme"]] m1("child") m2("ren") space:3
  m1-->w2
  m2-->w2

Words

@startebnf
word = content_word (* words that carry the meaning of the sentence *) |
  structure_word (* words that hold the sentence together *) ;
content_word =
  noun (* eg. "children" *) | 
  verb (* eg. "watched" *) |
  adjective (* eg. "green" *) |
  adverb (* eg. "slowly" *) ;
structure_word =
  pronoun (* eg. "they" *) |
  conjunction (* eg. "while" *) |
  preposition (* eg. "beside" *) |
  determiner (* eg. "the" *) ;
@endebnf

Types of Clauses

@startebnf
clause = declarative (* making statements*) |
  interrogative (* asking questions *) |
  imperative (* making commands and requests *) |
  exclamative (* making exclamations *) ;
@endebnf

Clause patterns

@startebnf
clause = Subject (* about X *), Predicate (* What about X? *);
clause = (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*hesitated*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*stabbed*) , Object (*Polonius*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*was*)  , Complement (*solitary*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*gave*) , indirect_object (*people*)  , direct_object (*surprises*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*drove*) , Object (*Ophelia*) , Complement (*mad*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*went*) , Adverbial (*away*) ) |
  (Subject (*Hamlet*) , Verb (*put*) , Object (*the sword*) , Adverbial (*down*) ) ;
predicate = Verb , ( Object , [Complement | Adverbial] | Complement | (indirect_object , direct_object) | Adverbial ) ;
Subject = noun |
  pronoun |
  noun_phrase ;
  (* topic *)
Verb = action | state | link (* to Complement or Adverbial *) ;
  (* develop the Subject *)
Object = noun |
  pronoun |
  noun_phrase ;
  (* person, thing or idea affected by action of Verb *)
Complement = noun |
  pronoun |
  noun_phrase |
  adjective |
  adjective_phrase ;
  (* refers to Subject *)
@endebnf

Note: verb and Verb are not the same. verb is a type of word, Verb is part of a clause (along with Subject and Object).

Nouns

@startebnf
(* person, thing, idea *)
noun = proper_noun (* people, places or things *) |
  common_noun | gerund (* Verbal noun *);
common_noun = countable_noun (* have singular and plural forms *) |
  uncountable_noun (* abstract ideas, or things considered in the mass *) ;
@endebnf

Pronouns

@startebnf
(* reference to noun phrase, general idea or nothing ("dummy Subject") *)
pronoun = personal_pronoun (* reference to previous or upcoming noun phrase *) |
  possessive_pronoun (* belong to person or thing referred to *) |
  reflexive_pronoun (* Subject and Object are the same *) |
  demonstrative_pronoun (* reference by distance *) |
  indefinite_pronoun (* reference, general to vague *) |
  interrogative_pronoun (* used in questions *) |
  relative_pronoun (* used to form relative clauses *) ;
@endebnf

Personal and Possessive pronouns

personnumbergenderSubjectiveObjectivepossessivepossessive determiner
1stsingularallImeminemy
1stpluralallweusoursour
2ndallallyouyouyoursyour
3rdsingularfemalesheherhersher
3rdsingularmalehehimhishis
3rdsingularneuteritititsits
3rdpluralalltheythemtheirstheir

Reflexive Pronouns

persongendersingularplural
1stallmyselfourselves
2ndallyourselfyourselves
3rdfemaleherselfthemselves
3rdmalehimselfthemselves
3rdneuteritselfthemselves

Demonstrative Pronouns

distancesingularplural
nearthisthese
farthatthose

Indefinite Pronouns

specificityonebodythingchoiceiteration
somesomeonesomebodysomething
anyanyoneanybodyanythingeither
noneno onenobodynothingneither
alleveryoneeverybodyeverythingbotheach

Interrogative Pronouns

@startebnf
interrogative_pronoun = "who" | "whom" | "whose" | "which" | "what" ;
@endebnf

Relative Pronouns

@startebnf
relative_pronoun = ((interrogative_pronoun | "where") , ["ever"]) |
  "that" | "why" ;
@endebnf

Noun phrases

@startebnf
noun_phrase = {determiner (* give headword definition *)} ,
  {premodifier (* give more information *)} ,
  headword (* noun *) ,
  {postmodifier} (* give more information *) ;
determiner = ("a" | "and" | "the") |
  possessive_determiner |
  indefinite_pronoun |
  demonstrative_pronoun |
  "no" |
  "such" |
  portion (* eg. "half" , "one third" *) |
  number (* eg. "two", "three" *) |
  ordinal (* eg. "second", "third" *) |
  selection (* eg. "other", "last", "next" *) |
  quantity (* eg. "many", "few" *) |
  amount (* eg. "little", "much" *) ;
premodifier = adjective | noun | gerund ;
postmodifier = prepositional_phrase (* qualifies headword *) |
  relative_clause (* mini sentences that provide more information to Subject *) ;
prepositional_phrase = preposition , (noun | pronoun | gerund | noun_phrase) ;
preposition = "about" | "with" | "to" | "for" | "down" | ?etc.? ;
relative_clause = relative_pronoun , clause ;
@endebnf

Adjectives

@startebnf
(* modifies and gives noun definition, by providing more information*)
adjective = attributive (* before noun *) |
  predicative (* after Verb like "be" *) ;
adjective = ([graded] , qualitative_adjective) | classifying_adjective ;
graded = "fairly" | "extremely" | ?etc.? ;
classifying_adjective = "annual" | "nuclear" | "actual" | ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Qualitative adjectives

absolutecomparativesuperlative
fastfasterfastest
easyeasiereasiest
rapidmore rapidmost rapid
extraordinarymore extraordinarymost extraordinary

Types of verbs

@startebnf
verb = main_verb | primary_auxillary_verb | modal_auxillary_verb ;
main_verb = transitive_verb | intransitive_verb | linking_verb ;
transitive_verb = "get" | "create" | ?etc.? ;
  (* can be used in active or passive sentences *)
intransitive_verb = "arrive" | "exist" | ?etc.? ;
linking_verb = "be" | "seem" | "appear" | "become" | "look" | ?etc.? ;
primary_auxillary_verb = "be" | "have" | "do" ;
modal_auxillary_verb = "will" | "may" | "can" | "might" | "could" | ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Verb forms

stemwalkswimbe
present tensewalk / walksswim / swimsam / is / are
present_participlewalkingswimmingbeing
past tensewalkedswamwas / were
past participlewalkedswumbeen

References

Seely, 2001
John Seely, Oxford Everyday Grammar, Oxford University Press (2001)

5.2 - Lowth: A Short Introduction To English Grammar: With Critical Notes

A summary of Robert Lowth, A Short Introduction To English Grammar: With Critical Notes, London: J. Hughs (1762)

Grammar

Grammar is the Art of rightly expressing our thoughts by Words.

@startebnf
grammar = letter | syllable | word | sentence ;
letter = vowel | consonant ;
vowel = "a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u" | "y" | "w" ;
diphthong = (vowel , {vowel}-) | "w" ;
consonant = "j" | "v" | mute | semi_vowel | "x" (* double consonant *) | "z" (*thicker "s" *) | "h" (* aspiration *) ;
mute = "b" | "c" | "d" | "g" | "k" | "p" | "q" | "t" ;
semi_vowel = "l" | "m" | "n" | "r" | "f" | "s" ;
articulate_sound = vowel | diphthong | (consonant , (vowel | diphthong)) ;
(* the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech *)
word = {articulate_sound}- ;
sentence = {word}- ;
@endebnf

Sorts of words, or parts of speech

@startebnf
word = article (* prefixed to substantives, when they are common names of things, to point them out, and to shew how far their signification extends *) |
  noun (* being the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion *) |
  pronoun (* standing instead of the noun *) |
  adjective (* added to the noun to express the quality of it *) |
  verb (* word by way of eminence, signifying to be, to do, or to suffer *) |
  adverb (* added to verbs, and also to adjectives and other adverbs, to express some circumstance belonging to them *) |
  preposition (* put before nouns and pronouns chiefly, to connect them with other words, and to shew their relation to them *) |
  conjunction (* connecting sentences together *) |
  interjection (* thrown in to express the affection of the speaker, though unnecessary with respect to the construction of the sentence *) ;
article = ("a" (* used in a vague sense to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate *) | "an" (* before a vowel or a silent h *) ) |
  "the" (* determines what particular thing is meant *) ;
noun = proper_noun | common_noun ;
pronoun = personal_pronoun | pronominal_adjective ;
pronominal_adjective = definitive | indefinite | relative | interrogative | reciprocal ;
adjective = positive | comparative | superlative ;
verb = active (* Action *) | passive (* Passion, or a Suffering, or the receiving of an Action *) | neuter (* Being, or a state or condition of being *) ;
@endebnf

Noun / Pronoun

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
class noun {
  number
  gender
  case
}
noun::number<--number
noun::gender<--gender
noun::case<--case
class pronoun {
  person
  number
  gender
  case
}
pronoun::person<--person
pronoun::number<--number
pronoun::gender<--gender
pronoun::case<--case
class first implements person
class second implements person
class third implements person
class singular implements number
class plural implements number
class masculine implements gender
class feminine implements gender
class neuter implements gender
class nominative implements case
class genitive implements case
class possessive implements case
class objective implements case
@enduml

Verb

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
class verb {
  person
  number
  time
  mode
}
verb::person<--person
verb::number<--number
verb::time<--time
verb::mode<--mode
time <|-- indefinite
time <|-- definite
class first implements person
class second implements person
class third implements person
class singular implements number
class plural implements number
class present implements indefinite
class past implements indefinite
class future implements indefinite
class present_imperfect implements definite
class present_perfect implements definite
class past_imperfect implements definite
class past_perfect implements definite
class future_imperfect implements definite
class future_perfect implements definite
class indicative implements mode
class imperative implements mode
class subjunctive implements mode
class infinitive implements mode
class participle implements mode
@enduml

Preposition

@startebnf
preposition = "out" | "in" | "through" | "under" | "by" | "to" | "from" | "of" |
  ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Conjunction

@startebnf
conjunction = copulative (* to connect, or to continue, the Sentence *) | disjunctive (* to express Opposition of meaning in different degrees*) ;
copulative = "and" (* an addition *) |
  "if" (* a supposition, or condition *) |
  "as" |
  "because" (* a cause *) |
  "then" (* a motive *) |
  "that" |
  "therefore" (* an inference *) |
  ?etc.? ;
disjunctive = "as" | "or" | "but" | "than" | "although" | "unless" |
  ?etc.? ;
@endebnf

Interjection

@startebnf
vocative = "o" , noun ;
@endebnf

5.3 - Kerl: A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language

Based on A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, for the Use of Schools, By Simon Kerl, A.M. New York: Phinney, Blakeman, And Mason. (1861)

Traditional English grammar, described using UML class diagrams.

pg. 59:

The Grammar of a language shows how its words are formed, modilied, and arranged, to express thoughts, either in speaking or in writing, according to established usage.

Words

letter
a character that denotes one or more of the elementary sounds of language.
syllable
a letter, or two or more combined, pronounced as one unbroken sound.
word
a syllable, or two or more combined, used as the sign of some idea.
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  letter <|-- vowel
  letter <|-- consonant
  word <|-- monosyllable
  word <|-- dissyllable
  word <|-- trisyllable
  word <|-- polysyllable
  word *-- letter
  monosyllable *-- syllable
  dissyllable *-- syllable
  trisyllable *-- syllable
  polysyllable *-- syllable
  syllable *-- letter
@enduml

Word formation

Words classified according as they are formed, or not formed, from one another:

primitive word
not formed from another
derivative word
formed from another
compound word
composed of two or more others
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  word <|-- primitive
  word <|-- derivative
  word <|-- compound
@enduml

Parts of speech

noun
denote name of object
pronoun
a word that supplies the place of a noun.
article
a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied.
adjective
to express the quality, condition, or circumstance of object
verb
to express action, or state of existence
adverbs
to describe their actions, or to show the nature or degree of their qualities
prepositions
to express their positions or relations to one another
conjunctions
to continue the discourse, or to connect its parts
interjections
to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up suddenly within me.
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  word <|-- noun
  word <|-- pronoun
  word <|-- article
  word <|-- adjective
  word <|-- verb
  word <|-- preposition
  word <|-- conjunction
  word <|-- interjection
@enduml

Sentence formation

subject
denotes that of which something is said or affirmed.
predicate
denotes what is said or affirmed.

A simple subject has but one nominative to which the predicate refers ; a compound subject has more than one.

A simple predicate has but one finite verb referring to the subject ; a compound predicate has more than one.

phrase
two or more words rightly put together, but not making a proposition.
proposition
a subject combined with its predicate.
clause
any one of two or more propositions which together make a sentence.
sentence
a thought expressed by words.

A simple sentence contains but one proposition.

A compound sentence contains two or more clauses.

discourse
any series of properly related sentences, expressing continuous thought.
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
  discourse *-- sentence
  sentence o-- simple
  sentence o-- compound
  simple *-- proposition
  compound *-- clause
  proposition o-- subject
  proposition o-- predicate
  clause *-- proposition
@enduml

Noun / Pronoun

proper noun
an individual name.
common noun
a generic name.
pronoun
a word that supplies the place of a noun.
personal pronoun
one of a class of pronouns whose chief use is, to distinguish the different persons.
relative pronoun
one that makes its clause dependent on another clause.
interrogative pronoun
one used to ask a question.
compound pronoun
a simple pronoun with self, selves, ever, so, or soever, annexed to it ; or it is a pronoun consisting of two words.
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
noun<|-- personal_noun
noun<|-- common_noun
@enduml

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
pronoun<|-- personal_pronoun
pronoun<|-- relative_pronoun
pronoun<|-- interrogative_pronoun
pronoun<|-- compound_pronoun
@enduml

Properties of nouns and pronouns

masculine gender
denotes males.
feminine gender
denotes females.
common gender
denotes either males or females, or both.
neuter gender
denotes neither males nor females.
first person
denotes the speaker.
second person
represents an object as spoken to.
third person
represents an object as spoken of.
singular number
denotes but one.
plural number
denotes more than one.
collective noun
a noun denoting, in the singular form, more than one object of the same kind.
nominative case
the case of a noun or pronoun to which a predicate directly refers, or used independently or absolutely.
possessive case
denotes possession.
objective case
the case of a noun or pronoun used as the object of a verb or preposition.
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
class noun {
  number
  gender
  case
}
noun::number<--number
noun::gender<--gender
noun::case<--case
class pronoun {
  person
  number
  gender
  case
}
pronoun::person<--person
pronoun::number<--number
pronoun::gender<--gender
pronoun::case<--case
class first implements person
class second implements person
class third implements person
class singular implements number
class plural implements number
class masculine implements gender
class feminine implements gender
class common implements gender
class neuter implements gender
class nominative implements case
class possessive implements case
class objective implements case
@enduml

Article

definite article
shows that some particular object or objects are meant.
indefinite article
shows that no particular one of the kind is meant.
@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
article<|-- definite
article<|-- indefinite
class the implements definite
class a implements indefinite
class an implements indefinite
note bottom of a : Before words beginning with a consonant
note bottom of an : Before words beginning with a vowel

@enduml

Adjective

@startuml
hide empty members
hide circle
adjective <|-- descriptive
descriptive <|-- participial
adjective <|-- definite
definite <|-- pronominal
definite <|-- numeral
pronominal <|-- demonstrative
pronominal <|-- indefinite
pronominal <|-- distributive
numeral <|-- cardinal
numeral <|-- ordinal
class beautiful implements descriptive
class twinkling implements participial
class this implements demonstrative
class any implements indefinite
class each implements distributive
class one implements cardinal
class first implements ordinal
@enduml

Degrees of comparison

5.4 - Evolution of English Grammar

A description of how English grammar has evolved over the centuries, from traditional grammar based on Latin grammar to modern grammatical descriptions of English.

Introduction

Traditional grammar has its origins in the principles formulated by the scholars of Ancient Greece and Rome. (Valeika, 2003, p. 8)

Prescriptive grammar

Early English grammars were modelled after Latin grammar, and were prescriptive (concerned with rules for the correct use of English). One of the earliest, and well-known, example of this is (Lowth 1762) which states in p. x:

The principal design of a Grammar of any Language is to teach us to express ourselves with propriety in that Language, and to be able to judge of every phrase and form of construction, whether it be right or not. The plain way of doing this, is to lay down rules, and to illustrate them by examples. But besides shewing what is right, the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong.

The notion of “right” and “wrong” is based on Latin, and therefore does not necessarily describe English as it was commonly used.

According to (Valeika, 2003, p. 12):

… prescriptive grammar could be characterized by the following features:

  1. Patterning after Latin in classifying words into word classes and establishing grammatical categories;
  2. Reliance on meaning and function in definitions;
  3. Approach to correctness: the standards of correctness are logic, which was identified with Latin, and the past.
  4. Emphasis on writing rather than speech.

References

Lowth 1762
Robert Lowth, A Short Introduction To English Grammar: With Critical Notes, London: J. Hughs (1762)
Valeika 2003
Laimutis Valeika, Janina Buitkienė, An Introductory Course in Theoretical English Grammar, Vilnius Pedagogical University, Department of English Philology (2003)

6 - 𑀓𑀘𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀬𑀦 (Kaccāyana)

My translation of the earliest available Pāli grammar into modern English, accompanied by diagrams.

𑀓

ka /k/

𑀘𑁆

c /c/

𑀘

cā /ca:/

𑀬

ya /j/

𑀦

na /n/

Palm leaf manuscript of Kaccāyana and Kaccāyanavutti (FPL3851)

The current status of this work is “Idea” - this is currently not in a form suitable for consumption, please ignore unless you will like to contribute to the translation project.

6.1 - Introduction

This section provides an overview of Kaccāyana in terms of context, structure, other available translations, motivation and reference sources.

Context

Kaccāyana is the oldest extant Pāli grammar, and was composed around the sixth century CE, most probably in India. It is partly based on Pāṇini and Kātantra:

  • Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī “Eight Lessons” 5th–4th c. B.C.E. Śalātura Northwest India
  • Śarvavarman, Kātantravyākaraṇa 2nd c. C.E. South India

The author of Kaccāyana is attributed to Mahā Kaccāyana, but modern scholars believe it is authored by multiple compilers and gradually evolved over time. According to James D’Alwis in An introduction to Kachchāyana’s grammar of the Pāli language:

  • the grammatical aphorisms (sutta), are ascribed to a certain Kaccāyana,
  • the “gloss” or explanation (vutti) is ascribed to a certain Saṅghanandin
  • the examples (payoga) is ascribed to a certain Brahmadatta

According to the Thai monk Dhammakitti in Saddhammasaṅgaha (Saddhamma-s IX, 18-20, 35):

kaccāyano kato yogo saṃghanandi pavuttikā, ṭīkā vimalabodhī ca brahmaputto ca kārakā.
(SADDHĀNANDA, 1890: 63)
Kaccāyana composed the yoga [“rule”], Saṅghanandin the pavuttikā [“notes”], and Vimalabodhī the ṭīkā [“commentary”], and Brahmaputto the kāraka [“section on factor of action”].

The structure of Kaccāyana

There are 673 rules (sutta), depending on the edition, spread across the following chapters and sections:

  1. Sandhi
    1. Definitions
    2. Vowel sandhi
    3. Consonant sandhi
    4. niggahīta (ṃ) sandhi
    5. Miscellanea
  2. Nāma
    1. Definitions, Internal sandhis, Default Declensions
    2. Pronominal declension, an-stems
    3. Pronominal dec. continued, mano-gaṇa, an-stems, tar-stems.
    4. an-stems cont., feminine stems, adv. pronouns, nta-stems
    5. Adverbial affixes
  3. KĀRAKA
  4. SAMĀSA
  5. TADDHITA
  6. Ākhyāta
    1. Definitions
    2. Special stems, causatives, bhāva, vb. classes
    3. Reduplication, Special stems
    4. Special affixes and stems
  7. Kibbidhāna
    1. Definition of kicca and kit affixes
    2. Use of affixes with tenses, voices, etc.
    3. niṭṭhā affixes
    4. Modification of vb. stems in primary derivation
  8. UṆĀDI

The structure of a sutta

Each sutta (rule, or grammatical aphorism) is described in a series of subsections or “fields”. The vutti is always present, the other fields may be present.

fieldfunctiontags
vuttigloss, or explanationrepeats and expands the words from the sutta
udāharaṇaexamplestaṃyathā
kimudāharaṇacounter-exampleskasmā / kimatthaṃ
payojanaapplication/purpose/scope of the rule (“where is it used”)kvattho / kimpayojanaṃ
gahaṇaphalaresult of mentioned words, comments on anuvṛtti, meaning of ca or vā, etc.(xxx)(sadda)ggahaṇena… eg. rule 35: casaddaggahaṇena iheva makārassa pakāro hoti.

Example (the first number is the Kaccāyana rule number, the second is the equivalent Padarūpasiddhi rule number):

151, 250.Bahuvacanesu vono.
Sabbesaṃ tumhaamhasaddānaṃ savibhattīnaṃ yadā padasmā paresaṃ vonoādesā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiyābahuvacanesu paresu. Kataṃ vo kammaṃ, kataṃ no kammaṃ. Padatoti kimatthaṃ? Tumhehi kataṃ, amhehi kataṃ. Bahuvacanaggahaṇena yomhi paṭhame vo noādesā honti. Gāmaṃ vo gaccheyyātha, gāmaṃ no gaccheyyāma.

fieldtext
no151
Padarūpasiddhi250
suttaBahuvacanesu vono.
vuttiSabbesaṃ tumhaamhasaddānaṃ savibhattīnaṃ yadā padasmā paresaṃ vonoādesā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiyābahuvacanesu paresu.
udāharaṇaKataṃ vo kammaṃ, kataṃ no kammaṃ.
kimudāharaṇaPadatoti kimatthaṃ? Tumhehi kataṃ, amhehi kataṃ.
payojana
gahaṇaphalaBahuvacanaggahaṇena yomhi paṭhame vo noādesā honti. Gāmaṃ vo gaccheyyātha, gāmaṃ no gaccheyyāma.

Other examples:

361, 388.Ṇavisamādīhi.
Ṇapaccayo hoti visamādīhi ‘‘tassa bhāvo’’iccetasmiṃ atthe. Visamassa bhāvo vesamaṃ, sucissa bhāvo socaṃ.

fieldtext
no361
Padarūpasiddhi388
suttaṆavisamādīhi.
vuttiṆapaccayo hoti visamādīhi ‘‘tassa bhāvo’’iccetasmiṃ atthe.
udāharaṇaVisamassa bhāvo vesamaṃ, sucissa bhāvo socaṃ.
kimudāharaṇa
payojana
gahaṇaphala

364, 398.Tadassatthīti vī ca.
“Tadassatthi"iccetasmiṃ atthe vīpaccayo hoti. Medhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatītimedhāvī. Evaṃ māyāvī. Caggahaṇena sopaccayo hoti. Sumedhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatīti sumedhaso.

fieldtext
no364
Padarūpasiddhi398
suttaTadassatthīti vī ca.
vutti“Tadassatthi"iccetasmiṃ atthe vīpaccayo hoti.
udāharaṇaMedhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatītimedhāvī. Evaṃ māyāvī.
kimudāharaṇa
payojana
gahaṇaphalaCaggahaṇena sopaccayo hoti. Sumedhā yassa atthi, tasmiṃ vā vijjatīti sumedhaso.

59, 182.Te itthikhyā po.
Te ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā yadā itthikhyā, tadā pasaññā honti. Rattiyā, itthiyā, dhenuyā, vadhuyā. Itthikhyāti kimatthaṃ? Isinā, bhikkhunā. Saiccanena kvattho? Pato yā.

fieldtext
no59
Padarūpasiddhi182
suttaTe itthikhyā po.
vuttiTe ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā yadā itthikhyā, tadā pasaññā honti.
udāharaṇaRattiyā, itthiyā, dhenuyā, vadhuyā.
kimudāharaṇa
payojanaSaiccanena kvattho? Pato yā.
gahaṇaphala

57, 71.Ālapane si ga sañño.
Ālapanatthe si gasañño hoti. Bhoti ayye, bhoti kaññe, bhoti kharādiye. Ālapaneti kimatthaṃ? Sā ayyā. Sīti kimatthaṃ? Bhotiyo ayyāyo. Gaiccanena kvattho? Ghate ca.

fieldtext
no57
Padarūpasiddhi71
suttaĀlapane si ga sañño.
vuttiĀlapanatthe si gasañño hoti.
udāharaṇaBhoti ayye, bhoti kaññe, bhoti kharādiye.
kimudāharaṇaĀlapaneti kimatthaṃ? Sā ayyā. Sīti kimatthaṃ? Bhotiyo ayyāyo.
payojanaGaiccanena kvattho? Ghate ca.
gahaṇaphala

Types of suttas

The rules can be classified into four categories, and additional subcategories, with examples given below:

  • saññā (technical term)
    • anvattha (meaningful)

      8, 10.Aṃiti niggahitaṃ. saññā anvattha
      Aṃ iti niggahitaṃ nāma hoti. Tena kvattho? Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ.

    • rūḷhī (artificial)

      58, 29.Ivaṇṇuvaṇṇā jhalā. saññā rūḷhī
      Ivaṇṇuvaṇṇāiccete jhalasaññā honti yathāsaṅkhyaṃ. Isino , aggino, gahapatino, daṇḍino. Setuno, ketuno, bhikkhuno. Sayambhuno, abhibhuno. Jhalaiccanena kvattho? Jhalato sassa no vā.

  • adhikāra (domain)
    • sīhagatika (comprehensive)

      52, 60.Jinavacanayuttaṃhi. adhikāra sīhagatika
      “Jinavacanayuttaṃ hi” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.

    • maṇḍūkagatika (selective)

      131, 0.Itthipumanapuṃsakasaṅkhyaṃ. adhikāra maṇḍūkagatika
      “Itthipumanapuṃsakasaṅkhyaṃ” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.

    • yathānupubbika (progressive)

      413, 427.Kāle. adhikāra yathānupubbika
      “Kāle” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.

  • paribhāsā (metarule)
    • saññaṅga (definition metarule)

      9, 11.Parasamaññā payoge. paribhāsā saññaṅga
      Yā ca pana paresu sakkataganthesu samaññā ghosāti vā aghosāti vā, tā payoge sati etthāpi yujjante. Tattha ghosā nāma-ga gha ṅa, ja jha ña, ḍa ḍha ṇa, da dha na, ba bha ma, ya ra la va ha ḷa, iti ghosā nāma. Aghosā nāma-ka kha, ca cha, ṭa ṭha, ta tha, pa pha, sa, iti aghosā nāma. Tena kvattho? Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā.

    • vidhyaṅga (operational metarule)

      10, 12.Pubbamadhoṭhita massaraṃ sarena viyojaye. paribhāsā vidhyaṅga
      Tattha sandhiṃ kattukāmo pubbabyañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ katvā sarañca upari katvā sarena viyojaye. Tatrāyamādi.

    • aññaṅga (other metarule)

      54, 62.Tato ca vibhattiyo. paribhāsā aññaṅga
      Tato jinavacanayuttehi liṅgehi vibhattiyo parā honti.

  • vidhi (operation)
    • utsarga (general rule)

      12, 13.Sarā sare lopaṃ. vidhi utsarga
      Sarā kho sare pare lopaṃ papponti. Yassindriyāni samathaṅgatāni. No hetaṃ bhante sametāyasmā saṅghena.

    • apavāda (exception)

      13, 15.Vā paro asarūpā. vidhi apavāda
      Saramhā asarūpā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā. Cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā, kinnu’ māvasamaṇiyo. Vāti kasmā? Pañcindriyāni, tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti.

According to Aleix Ruiz-Falqués in A Short Introduction to the Pāli Kaccāyana Grammar:

Several saññā “technical terms”,
within an adhikāra “domain”,
following paribhāsā “metarules”,
will be subject to vidhi “operations”
in order to derive words or sentences.

Megarules

mahāsutta or “megarules” are four rules that are invoked in order to derive forms that cannot be derived otherwise.

  • 391, 423.Yadanupapannā nipātanā sijjhanti.
    Ye saddā aniddiṭṭhalakkhaṇā, akkharapadabyañjanato, itthipumanapuṃsakaliṅgato , nāmupasagganipātato, abyayībhāvasamāsataddhitākhyātato, gaṇanasaṅkhyākālakārakappayogasaññāto, sandhipakativuddhilopāgamavikāraviparitato, vibhattivibhajanato ca, te nipātanā sijjhanti.
    “Those [words] that are not formed by the suttas, should be formed as irregular forms.”
  • 403, 354.Kvacādimajjhuttarānaṃ dīgharassā paccayesu ca.
    Kvaci ādimajjhauttaraiccetesaṃ dīgharassā honti paccayesu ca apaccayesu ca.
    “Sometimes, there is lengthening or shortening at the beginning, middle or end [vowels of a word], even before affixes.”
  • 404, 370.Tesu vuddhilopāgamavikāraviparītādesā ca.
    Tesu ādimajjhuttaresu yathājinavacanānuparodhena kvaci vuddhi hoti, kvaci lopo hoti, kvaci āgamo hoti, kvaci vikāro hoti, kvaci viparīto hoti, kvaci ādeso hoti.
    “And in those cases [cf. rule 405], [sometimes,] there is full grade, elision, augment, modification, change, or replacement.”
  • 517, 488.Kvaci dhātuvibhattipaccayānaṃ dīgha viparītādesalopāgamā ca.
    Idha ākhyāte aniddiṭṭhesu sādhanesu kvaci dhātuvibhattipaccayānaṃ dīghaviparītādesalopāgamaiccetāni kāriyāni jinavacanānurūpāni kātabbāni.
    “Sometimes [for verbal forms that cannot be derived otherwise, there is] lengthening, change, replacement or augment of the verbal root, the personal ending, or the affix(es).”

Rule 52 is halfway between a megarule and a normal rule:

52, 60.Jinavacanayuttaṃhi.
“Jinavacanayuttaṃ hi” iccetaṃ adhikāratthaṃ veditabbaṃ.

Ghost metarules

“Ghost Metarules” are paribhāsās that are consistently invoked in the commentaries, but that you will never see in the sūtra treatise.

Examples:

  • ekamhi vattabbe ekavacanaṃ bahumhi vattabbe bahuvacanan [e.g. Mmd 28,15–16]
    “The singular is used when one [object] is to be stated, the plural is used when many [objects] are to be stated.”
    [NOTE: in Pāṇini, 1.4.21 bahuṣu bahuvacanam (“plural for many [objects]”) & 1.4.22 dvyekayor dvivacanaikavacane (“dual and singular for two or one [objects respectively]”) are considered saṃjñā (“definition”) rules.]
  • vatticchānupubbikā saddapaṭipatti [e.g. Mmd 64,17–18]
    “The meaning of a word is determined by the intention of the speaker.”
  • vuttatthānam appayogo [23 times in Mmd, e.g. 133,20]
    “Words whose meaning has already been stated are not used.”
  • yogavibhāgā iṭṭhappasiddhi [Mmd, e.g. 252,29]
    “After the splitting up (vibhāgā) of the sutta (yoga) [there is] the expected result [only].”

Usage of rūḷhī

In a sutta, a rūḷhī (artificial technical term) will have a case ending that matches the role/usage of the term within a rule. For example jha (used for masculine/neuter nominal bases ending with i or ī):

casejhausage
①jhoi/ī (*replacement)
②jhaṃi/ī (substitute)
③jhenanot used
④jhassanot used
⑤jhamhā/jhato“after i/ī”
⑥jhassa“instead of i/ī”
⑦jhasmiṃ“before i/ī”

Types of vidhi (operation)

  • ādesa “replacement”
  • āgama “insertion”
  • vikāra “modification”
  • lopa “elision”
  • viparīta “metathesis”

Structure of a vidhi (operation)

An operation converts Before into After surrounded by Previous and Next, in the context of Marker and Semantic.

block-beta
  columns 8
  
  
    Previous["Previous"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("Before")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("After")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vidhi"-->After
  end
  
    Next["Next"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"Marker"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    Semantic[\"Semantic"/]
    class Semantic mod2
    
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

As an illustration, the sequence AXB is replaced with AYB:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
  
    Previous["A"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("X")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("Y")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"becomes"-->After
  end
  
    Next["B"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Markers:

  • ca
  • api
  • vā
  • kvaci
  • na
  • niccaṃ
  • …

Semantic: “in the sense of …”

Case endings are used to determine the various roles in the rule

block-beta
  columns 8
  

  Previous0["Previous"]
  class Previous0 context

block:operation0:4
  columns 4
  
    Before0["Before"]
    class Before0 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After0["After"]
    class After0 post
  
  Before0--"ādesa"-->After0
end

  Next0["Next"]
  class Next0 context


  Marker0["Marker"]
  class Marker0 mod1


  Semantic0["Semantic"]
  class Semantic0 mod2



  Previous1["⑤"]
  class Previous1 context

block:operation1:4
  columns 4
  
    Before1["⑥"]
    class Before1 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After1["①"]
    class After1 post
  
  Before1--"ādesa"-->After1
end

  Next1["⑦"]
  class Next1 context


  Marker1["n/a"]
  class Marker1 mod1


  Semantic1["⑦"]
  class Semantic1 mod2



  Previous2["⑤"]
  class Previous2 context

block:operation2:4
  columns 4
  
    Before2["①"]
    class Before2 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After2["①"]
    class After2 post
  
  Before2--"ādesa"-->After2
end

  Next2["⑦"]
  class Next2 context


  Marker2["n/a"]
  class Marker2 mod1


  Semantic2["⑦"]
  class Semantic2 mod2



  Previous3["⑤"]
  class Previous3 context

block:operation3:4
  columns 4
  
    Before3["①"]
    class Before3 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After3["②"]
    class After3 post
  
  Before3--"ādesa"-->After3
end

  Next3["⑦"]
  class Next3 context


  Marker3["n/a"]
  class Marker3 mod1


  Semantic3["⑦"]
  class Semantic3 mod2



  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Example: rule 103 (ato n’ ena) - “After a, nā [becomes] ena”:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
ato n' space space ena space space space
x1["⑤"] x2["①"] space space x3["①"] space space space

  
    Previous["a"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("nā")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("ena")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

buddha + nā
→ buddha + (nā→ena) (rule 103)
→ buddhena

Example: rule 70 (jhalānam iyuvā sare vā) - “Optionally, before a vowel: iya replaces i/ī, uva replaces u/ū”:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space jhalānam space:2 iyuvā sare vā space
space x1["⑥"] space space x2["①"] x3["⑦"] space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("i/ī,u/ū")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("iya,uva")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

Example: rule 12 (sarā sare lopaṃ) - “Vowels, before a vowel, [adopt] elision”:

block-beta
  columns 8
  
space sarā lopaṃ:2 space sare space space
space x1["①"] x2["②"]:2 space x3["⑦"] space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

tena + upasaṅkami
→ ten(a) + upasaṅkami (rule 12)
→ tenupasaṅkami

Most vidhi “operational” rules teach paccaya “affixation” or ādesa “replacement” using previous definitions (saññā-s). It is all about adding particles to a base, and then replacing them if/when needed. To understand vidhi-s, we should keep in mind the following code of case endings:

  • ⑤ - “after X”
  • ⑥ - “instead of X”
  • ① - “X”, ādesa
  • ⑦ - “before X”
  • ⑦ - “in the sense of X”

Other available translations

  • Satis Chandra Acharyva, Widyabhusana, Kaccayana’s Pali Grammar, The Mahabodhi Society, Calcutta (1901)
  • Phramaha Thiab Malai, Kaccāyana-Vyākarana: A Critical Study, Department of Sanskrit and Pali Studies, University of Pune (1997)
  • A. Thitzana, Kaccāyana Pāli Vyākaraṇaṁ Volumes 1 and 2, Pariyatti Press (2016)
  • U Silananda, U Nandisena, Kaccāyanabyākaraṇaṁ, Institudo de Estudios Buddhistas Hispano (IEBH) (2005, 2017)

Motivation

I have decided to attempt a new translation of Kaccāyana’s grammar, because of several reasons:

  • I am not entirely satisfied with the existing translations. Some of them seem to lack clarity (primarily due to the writing style). Others don’t explain the examples well enough, and yet others are too verbose, inserting explanations not in the original text.
  • There are some spelling errors and mistakes in the edition published on Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana Tipiṭaka, some of which have been incorporated into existing translations. I have taken the opportunity to correct the mistakes, uncovered by scholars such as O. H. Pind and A. Ruiz-Falqués.
  • Unlike some translations, I am honouring the use of option markers in Kaccāyana, and in most cases am faithfully translating vā as “optionally”, kvaci as “occasionally” and navā as “by exception.”
  • I am also cross referencing the use of technical terms with other classical Pāli grammars.
  • It is a good way to further my understanding of Pāli.
  • It is also a good opportunity for me to introduce the Brahmi script. As we know, there are no surviving Buddhist texts written in Brahmi, so there is no need to learn this script, however, I like it due to it’s elegance and simplicity.
  • I wanted to augment the translations with diagrams, and incorporate worked through grammatical analysis and rule derivations in the examples.
  • In comparison with the other classical Pāli grammars, Kaccāyana is brief and succinct, minimising repetition. It was used as a standard textbook for teaching Pāli in countries such as Burma for many years, and often used in various monasteries as a Pāli reference text.
  • I prefer Kaccāyana to most English Pāli textbooks and grammar books, as it describes Pāli without the distorting lens of Western linguistics.
  • My translation is presented using a modern responsive web design, featuring Google’s Noto Sans font.

References

  • James D’Alwis, An introduction to Kachchāyana’s grammar of the Pāli language, with an introduction, appendix, notes, etc., Williams and Norgate, London (1863)
  • Dhammakitti, Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhusana; Punnananda Swami; Sailendranath Mitra, Bālāvatārā - an Elementary Pāli Grammar Abridged for the Undergraduate Course, University of Calcutta (1935)
  • Aleix Ruiz-Falqués, On the Authorship of Kaccāyana, the Oldest Pāli Grammar, Pariyatti: Studies In Pāli Language And Literature, Aditya Prakashan, New Dehli (2017)
  • Aleix Ruiz-Falqués, A Short Introduction to the Pāli Kaccāyana Grammar, Shan State Buddhist University, Taunggyi (Myanmar) (2020)
  • Mahesh A. Deokar, Technical Terms and Technique of The Pali and Sanskrit Grammars, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi (2008)

6.2 - 1. 𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀓𑀧𑁆𑀧 (Sandhikappa)

sandhi is derived from saṃ + dhā meaning “putting together” and is used to refer to the transformation that result from the joining together of two words (or two parts of a word) for the sake of euphony.

(a)
To the Supreme, honoured in the three worlds, worthy of the ultimate salute,
To the pure Dhamma of the Buddha and the highest collection (the Tipiṭaka);
To fully understand the meaning of the excellent words of that Teacher,
I will articulate thoroughly here the sutta (rules) in the sandhikappa (Sandhi Chapter)

(b)
The wise obtain using the excellent method proclaimed by the Conqueror,
As well as fully understanding the meaning of his words;
And the clear knowledge of the meaning in the words and letters,
Excellent benefit for those who will listen to the words here in many ways.

(Ka)
Seṭṭhaṃ tilokamahitaṃ abhivandiyaggaṃ,
Buddhañca dhammamamalaṃ gaṇamuttamañca;
Satthussa tassa vacanatthavaraṃ suboddhuṃ,
Vakkhāmi suttahitamettha susandhikappaṃ.

(Kha)
Seyyaṃ jineritanayena budhā labhanti,
Tañcāpi tassa vacanatthasubodhanena;
Atthañca akkharapadesu amohabhāvā,
Seyyatthiko padamato vividhaṃ suṇeyyaṃ.

(𑀓)
𑀲𑁂𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀁 𑀢𑀺𑀮𑁄𑀓𑀫𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀯𑀦𑁆𑀤𑀺𑀬𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀁
𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀥𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀫𑀫𑀮𑀁 𑀕𑀡𑀫𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀫𑀜𑁆𑀘
𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀼𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀯𑀘𑀦𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀯𑀭𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀼𑀁
𑀯𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀸𑀫𑀺 𑀲𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀫𑁂𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀲𑀼𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀓𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀁

(𑀔)
𑀲𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬𑀁 𑀚𑀺𑀦𑁂𑀭𑀺𑀢𑀦𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀸 𑀮𑀪𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺
𑀢𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀧𑀺 𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀯𑀘𑀦𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀲𑀼𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀦𑁂𑀦
𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀧𑀤𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀅𑀫𑁄𑀳𑀪𑀸𑀯𑀸
𑀲𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀓𑁄 𑀧𑀤𑀫𑀢𑁄 𑀯𑀺𑀯𑀺𑀥𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀡𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬𑀁

(क)
सेट्ठं तिलोकमहितं अभिवन्दियग्गं,
बुद्धञ्च धम्मममलं गणमुत्तमञ्च;
सत्थुस्स तस्स वचनत्थवरं सुबोद्धुं,
वक्खामि सुत्तहितमेत्थ सुसन्धिकप्पं।

(ख)
सेय्यं जिनेरितनयेन बुधा लभन्ति,
तञ्चापि तस्स वचनत्थसुबोधनेन;
अत्थञ्च अक्खरपदेसु अमोहभावा,
सेय्यत्थिको पदमतो विविधं सुणेय्यं।

6.2.1 - 1.1 𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Paṭhamakaṇḍa) - Definitions

This section provides an introductory rule, technical terms including akkhara (sounds, or letters), and rules for carrying out sandhi

1 [R1] Meaning from recognition of akkhara (sounds, or letters)

𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸𑀢𑁄 (attho akkharasaññāto) adhikāra sīhagatika

All meanings of words are based on the recognition of “akkhara” (sounds, or letters). A mistaken akkhara result in difficulty in interpreting meaning, therefore proficiency in akkhara is extremely helpful in (deciphering) the rules (or understanding the suttas in the Tipiṭaka).

Sabbavacanānamattho akkhareheva saññāyate. Akkharavipattiyaṃ hi atthassa dunnayatā hoti, tasmā akkharakosallaṃ bahūpakāraṃ suttantesu.

𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀯𑀘𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀫𑀢𑁆𑀣𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑁂𑀳𑁂𑀯 𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸𑀬𑀢𑁂𑁇 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀯𑀺𑀧𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀁 𑀳𑀺 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀤𑀼𑀦𑁆𑀦𑀬𑀢𑀸 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺, 𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀫𑀸 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀓𑁄𑀲𑀮𑁆𑀮𑀁 𑀩𑀳𑀽𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀼𑁇

सब्बवचनानमत्थो अक्खरेहेव सञ्ञायते। अक्खरविपत्तियं हि अत्थस्स दुन्नयता होति, तस्मा अक्खरकोसल्लं बहूपकारं सुत्तन्तेसु।

2 [R2] 41 akkhara starting with a

𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸𑀧𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄𑀏𑀓𑀘𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸𑀮𑀻𑀲𑀁 (akkharāpādayoekacattālīsaṃ) saññā anvattha

And there are forty one akkhara constructed from sounds/syllables, starting with a.

Te ca kho akkharā api akārādayo ekacattālīsaṃ1 suttantesu sopakārā.

Taṃ yathā?
a ā i ī u ū e o,
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ,
iti akkharā nāma.

  1. The CSCD edition misspells this as ekacattā līsa. ↩︎

𑀢𑁂 𑀘 𑀔𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀅𑀧𑀺 𑀅𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄 𑀏𑀓𑀘𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸𑀮𑀻𑀲𑀁 𑀲𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑁄𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀅 𑀆 𑀇 𑀈 𑀉 𑀊 𑀏 𑀑,
𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀲 𑀳 𑀍𑀅 𑀅𑀁,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

ते च खो अक्खरा अपि अकारादयो एकचत्तालीसं सुत्तन्तेसु सोपकारा।

तं यथा?
अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ओ,
क ख ग घ ङ,
च छ ज झ ञ,
ट ठ ड ढ ण,
त थ द ध न,
प फ ब भ म,
य र ल व स ह ऌअ अं,
इति अक्खरा नाम।

𑀅

a /ə/

𑀆

ā /aː/

𑀇

i /i/

𑀈

ī /iː/

𑀉

u /u/

𑀊

ū /uː/

𑀏

e /eː/

𑀑

o /oː/

𑀓

ka /k/

𑀔

kha /kʰ/

𑀕

ga /ɡ/

𑀖

gha /ɡʱ/

𑀗

ṅa /ŋ/

𑀘

ca /c/

𑀙

cha /cʰ/

𑀚

ja /ɟ/

𑀛

jha /ɟʱ/

𑀜

ña /ɲ/

𑀝

ṭa /ʈ/

𑀞

ṭha /ʈʰ/

𑀟

ḍa /ɖ/

𑀠

ḍha /ɖʱ/

𑀡

ṇa /ɳ/

𑀢

ta /t̪/

𑀣

tha /t̪ʰ/

𑀤

da /d̪/

𑀥

dha /d̪ʱ/

𑀦

na /n/

𑀧

pa /p/

𑀨

pha /pʰ/

𑀩

ba /b/

𑀪

bha /bʱ/

𑀫

ma /m/

𑀬

ya /j/

𑀭

ra /r/

𑀮

la /l/

𑀯

va /w, ʋ/

𑀲

sa /s/

𑀳

ha /ɦ/

𑀅𑀁

aṃ /aɲ/

3 [R3] (From akkhara) eight ending with “o”: sara (vowel)

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣𑁄𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞 (tatthodantā sarā aṭṭha) saññā anvattha

Regarding the akkhara, the eight akkhara starting with a and ending with o are called sarā (vowels).

Tattha akkharesu akārādīsu odantā aṭṭha akkharā sarā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
a ā i ī u ū e o,
iti sarā nāma.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀅𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀻𑀲𑀼 𑀑𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀅 𑀆 𑀇 𑀈 𑀉 𑀊 𑀏 𑀑,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तत्थ अक्खरेसु अकारादीसु ओदन्ता अट्ठ अक्खरा सरा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ओ,
इति सरा नाम।

Independent vowels:

𑀅

a /ə/

𑀆

ā /aː/

𑀇

i /i/

𑀈

ī /iː/

𑀉

u /u/

𑀊

ū /uː/

𑀏

e /eː/

𑀑

o /oː/

Vowel marks (to be added to consonants):

◌

a /ə/

𑀸

ā /aː/

𑀺

i /i/

𑀻

ī /iː/

𑀼

u /u/

𑀽

ū /uː/

𑁂

e /eː/

𑁄

o /oː/

Example of vowel marks added to ka:

𑀓

ka /kə/

𑀓𑀸

kā /kaː/

𑀓𑀺

ki /ki/

𑀓𑀻

kī /ki:/

𑀓𑀼

ku /ku/

𑀓𑀽

kū /ku:/

𑀓𑁂

ke /ke:/

𑀓𑁄

ko /ko:/

4 [R4] 3 short vowels: rassa

𑀮𑀳𑀼𑀫𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀢𑀬𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸 (lahumattā tayo rassā) saññā anvattha

Regarding the eight vowels, the three short vowels are called rassa.

The rassa vowels are:
a i u.

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu lahumattā tayo sarā rassā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
a i u,
iti rassā nāma.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀮𑀳𑀼𑀫𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀢𑀬𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀅 𑀇 𑀉,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तत्थ अट्ठसु सरेसु लहुमत्ता तयो सरा रस्सा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
अ इ उ,
इति रस्सा नाम।

5 [R5] Other (vowels) are dīgha (long)

𑀅𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁂 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀸 (aññe dīghā) saññā anvattha

Regarding the eight vowels, the five vowels other than the short vowels are called “digha.”

The digha vowels are:
ā ī ū e o.

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu rassehi aññe pañca sarā dīghā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
ā ī ū e o,
iti dīghā nāma.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁂𑀳𑀺 𑀅𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁂 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀆 𑀈 𑀊 𑀏 𑀑,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तत्थ अट्ठसु सरेसु रस्सेहि अञ्ञे पञ्च सरा दीघा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
आ ई ऊ ए ओ,
इति दीघा नाम।

6 [R6] Remaining (letters) are byañjanā (consonants)

𑀲𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸 (sesā byañjanā) saññā anvattha

Having set aside the eight vowels, the (remaining) letters starting with ka and ending with the niggahita (aṃ) are named byañjana (consonants).

The byañjanā are:
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ.

Ṭhapetvā aṭṭha sare sesā akkharā kakārādayo niggahitantā byañjanā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ,
iti byañjanā nāma.

𑀞𑀧𑁂𑀢𑁆𑀯𑀸 𑀅𑀝𑁆𑀞 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀲𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀓𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀲 𑀳 𑀍𑀅 𑀅𑀁,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

ठपेत्वा अट्ठ सरे सेसा अक्खरा ककारादयो निग्गहितन्ता ब्यञ्जना नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
क ख ग घ ङ,
च छ ज झ ञ,
ट ठ ड ढ ण,
त थ द ध न,
प फ ब भ म,
य र ल व स ह ऌअ अं,
इति ब्यञ्जना नाम।

7 [R9] vagga: 5 by 5 (consonants) ending with ma

𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀸 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀲𑁄 𑀫𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 (vaggā pañcapañcaso mantā) saññā anvattha

The consonants starting with ka and ending with ma arranged in five groups of five, are named vagga (grouped).

ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma.

Tesaṃ kho byañjanānaṃ kakārādayo makārantā pañcapañcaso akkharavanto vaggā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā?
ka kha ga gha ṅa,
ca cha ja jha ña,
ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa,
ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma,
iti vaggā nāma.

𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀓𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑀬𑁄 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀲𑁄 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀯𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

𑀢𑀁 𑀬𑀣𑀸?
𑀓 𑀔 𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀘 𑀙 𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀝 𑀞 𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀢 𑀣 𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀧 𑀨 𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

तेसं खो ब्यञ्जनानं ककारादयो मकारन्ता पञ्चपञ्चसो अक्खरवन्तो वग्गा नाम होन्ति।

तं यथा?
क ख ग घ ङ,
च छ ज झ ञ,
ट ठ ड ढ ण,
त थ द ध न,
प फ ब भ म,
इति वग्गा नाम।

8 [R10] aṃ: niggahita

𑀅𑀁 𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 (aṃ iti niggahitaṃ) saññā anvattha

The aṃ letter is named niggahita (nasal consonant).

Aṃ iti niggahitaṃ nāma hoti.

𑀅𑀁 𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀦𑀸𑀫 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

अं इति निग्गहितं नाम होति।

9 [R11] Other grammatical terms used

𑀧𑀭𑀲𑀫𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸 𑀧𑀬𑁄𑀕𑁂 (parasamaññā payoge) paribhāsā saññaṅga

Terms such as ghosa (voiced) and aghosa (unvoiced) used in other texts (ie. Sanskrit grammar) are applicable here, keeping in mind when they are required to be used.

ghosā letters:
ga gha ṅa,
ja jha ña,
ḍa ḍha ṇa,
da dha na,
ba bha ma,
ya ra la va ha ḷa.

aghosā letters:
ka kha,
ca cha,
ṭa ṭha,
ta tha,
pa pha,
sa.

Yā ca pana paresu sakkataganthesu samaññā ghosāti vā aghosāti vā, tā payoge sati etthāpi yujjante.

Tattha ghosā nāma -
ga gha ṅa,
ja jha ña,
ḍa ḍha ṇa,
da dha na,
ba bha ma,
ya ra la va ha ḷa,
iti ghosā nāma.

Aghosā nāma -
ka kha,
ca cha,
ṭa ṭha,
ta tha,
pa pha,
sa,
iti aghosā nāma.

𑀬𑀸 𑀘 𑀧𑀦 𑀧𑀭𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀢𑀕𑀦𑁆𑀣𑁂𑀲𑀼 𑀲𑀫𑀜𑁆𑀜𑀸 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸 𑀅𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸, 𑀢𑀸 𑀧𑀬𑁄𑀕𑁂 𑀲𑀢𑀺 𑀏𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀸𑀧𑀺 𑀬𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂𑁇

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 -
𑀕 𑀖 𑀗,
𑀚 𑀛 𑀜,
𑀟 𑀠 𑀡,
𑀤 𑀥 𑀦,
𑀩 𑀪 𑀫,
𑀬 𑀭 𑀮 𑀯 𑀳 𑀍𑀅,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

𑀅𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫 -
𑀓 𑀔,
𑀘 𑀙,
𑀝 𑀞,
𑀢 𑀣,
𑀧 𑀨,
𑀲,
𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀅𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸 𑀦𑀸𑀫𑁇

या च पन परेसु सक्कतगन्थेसु समञ्ञा घोसाति वा अघोसाति वा, ता पयोगे सति एत्थापि युज्जन्ते।

तत्थ घोसा नाम -
ग घ ङ,
ज झ ञ,
ड ढ ण,
द ध न,
ब भ म,
य र ल व ह ऌअ,
इति घोसा नाम।

अघोसा नाम -
क ख,
च छ,
ट ठ,
त थ,
प फ,
स,
इति अघोसा नाम।

10 [R12] Detach vowel from preceeding/succeeding (phonemes, to create) vowelless (consonants)

𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀁 𑀅𑀥𑁄𑀞𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀭𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀺𑀬𑁄𑀚𑀬𑁂 (pubbaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ sarena viyojaye) paribhāsā vidhyaṅga

In that regard, those wishing to make “sandhi” should detach the vowel(s) from the preceeding and succeeding consonants (end phoneme of preceeding word, and first phoneme of succeeding word).

Tattha sandhiṃ kattukāmo pubbabyañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ katvā sarañca upari katvā sarena viyojaye.

𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀣 𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀺𑀁 𑀓𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀼𑀓𑀸𑀫𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀁 𑀅𑀥𑁄𑀞𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀭𑀁 𑀓𑀢𑁆𑀯𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀉𑀧𑀭𑀺 𑀓𑀢𑁆𑀯𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀺𑀬𑁄𑀚𑀬𑁂𑁇

तत्थ सन्धिं कत्तुकामो पुब्बब्यञ्जनं अधोठितं अस्सरं कत्वा सरञ्च उपरि कत्वा सरेन वियोजये।

Example

  • ✅

    tatrāyamādi

    🔼(tatra) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(ādi)
    in that place | this | starting with

    tatra + ayaṃ + ādi
    → ta + (tr + a) + (a) + (ya + ṃ) + (ā) + di (rule 10)
    → ta + tr + (a + a) + ya + ṃ + ā + di (rule 12)
    → ta + tr + (a→ā) + ya + ṃ + ā + di (rule 15)
    → ta + tr + ā + ya + (ṃ→m + ā) + di (rule 34)
    → ta + (tr + ā) + ya + (m + ā) + di (rule 11)
    → tatrāyamādi

    𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭 + 𑀅𑀬𑀁 + 𑀆𑀤𑀺
    → 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀅) + (𑀅) + (𑀬 + 𑀅𑀁) + (𑀆) + 𑀤𑀺
    → 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅 + 𑀅) + 𑀬 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀆 + 𑀤𑀺
    → 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅→𑀆) + 𑀬 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀆 + 𑀤𑀺
    → 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆 + 𑀬 + (𑀅𑀁→𑀫𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀤𑀺
    → 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀬 + (𑀫𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀤𑀺
    → 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀬𑀫𑀸𑀤𑀺

    तत्र + अयं + आदि
    → त + (त्र् + अ) + (अ) + (य + अं) + (आ) + दि
    → त + त्र् + (अ + अ) + य + अं + आ + दि
    → त + त्र् + (अ→आ) + य + अं + आ + दि
    → त + त्र् + आ + य + (अं→म् + आ) + दि
    → त + (त्र् + आ) + य + (म् + आ) + दि
    → तत्रायमादि

    dhp375

    • 11 [R14] Connect next if applicable

    𑀦𑀬𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑀁 𑀬𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 (naye paraṃ yutte) paribhāsā vidhyaṅga

    The final vowelless consonant (in the preceeding word) must be connected to the next phoneme (first phoneme of the succeeding word).

    Assaraṃ kho byañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ1 parakkharaṃ naye yutte.

    1. The CSCD edition misspells this as adhoṭhataṃ. ↩︎

    𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀭𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀁 𑀅𑀥𑁄𑀞𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀧𑀭𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀁 𑀦𑀬𑁂 𑀬𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂𑁇

    अस्सरं खो ब्यञ्जनं अधोठितं परक्खरं नये युत्ते।

    Example

  • ✅

    tatrābhiratimiccheyya

    🔼(tatra) 🚺②⨀(abhirati) ⏯🤟⨀(icchati)
    in that place | pleasure in | will desire

    tatra + abhiratiṃ + iccheyya
    → ta + (tr + a) + (a) + bhira + (ti + ṃ) + (i + c) + cheyya (rule 10)
    → tatr + (a + a) + bhira + ti + ṃ + i + ccheyya (rule 12)
    → tatr + (a→ā) + bhirati + ṃ + i + ccheyya (rule 15)
    → tatr + ā + bhirati + (ṃ→m + i) + ccheyya (rule 34)
    → ta + (tr + ā) + bhirati + (m + i) + ccheyya (rule 11)
    → ta + trā + bhirati + mi + ccheyya
    → tatrābhiratimiccheyya

    𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭 + 𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺𑀁 + 𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀅) + (𑀅) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭 + (𑀢𑀺 + 𑀅𑀁) + (𑀇 + 𑀘𑁆) + 𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅 + 𑀅) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭 + 𑀢𑀺 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀇 + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + (𑀅→𑀆) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + 𑀅𑀁 + 𑀇 + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆 + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + (𑀅𑀁→𑀫𑁆 + 𑀇) + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢 + (𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁆 + 𑀆) + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + (𑀫𑁆 + 𑀇) + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢 + 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸 + 𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺 + 𑀫𑀺 + 𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬
    → 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀪𑀺𑀭𑀢𑀺𑀫𑀺𑀘𑁆𑀙𑁂𑀬𑁆𑀬

    तत्र + अभिरतिं + इच्छेय
    → त + (त्र् + अ) + (अ) + भिर + (ति + अं) + (इ + च्) + छेय्य
    → तत्र् + (अ + अ) + भिर + ति + अं + इ + च्छेय्य
    → तत्र् + (अ→आ) + भिरति + अं + इ + च्छेय्य
    → तत्र् + आ + भिरति + (अं→म् + इ) + च्छेय्य
    → त + (त्र् + आ) + भिरति + (म् + इ) + च्छेय्य
    → त + त्रा + भिरति + मि + च्छेय्य
    → तत्राभिरतिमिच्छेय्यय

    an10.169#6.1

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me

    In the above text (from Dhp 3) the rule is not applicable, so there are no connections (between the preceeding vowels and the following consonants, or between the final niggahita and the following vowel)

    dhp3

    • 6.2.2 - 1.2 𑀤𑀼𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Dutiyakaṇḍa) - Vowel Sandhi

    This section describes sarasandhi (combination of vowels).

    12 [R13] Vowel, before vowel, is elided

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 (sarā sare lopaṃ)1 vidhi utsarga

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space sarā lopaṃ:2 space sare space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
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    class Next context
    
  
  
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    Vowel, before a vowel, experience elision.
    (When there are two vowels, the first vowel is elided)

    Sarā kho sare pare lopaṃ papponti.

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरा खो सरे परे लोपं पप्पोन्ति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    yassindriyāni samathaṅgatāni

    🚹⑥⨀(ya) 🚻①⨂(indriya) 🚻①⨂(samathaṅgata)
    of whatever | faculties | calmed

    yassa + indriyāni
    → yas + (s + a) + (i + n) + driyāni (rule 10)
    → yas + s + (a + i) + n + driyāni (rule 12)
    → yas + (s + i + n) + driyāni (rule 11)
    → yassindriyāni

    dhp94
  • ✅

    no hetaṃ bhante

    🔼(no) 🔼(hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    not | certainly | Bhantehi + etaṃ

    hi + etaṃ
    → (h + i) + (e) + taṃ (rule 10)
    → h + (i + e) + taṃ (rule 12)
    → (h + e) + taṃ (rule 11)
    → hetaṃ

    dn1#1.5.4
  • ✅

    sametāyasmā saṅghena

    🚹⓪⨀(sameta) 🚹⑤⨀(āya) 🚹③⨀(saṅgha)
    attained | from power | by monastic community

    sameta + āyasmā
    → same (t + a) + (ā) + yasmā (rule 10)
    → same t + (a + ā) + yasmā (rule 12)
    → same (t + ā) + yasmā (rule 11)
    → sametāyasmā

    pli-tv-bu-pm#24.3

    • 13 [R15] Optionally, next (vowel) not of the same type (following a vowel is elided)

    𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀅𑀲𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸 (vā paro asarūpā) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x["paro asarūpā"] space:2 space space vā space

  
    Previous["sara"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post0
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Optionally, when a vowel not of the same type (of articulation) follows a vowel, the second vowel experience elision.

    Saramhā asarūpā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā.

    𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀅𑀲𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    सरम्हा असरूपा परो सरो लोपं पप्पोति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā

    🚹①⨂(catu) 🚹①⨂(ima) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(dhamma)
    four | these | bhikkhave | teachings

    cattāro + ime
    → cattā + (r + o) + (i) + me (rule 10)
    → cattā + r + (o + i) + me (rule 13)
    → cattā + (r + o) + me (rule 11)
    → cattārome

    an4.249#1.1
  • ✅

    kinnumāva samaṇiyo

    🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(nu mā va) 🚹①⨀(samaṇiya)
    who | ? | do not | like | a monastic

    kiṃ + nu + imā
    → kiṃ + (n + u) + (i) + mā (rule 10)
    → kiṃ + n + (u + i) + mā (rule 13)
    → kiṃ + (n + u) + mā (rule 11)
    → kinnumā

    pli-tv-bi-pm#28.2

    • Counter examples

  • ⛔️

    pañcindriyāni

    🚻①⨂(pañcindriya)
    five faculties

    pañca + indriyāni
    → pañ + (c + a) + (i + n) + driyāni (rule 10)
    → pañ + c + (a + i) + n + driyāni (rule 12)
    → pañ + (c + i + n) + driyāni (rule 11)
    → pañcindriyāni

    Note rule 12 is applied rather than rule 13 because “a” and “i” are considered “similar” vowels (from the perspective of articulation).

    an10.90#6.3
  • ⛔️

    tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti

    🚹①⨂(ti) ⏯🤟⨂(assa) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🚹①⨂(jahita) ▶️🤟⨂(bhavati)
    three | will be | teachings | abandoned | is

    tayo + assu
    → ta + (y + o) + (a + s) + su (rule 10)
    → ta + y + (o + a) + s + su (rule 12)
    → ta + (y + a + s) + su (rule 11)
    → tayassu

    Note rule 12 is applied rather than rule 13 because “o” and “a” are considered “similar” vowels (from the perspective of articulation).

    snp2.1#10.2

    • 14 [R16] Occasionally, when (previous vowel) elided, following vowel becomes different

    𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀸𑀲𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑀁 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 (kvacāsavaṇṇaṃ lutte) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
lutte space space:2 x["asavaṇṇaṃ"] space kvaci space

  
    Previous["~~sara~~"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("asavaṇṇa")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    A vowel, when the previous vowel has been elided, occasionally becomes a different vowel.

    Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci asavaṇṇaṃ pappoti.

    𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀔𑁄 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀅𑀲𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरो खो परो पुब्बसरे लुत्ते क्वचि असवण्णं पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    saṅkhyaṃ nopeti vedagū

    🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(nopeti) 🚹①⨀(vedagū)
    categorisation | does not approach | one who has perfect knowledge

    na + upeti
    → (n + a) + (u) + peti (rule 10)
    → n + (a + u) + peti (rule 12)
    → n + (u→o) + peti (rule 14)
    → (n + o) + peti (rule 11)
    → nopeti

    snp3.12#40.4
  • ✅

    bandhusseva samāgamo

    🚹⑥⨀(bandhu) 🔼(iva) 🚹①⨀(samāgama)
    of relation | like | association of

    bandhussa + iva
    → bandhus + (s + a) + (i) + va (rule 10)
    → bandhus + s + (a + i) + va (rule 12)
    → bandhus + s + (i→e) + va (rule 14)
    → bandhus + (s + e) + va (rule 11)
    → bandhusseva

    • Counter examples

  • ⛔️

    yassindriyāni (samathaṅgatāni)

    🚹⑥⨀(ya) 🚻①⨂(indriya) (🚻①⨂(samathaṅgata))
    of whatever | faculties | (calmed)

    yassa + indriyāni
    → yas + (s + a) + (i + n) + driyāni (rule 10)
    → yas + s + (a + i) + n + driyāni (rule 12)
    → yas + (s + i + n) + driyāni (rule 11)
    → yassindriyāni

    dhp94
  • ⛔️

    tathūpamaṃ dhammavaraṃ adesayi

    🚻①⨀(tathūpama) 🚹②⨀(dhammavara) ⏮🤟⨀(adesayi)
    similar to that | excellent teaching | taught

    tathā + upama
    → ta + (th + ā) + (u) + pama (rule 10)
    → ta + th + (ā + u) + pama (rule 12)
    → ta + th + (u→ū) + pama (rule 15)
    → ta + (th + ū) + pama (rule 11)
    → tathūpama

    kp6#13.3

    • 15 [R17] (Occasionally, when previous vowel elided, following vowel becomes) long

    𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 (dīghaṃ) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
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    Previous["~~sara~~"]
    class Previous context0
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("dīghaṃ")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vikāra"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    A vowel, when the previous vowel has been elided, occasionally becomes long.

    Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti.

    𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀔𑁄 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरो खो परो पुब्बसरे लुत्ते क्वचि दीघं पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    saddhīdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ

    🔼(saddhīdha) 🚻①⨀(vitta) 🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚻①⨀(seṭṭha)
    confidence here | wealth | of person | most important

    saddhā + idha
    → sad + (dh + ā) + (i) + dha (rule 10)
    → sad + dh + (ā + i) + dha (rule 12)
    → sad + dh + (i→ī) + dha (rule 15)
    → sad + (dh + ī) + dha (rule 11)
    → saddhīdha

    snp1.10#7.1
  • ✅

    anāgārehi cūbhayaṃ

    🚹③⨂(anāgāra) 🔼(cūbhayaṃ)
    by homeless wanderer | as well as

    ca + ubhayaṃ
    → (c +a) + (u) + bhayaṃ (rule 10)
    → c + (a + u) + bhayaṃ (rule 12)
    → c + (u→ū) + bhayaṃ (rule 15)
    → (c + ū) + bhayaṃ (rule 11)
    → cūbhayaṃ

    snp3.9#40.2

    • Counter examples

  • ⛔️

    pañcahupāli aṅgehi samannāgato

    ⚧③⨂(pañca) 🚹⓪⨀(upāli) 🚻③⨂(aṅga) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata)
    with five | Upāli| | with limb | endowed with

    pañcahi + upāli
    → pañca + (h + i) + (u) + pāli (rule 10)
    → pañca + h + (i + u) + pāli (rule 12)
    → pañca + (h + u) + pāli (rule 11)
    → pañcahupāli

    dn4#13.10
  • ⛔️

    natthaññaṃ kiñci

    ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚻①⨀(añña) 🚻①⨀(kaci)
    there is not | another | something

    natthi + aññaṃ
    → nat + (th + i) + (a) + ññaṃ (rule 10)
    → nat + th + (i + a) + ññaṃ (rule 12)
    → nat + (th + a) + ññaṃ (rule 11)
    → natthaññaṃ

    • 16 [R18] And (when following vowel elided), previous (vowel becomes long)

    𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 (pubbo ca) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space pubbo space:2 space space ca space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("dīghaṃ")
      class After post0
    
    Before--"vikāra"-->After
  end
  
    Next["~~sara~~"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"ca"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    A vowel, when the following vowel has been elided, occasionally becomes long.

    Pubbo ca saro parasaralope kate kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti.

    𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑀭𑀮𑁄𑀧𑁂 𑀓𑀢𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    पुब्बो च सरो परसरलोपे कते क्वचि दीघं पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    kiṃ sūdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ

    🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(su idha) 🚻①⨀(vitta) 🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚻①⨀(seṭṭha)
    what | ! | here | wealth | of person | most important

    su + idha
    → (s + u) + (i) + dha (rule 10)
    → s + (u + i) + dha (rule 13)
    → s + (u→ū) + dha (rule 16)
    → (s + ū) + dha (rule 11)
    → sūdha

    snp1.10#6.1
  • ✅

    sādhūti paṭissuṇitvā

    🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🔼(iti) 🔼(paṭissuṇitvā)
    auspicious | like this | having agreed

    sādhu + iti
    → sā + (dh + u) + (i) + ti (rule 10)
    → sā + dh + (u + i) + ti (rule 13)
    → sā + dh + (u→ū) + ti (rule 16)
    → sā + (dh + ū) + ti (rule 11)
    → sādhūti

    dn23#6.19

    • Counter example

  • ⛔️

    itissa muhuttampi

    🔼(iti) ⏯🤟⨀(assa) 🚹②⨀(muhutta) 🔼(api)
    like this | will be | moment | just

    iti + assa
    → i + (t + i) + (a + s) + sa (rule 10)
    → i + t + (i + a) + s + sa (rule 13)
    → i + (t + i + s) + sa (rule 11)
    → itissa

    pli-tv-bi-pm#224.1

    • 17 [R19] (Occasionally, previous syllable) ending with e, replace with “y”

    𑀬𑀫𑁂𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 (yamedantassādeso) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space edantassa ādeso:2 yaṃ space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("e")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("y")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    When (previous syllable) ends with “e”, followed by another vowel, the “e” is replaced with “y”.

    Ekārassa antabhūtassa sare pare kvaci yakārādeso hoti.

    𑀏𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    एकारस्स अन्तभूतस्स सरे परे क्वचि यकारादेसो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    adhigato kho myāyaṃ dhammo

    🚹①⨀(adhigata) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(dhamma)
    achieved | indeed | by me | this | character

    me + ayaṃ
    → (m + e) + (a) + yaṃ (rule 10)
    → m + (e→y + a) + yaṃ (rule 17)
    → m + (y + a→ā) + yaṃ (rule 15)
    → m + (y + ā) + yaṃ (rule 11)
    → myāyaṃ

    dn14#3.4.5
  • ✅

    tyāhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ

    🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔵⏯👆⨀(vadati)
    you | I | thus | will speak

    te + ahaṃ
    → (t + e) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
    → t + (e→y + a) + haṃ (rule 17)
    → t + (y + a→ā) + haṃ (rule 15)
    → t + (y + ā) + haṃ (rule 11)
    → tyāhaṃ

    mn3#3.4
  • ✅

    tyāssa pahīnā honti

    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚹①⨂(pahīna) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti)
    they | of this | given up | are

    te + assa
    → (t + e) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → t + (e→y + a) + ssa (rule 17)
    → t + (y + a→ā) + ssa (rule 15)
    → t + (y + ā) + ssa (rule 11)
    → tyāssa

    mn111#8.2

    • Counter example

  • ⛔️

    ne’nāgatā, iti nettha

    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(anāgata) 🔼(iti) 🔼(nettha)
    those | not present | like this | not in this case

    ne + anāgata
    → (n + e) + (a) + nāgata (rule 10)
    → n + (e + a) + nāgata (rule 13)
    → (n + e) + nāgata (rule 11)
    → nenāgata

    • 18 [R20] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “o” or “u” ending, (replace with) “v”

    𑀯𑀁 𑀑𑀤𑀼𑀤𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 (vaṃ odudantānaṃ) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space odudantānaṃ space:2 vaṃ space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("o,u")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("v")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    When (previous syllable) ends with “o” or ”u”, followed by another vowel, the “o” or “u” is replaced with “v”.

    Okārukārānaṃ antabhūtānaṃ sare pare kvaci vakārādeso hoti.

    𑀑𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀼𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀯𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    ओकारुकारानं अन्तभूतानं सरे परे क्वचि वकारादेसो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    atha khvassa

    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
    after that | of this

    kho + assa
    → (kh + o) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → kh + (o→v + a) + ssa (rule 18)
    → kh + (v + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → khvassa

    sn22.89#12.3
  • ✅

    svassa hoti

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    that | of this | is

    so + assa
    → (s + o) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → s + (o→v + a) + ssa (rule 18)
    → s + (v + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → svassa

    mn117#9.1
  • ✅

    bahvābādho

    🚹①⨀(bahvābādha)
    sickly

    bahu + ābādho
    → ba + (h + u) + (ā) + bādho (rule 10)
    → ba + h + (u→v + ā) + bādho (rule 18)
    → ba + (h + v + ā) + bādho (rule 11)
    → bahvābādho

    mn85#56.7
  • ✅

    vatthvettha vihitaṃ niccaṃ cakkhāpāthamāgacchati

    🚻①⨀(vatthu) 🔼(ettha) 🚻①⨀(vihita) 🚻①⨀(nicca) 🚻①⨀(cakkhu) 🚹②⨀(āpātha) ▶️🤟⨀(āgacchati)
    base | here | arranged | continuous | eye | sense organ | come

    vatthu + ettha
    → vat + (th + u) + (e + t) + tha (rule 10)
    → vat + th + (u→v + e) + t + tha (rule 18)
    → vat + (th + v + e + t) + tha (rule 11)
    → vatthvettha

    • Counter examples

  • ⛔️

    cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā

    🚹①⨂(catu) 🚹①⨂(ima) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(dhamma)
    four | these | bhikkhave | teachings

    cattāro + ime
    → cattā + (r + o) + (i) + me (rule 10)
    → cattā + r + (o + i) + me (rule 13)
    → cattā + (r + o) + me (rule 11)
    → cattārome

    an4.189#1.1
  • ⛔️

    kinnumāva samaṇiyo

    🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(nu mā va) 🚹①⨀(samaṇiya)
    who | ? | do not | like | a monastic

    kiṃ + nu + imā
    → kiṃ + (n + u) + (i) + mā (rule 10)
    → kiṃ + n + (u + i) + mā (rule 13)
    → kiṃ + (n + u) + mā (rule 11)
    → kinnumā

    pli-tv-bi-pm#28.2

    • 19 [R22] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “ti”, (replace with) “c”

    𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 (sabbo canti) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["sabbo ti"] space:2 caṃ space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("ti")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("c")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    The entire “ti” sound/consonant, when followed by another vowel, occasionally becomes “c”.

    Sabbo (icceso) tisaddo byañjano sare pare kvaci cakāraṃ pappoti.

    𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 (𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀲𑁄) 𑀢𑀺𑀲𑀤𑁆𑀤𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀘𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सब्बो (इच्चेसो) तिसद्दो ब्यञ्जनो सरे परे क्वचि चकारं पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    iccetaṃ kusalaṃ

    🔼(iti etaṃ) 🚻①⨀(kusala)
    like this | thus | wholesome

    iti + etaṃ
    → i + (ti→c) + (e) + taṃ (rule 19)
    → i + (c→cc) + (e) + taṃ (rule 28)
    → i + (cc + e) + taṃ (rule 11)
    → iccetaṃ

    mn125#4.4
  • ✅

    iccassa vacanīyaṃ

    🔼(iti) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(vacanīya)
    like this | of this | should be said

    iti + assa
    → i + (ti→c) + (a) + ssa (rule 19)
    → i + (c→cc) + (a) + ssa (rule 28)
    → i + (cc + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → iccassa

    dn15#2.2
  • ✅

    (paccuttaritvā)

    🔼(paccuttaritvā)
    having come out

    pati + uttaritvā
    → pa + (ti→c) + (u) + ttaritvā (rule 19)
    → pa + (c→cc) + u + ttaritvā (rule 28)
    → pa + (cc + u) + ttaritvā (rule 11)
    → paccuttaritvā

    sn1.20#1.4
  • ✅

    paccāharati

    ▶️🤟⨀(paccāharati)
    brings back

    pati + aharati
    → pa + (ti→c) + (a) + harati (rule 19)
    → pa + (c→cc) + a + harati (rule 28)
    → pa + cc + (a->ā) + harati (rule 15)
    → pa + (cc + ā) + harati (rule 11)
    → paccāharati

    pli-tv-pvr1.2#10.2

    • Counter example

  • ⛔️

    itissa muhuttampi

    🔼(iti) ⏯🤟⨀(assa) 🚹②⨀(muhutta) 🔼(api)
    like this | will be | moment | just

    iti + assa
    → i + (t + i) + (a + s) + sa (rule 10)
    → i + t + (i + a) + s + sa (rule 13)
    → i + (t + i + s) + sa (rule 11)
    → itissa

    pli-tv-bi-pm#224.1

    • 20 [R27] (Occasionally, previous syllable with) “dha”, (replace with) “d”

    𑀤𑁄 𑀥𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 (do dhassa ca)2 vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["dhassa ca"] space:2 do space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("dha")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("d")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    “Dha”, followed by another vowel, occasionally is replaced with “d”.

    Dhaiccetassa sare pare kvaci dakārādeso hoti.

    𑀥𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    धैच्चेतस्स सरे परे क्वचि दकारादेसो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    ekamidāhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ

    🚻①⨀(eka) 🔼(idha) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(samaya)
    one | here | I | bhikkhave | occasion

    idha + ahaṃ
    → i + (dha→d) + (a) + haṃ (rule 20)
    → i + d + (a→ā) + haṃ (rule 15)
    → i + (d + ā) + haṃ (rule 11)
    → idāhaṃ

    dn14#3.29.1

    • Counter example

  • ⛔️

    idheva (me) maraṇaṃ bhavissati

    🔼(idheva) 🚻①⨀(maraṇa) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati)
    right here | death | will become

    idha + eva
    → i + (dh + a) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → i + dh + (a + e) + va (rule 12)
    → i + (dh + e) + va (rule 11)
    → idheva

    mn82#7.22

    • block-beta
  columns 8
  
  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("dha")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("h")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
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    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
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    Example

  • ✅

    sāhu dassana mariyānaṃ

    🔼(sāhu) 🚻①⨀(dassana) 🚹⑥⨂(ariya)
    excellent | appearance of | Buddha

    sādhu
    → sā + (dh→h) + u (rule 20)
    → sā + (h + u) (rule 11)
    → sāhu

    dhp206

    • block-beta
  columns 8
  

  space

block:operation1:4
  columns 4
  
    Before1["d"]
    class Before1 pre
  
  space:2
  
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  Before1--"ādesa"-->After1
end

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  class Next1 context


  space


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block:operation2:4
  columns 4
  
    Before2["t"]
    class Before2 pre
  
  space:2
  
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  Before2--"ādesa"-->After2
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  class Next2 context


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  columns 4
  
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  space:2
  
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  columns 4
  
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    class Before4 pre
  
  space:2
  
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  Before4--"ādesa"-->After4
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    class Before5 pre
  
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  class Next5 context


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    class Before7 pre
  
  space:2
  
    After7["j"]
    class After7 post
  
  Before7--"ādesa"-->After7
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  class Next7 context


  space


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block:operation8:4
  columns 4
  
    Before8["v"]
    class Before8 pre
  
  space:2
  
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    class After8 post
  
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  class Next8 context


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  columns 4
  
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  space:2
  
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  class Next9 context


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  columns 4
  
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  space:2
  
    After11["k"]
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  columns 4
  
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    class Before12 pre
  
  space:2
  
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    class Before13 pre
  
  space:2
  
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  class Next13 context


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    Additional examples

  • ✅

    d → t: sugato

    🔼(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(da) 🔼(yathā) 🚹①⨀(sugata)
    “ta” | of “d” | for example | fortunate one

    su + gado
    → su + ga + (d→t + o) (rule 20)
    → sugato

    an8.86#3.1
  • ✅

    t → ṭ: dukkaṭaṃ

    🚻①⨀(dukkaṭa)
    wrong action

    dukkataṃ
    → dukka + (t→ṭ + a + ṃ) (rule 20)
    → dukkaṭaṃ

    dn11#83.10
  • ✅

    t → dh: gandhabbo

    🚹①⨀(gandhabba)
    demigod

    gantabbo
    → gan + (t→dh + a) + bbo (rule 20)
    → gandhabbo

    dn20#10.9
  • ✅

    tt → tr: atrajo

    🚹①⨀(atraja)
    born from oneself

    attajo
    → at + (tt→tr + a) + jo (rule 20)
    → atrajo

    bv10#18.4
  • ✅

    g → t: kulūpako

    🚹①⨀(kulūpaka)
    one who approaches families

    kulūpago
    → kulūpa + (g→k + o) (rule 20)
    → kulūpako

    mn22#13.26
  • ✅

    r → l: mahāsālo

    🚹①⨀(mahāsāla)
    having immense wealth

    mahāsāro
    → mahāsā (r→l + o) (rule 20)
    → mahāsālo

    an5.40#1.1
  • ✅

    y → j: gavajo

    🚹①⨀(gavaja)
    species of ox

    gavayo
    → gava + (y→j + o) (rule 20)
    → gavajo

    ja535#76.1
  • ✅

    v → bb: kubbato

    🚹④⨀(kubbanta)
    for one doing

    kuvato
    → ku + (v→bb + a) + to (rule 20)
    → kubbato

    an3.57#9.2
  • ✅

    y → k: sake

    🚹②⨂(saka)
    one’s own

    saye
    → sa + (y→k +e) (rule 20)
    → sake

    dn12#7.1
  • ✅

    j → y: niyaṃputtaṃ

    🚻①⨀(niya) 🚻①⨀(putta)
    one’s own | child

    nijaṃputtaṃ
    → ni + (j→y + a) + ṃputtaṃ (rule 20)
    → niyaṃputtaṃ

    kp9#7.1
  • ✅

    t → k: niyako

    🚹①⨀(niyaka)
    one’s own

    niyato
    → niya + (t→k + o) (rule 20)
    → niyako

    dn16#2.8.4
  • ✅

    tt → cc: bhacco

    🚹①⨀(bhacca)
    dependant

    bhatto
    → bha ++ (tt→cc + o) (rule 20)
    → bhacco

    dn2#8.1
  • ✅

    p → ph: nipphatti

    🚺①⨀(nipphatti)
    success

    nippatti
    → nip + (p→ph + a) + tti (rule 20)
    → nipphatti

    ne13#3.3
  • ✅

    k → kh: nikkhamati

    ▶️🤟⨀(nikkhamati)
    leaves

    nikkamati
    → nik + (k→kh + a) + mati (rule 20)
    → nikkhamati

    dn14#1.25.1

    • 21 [R21] Rarely, (previous) phoneme with “i” becomes “y”

    𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁄 𑀬𑀁 𑀦𑀯𑀸 (ivaṇṇo yaṃ navā)3 vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space ivaṇṇo space:2 yaṃ space navā space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("i")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("y")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"navā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
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    Rarely, the “i” phoneme, followed by another vowel, is replaced with “y”.

    Pubbo ivaṇṇo sare pare yakāraṃ pappoti navā.

    𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀯𑀸𑁇

    पुब्बो इवण्णो सरे परे यकारं पप्पोति नवा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    paṭisanthāravutyassa

    🔼(paṭisanthāravutyassa)
    one should have a friendly disposition

    vutti + assa
    → vut + (t + i) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → vut + t + (i→y) + a + ssa (rule 21)
    → vut + (t + y + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → vutyassa

    dhp376
  • ✅

    sabbā vityānubhūyate

    🚺①⨀(sabba) 🚺①⨀(vitti) 🔼(anu) | 🔵▶️🤟⨀(bhūyati)
    all | joy | following | is becoming

    vitti + anu
    → vit + (t + i) + (a) + nu (rule 10)
    → vit + t + (i→y) + a + nu (rule 21)
    → vit + t + y + (a→ā) + nu (rule 15)
    → vit + (t + y + ā) + nu (rule 11)
    → vityānu

    • Counter examples

  • ⛔️

    pañcahaṅgehi samannāgato

    ⚧③⨂(pañca) 🚻③⨂(aṅga) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata)
    with 5 | with limbs | endowed with

    pañcahi + aṅgehi
    → pañca + (h + i) + (a + ṅ) + gehi (rule 10)
    → pañca + h + (i + a) + ṅ + gehi (rule 12)
    → pañca + (h + a + ṅ) + gehi (rule 11)
    → pañcahaṅgehi

    mn85#56.17
  • ⛔️

    muttacāgī anuddhato

    🚺①⨀(mutti) 🚺①⨀(cāgī) 🚹①⨀(anuddhata)
    freely | donates | not arrogant

    mutti + cāgī
    → mut + (t + i) + (c + ā) + gī (rule 10)
    → mut + t + (i→a + c) + ā + gī (rule 27)
    → mut + (t + a) + (c + ā) + gī (rule 11)
    → muttacāgī

    • 22 [R28] (Rarely,) previous (long vowel followed by) “eva” becomes “riva”, and previous (vowel) becomes short

    𑀏𑀯𑀸𑀤𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀭𑀺 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 (evādissa ri pubbo ca rasso)4 vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["pubbo evādissa"] space:2 x2["ri ca rasso"] space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara,eva")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("rassa,riva")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"navā"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Rarely, after another (long) vowel followed by “eva”, “e” becomes “ri”, and previous vowel becomes short.

    Saramhā parassa evassa ekārassa ādissa rikāro hoti, pubbo ca saro rasso hoti navā.

    𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀏𑀯𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀏𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀆𑀤𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀭𑀺𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺, 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀦𑀯𑀸𑁇

    सरम्हा परस्स एवस्स एकारस्स आदिस्स रिकारो होति, पुब्बो च सरो रस्सो होति नवा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    yathariva vasudhātalañca sabbaṃ

    🔼(yathariva) 🚺①⨀(vasudhā) 🚻①⨀(tala) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨀(sabba)
    just as | earth level | and | entire

    yathā + eva
    → yath + (ā→a) + (e→ri) + va (rule 22)
    → ya + (th + a) + ri + va (rule 11)
    → yathariva

    dn29#27.3
  • ✅

    tathariva guṇavā supūjaniyo

    🔼(tathariva) 🚹①⨀(guṇavant) 🔼(su) 🚹①⨀(pūjaniya)
    like this | one who is virtuous | well | worthy of veneration

    tathā + eva
    → tath + (ā→a) + (e→ri) + va (rule 22)
    → ta + (th + a) + ri + va (rule 11)
    → tathariva

    • Counter examples

  • ⛔️

    yathā eva

    🔼(yathā) 🔼(eva)
    like | only

    No sandhi.

  • ⛔️

    tathā eva

    🚹①⨂(tatha) 🔼(eva)
    true | only

    No sandhi.

    1. Most translations interpret sarā as plural in case ① but I have chosen to interpret this as singular in case ⑤. ↩︎

    2. The ca is not intended to be an option marker, but is probably intended as a continuation or extension of the previous rule. In any case, the commentary indicates the relevant option marker is kvaci. ↩︎

    3. navā is generally interpreted by most translations (and also other grammatical books) to be an alternative to kvaci, to cancel out kvaci in the preceeding rule, however, I have decided to interpret it as a more restrictive form of optionality, hence have translated it as “rarely”. In any case, the vutti for rule 22 continues the use of navā as the applicable option marker, hence I believe it has a different meaning than kvaci. ↩︎

    4. I have interpreted ca not as an option marker but an intention to signify two operations are included in this rule: a transformation of eva into riva as well as a shortening of the preceeding long vowel. The relevant option marker is navā inherited from the previous rule, which is made clear in the vutti. ↩︎

    6.2.3 - 1.3 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Tatiyakaṇḍa) - Consonant Sandhi

    This section describes byañjanasandhi (when a word ending with a vowel is joined to a word ending with a consonant).

    23 [R26] vowel + consonant: original form

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀧𑀓𑀢𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 (sarā pakati byañjane) vidhi utsarga

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space sarā pakati:2 space byañjane space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("(sara)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Vowel, followed by another consonant, retains original form.

    Sarā kho byañjane pare pakatirūpāni honti.

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀓𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸𑀦𑀺 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे पकतिरूपानि होन्ति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    manopubbaṅgamā dhammā

    🚹①⨂(manopubbaṅgama) 🚹①⨂(dhamma)
    led by mind | nature

    mano + pubbaṅgamā
    → manopubbaṅgamā
    (no sandhi)

    dhp1
  • ✅

    pamādo maccuno padaṃ

    🚹①⨀(pamāda) 🚹⑥⨀(maccu) 🚻①⨀(pada)
    carelessness | of death | way

    (no sandhi)

    dhp21
  • ✅

    tiṇṇo pāraṅgato ahu

    🚹①⨀(tiṇṇa) 🚹①⨀(pāraṅgata) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    crossed over | reached the other shore | became

    (no sandhi)

    an4.5#4.1

    • 24 [R35] (vowel +) vowel, occasionally (: original form)

    𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 (sare kvaci) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space space:2 space sare kvaci space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("(sara)")
      class After post0
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Vowel followed by another vowel occasionally retains original form.

    Sarā kho sare pare kvaci pakatirūpāni honti.

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀧𑀓𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸𑀦𑀺 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरा खो सरे परे क्वचि पकतिरूपानि होन्ति।

    Example

  • ✅

    ko imaṃ pathaviṃ vicessati

    🚹①⨀(ka) 🚺②⨀(ima) 🚺②⨀(pathavī) ⏭🤟⨀(vicessati)
    who | this | earth | understand

    (no sandhi)

    dhp44

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    appassutāyaṃ puriso

    🚹①⨀(appassuta) 🚹①⨀(purisa)
    ignorant | person

    appassuto + ayaṃ
    → appassu + (t + o) + (a) + yaṃ (rule 10)
    → appassu + t + (~~o + a) + yaṃ (rule 12)
    → appassu + t + (a→ā) + yaṃ (rule 15)
    → appassu + (t + ā) + yaṃ (rule 11)
    → appassutāyaṃ

    dhp146

    • 25 [R37] (vowel + consonant, vowel becomes) long (occasionally)

    𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 (dīghaṃ) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space dīghaṃ:2 space space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("sara (dīghaṃ)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"dīghaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Vowel, followed by another consonant, occasionally becomes long.

    Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci dīghaṃ papponti.

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀤𑀻𑀖𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि दीघं पप्पोन्ति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    sammā dhammaṃ vipassato

    🔼(samma) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🚹⑥⨀(vipassanta)
    friend | nature | seeing deeply into

    samma + dhammaṃ
    → samm + (a→ā) + dhammaṃ (rule 25)
    → sammādhammaṃ

    dhp360
  • ✅

    evaṃ gāme munī care

    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹②⨂(gāma) 🚹①⨂(muni) 🚹②⨂(cara)
    thus | village | sage | wandering

    muni + care
    → mun + (i→ī) + care (rule 25)
    → munīcare

    dhp44
  • ✅

    khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā

    🚺①⨀(khanti) 🚻①⨀(parama) 🚹①⨀(tapa) 🚹①⨂(titikkha)
    patience | highest | religious practice | enduring

    khanti + paramaṃ
    → khant (i→ī) + paramaṃ (rule 25)
    khantīparamaṃ

    dhp179

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    idha modati pecca modati

    🔼(idha) ▶️🤟⨀(modati) 🔼(pecca) ▶️🤟⨀(modati)
    here | is glad | after death | is glad

    (no sandhi)

    dhp11
  • ⛔️

    patilīyati

    ▶️🤟⨀(patilīyati)
    withdraws from

    pati + līyati
    (no sandhi)

    sn8.2#3.3
  • ⛔️

    paṭihaññati

    ▶️🤟⨀(paṭihaññati)
    is struck

    paṭi + haññati (no sandhi)

    mn130#17.1

    • 26 [R38] (vowel + consonant, vowel becomes) short (occasionally)

    𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀁 (rassaṃ) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space rassaṃ:2 space space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("sara (rassaṃ)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"rassaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Vowel, followed by another consonant, occasionally becomes short.

    Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci rassaṃ papponti.

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि रस्सं पप्पोन्ति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    bhovādināma so hoti

    🚹①⨀(bhovādī) 🔼(nāma) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    Brahman | certainly | he | is

    bhovādī + nāma
    → bhovād + (ī→i) + nāma (rule 26)
    → bhovādināma

    mn98#11.3
  • ✅

    bhovādināma so hoti

    🚹①⨀(bhovādī) 🔼(nāma) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    Brahman | certainly | he | is

    bhovādī + nāma
    → bhovād + (ī→i) + nāma (rule 26)
    → bhovādināma

    mn98#11.3
  • ✅

    yathābhāvi guṇena so

    🔼(yathā) 🚹①⨀(bhāvī) 🚹③⨀(guṇa) 🚹①⨀(ta)
    like | predestined | by virtue | that

    yathā + bhāvi
    → yath (ā→a) + bhāvi (rule 26)
    → yathabhāvi

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    sammāsamādhi

    🚹①⨀(sammāsamādhi)
    right mental composure

    sammā + samādhi
    (no sandhi)

    dn6#14.5
  • ⛔️

    sammāsamādhi

    🚹①⨀(sammāsamādhi)
    right mental composure

    sammā + samādhi
    (no sandhi)

    dn6#14.5
  • ⛔️

    sāvittī chandaso mukhaṃ

    🚺①⨂(sāvitti) 🚹⑥⨀(chandas) 🚻①⨀(mukha)
    Sāvittī (sun god) | of metre | opening

    sāvittī + chandaso
    (no sandhi)

    mn92#26.2
  • ⛔️

    upanīyati jīvitamappamāyu

    ▶️🤟⨀(upanīyati) 🚻⓪⨀(jīvita) 🚹①⨀(appamāyu)
    is lead to the end | existence | short-lived

    jīvita + appamāyu
    → jīvita + (m)+ appamāyu (rule 35)
    → jīvitamappamāyu

    sn1.3#2.1

    • 27 [R39] (vowel + consonant, vowel is) elided, replaced by “a” (occasionally)

    𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 (lopañca tatrākāro) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space lopañca:2 tatrākāro space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("a")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Vowel, followed by another consonant, occasionally becomes elided. In the place of the completed elision, the letter “a” is inserted.

    Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ papponti. Tatra ca lope kate akārāgamo hoti.

    𑀲𑀭𑀸 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺𑁇 𑀢𑀢𑁆𑀭 𑀘 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑁂 𑀓𑀢𑁂 𑀅𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    सरा खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि लोपं पप्पोन्ति। तत्र च लोपे कते अकारागमो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    sa sīlavā

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(sīlava)
    that | Sīlava

    so + sīlavā
    → (s + o) + (s + ī) + lavā (rule 10)
    → s + (oa + s) + ī + lavā (rule 27)
    → (s + a) + (s + ī) + lavā (rule 11)
    → sasīlavā

    dhp84
  • ✅

    sa paññavā

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(paññava)
    he | intelligent

    so + paññavā
    → (s + o) + (p + a) + ññavā (rule 10)
    → s + (oa + p) + a + ññavā (rule 27)
    → (s + a) + (p + a) + ññavā (rule 11)
    → sapaññavā

    dhp84
  • ✅

    esa dhammo sanantano

    🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(dhamma) 🚹①⨀(sanantana)
    this | doctrine | everlasting

    eso + dhammo
    → e + (s + o) + (dh + a) + mmo (rule 10)
    → e + s + (oa + dh) + a + mmo (rule 27)
    → e + (s + a) + (dh + a) + mmo (rule 11)
    → sasīlavā

    mn128#6.20
  • ✅

    sa ve kasāvamarahati

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(ve) 🚻①⨀(kasāva) ▶️🤟⨀(arahati)
    that | truly | brown | is suitable

    so + ve
    → (s + o) + (v + e) (rule 10)
    → s + (oa + v) + e (rule 27)
    → (s + a) + (v + e) (rule 11)
    → save

    thag17.1#22.4
  • ✅

    sa mānakāmopi bhaveyya

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(mānakāmopi) ⏯🤟⨀(bhavati)
    he | who is proud | will be

    so + mānakāmopi
    → (s + o) + (m + ā) + nakāmopi (rule 10)
    → s + (oa + m) + ā + nakāmopi (rule 27)
    → (s + a) + (m + ā) + nakāmopi (rule 11)
    → samānakāmopi

  • ✅

    sa ve muni jātibhayaṃ adassi

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(ve) 🚹①⨀(muni) 🚻①⨀(jātibhaya) ⏮🤟⨀(adassi)
    that | truly | sage | danger of rebirth | has seen

    so + ve
    → (s + o) + (v + e) (rule 10)
    → s + (oa + v) + e (rule 27)
    → (s + a) + (v + e) (rule 11)
    → save

    snp1.12#3.3

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    so muni

    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(muni)
    that | sage

    so + muni
    (no sandhi)

    sn4.6#4.2
  • ⛔️

    eso dhammo padissati

    🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(dhamma) ▶️🤟⨀(padissati)
    this doctrine | is seen

    eso + dhammo
    (no sandhi)

    mn139#13.36
  • ⛔️

    na so kāsāvamarahati

    🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(kāsāvamarahati)
    no | he | is worthy of the monk’s robe

    so + kāsāvamarahati
    (no sandhi)

    dhp7

    • 28 [R40] (vowel + consonant), next (consonant) doubled appropriately

    𑀧𑀭 𑀤𑁆𑀯𑁂𑀪𑀸𑀯𑁄 𑀞𑀸𑀦𑁂 (para dvebhāvo ṭhāne) vidhi apavāda

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    From vowel, next consonant is doubled appropriately.

    Saramhā parassa byañjanassa dvebhāvo hoti ṭhāne.

    𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀤𑁆𑀯𑁂𑀪𑀸𑀯𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀞𑀸𑀦𑁂𑁇

    सरम्हा परस्स ब्यञ्जनस्स द्वेभावो होति ठाने।

    Examples

  • ✅

    idhappamādo

    🔼(idha) 🚹①⨀(pamāda)
    here | negligence

    idha + pamādo
    → i + (dh + a) + (p + a) + mādo (rule 10)
    → i + dh + (a + p→pp) + a + mādo (rule 28)
    → i + (dh + a) + (pp + a) + mādo (rule 11)
    → idhappamādo

  • ✅

    purisassa jantuno

    🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚹⑥⨀(jantu)
    of person | of being

    purisa + sa
    → puri + (s + a) + (s + a) (rule 10)
    → puri + s + (a + s→ss) + a (rule 28)
    → puri + (s + a) + (ss + a) (rule 11)
    → purisassa

  • ✅

    pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi

    🚺②⨀(pabbajjā) ⏭👆⨀(kittayati)
    renunciation | I declare

    pa + bajjaṃ
    → (p + a) + (b + a) + jjaṃ (rule 10)
    → p + (a + b→bb) + a + jjaṃ (rule 28)
    → (p + a) + (bb + a) + jjaṃ (rule 11)
    → pabbajjaṃ

    snp3.1#1.1
  • ✅

    cātuddasi

    🚺⓪⨀(cātuddasī)
    fourteenth day of lunar fortnight

    cātu + dasi
    → cā + (t + u) + (d + a) + si (rule 10)
    → cā + t + (u + d→dd) + a + si (rule 28)
    → cā + (t + u) + (dd + a) + si (rule 11)
    → cātuddasi

    mn4#20.3
  • ✅

    pañcaddasi

    🚺⓪⨀(pañcaddasī) fifteenth day of lunar fortnight pañca + dasi → pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 10)
    → pañ + c + (a + d→dd) + a + si (rule 28)
    → pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 11)
    → pañcaddasi

    mn83#3.3
  • ✅

    pañcaddasi

    🚺⓪⨀(pañcaddasī) fifteenth pañca + dasi → pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 10)
    → pañ + c + (a + d→dd) + a + si (rule 28)
    → pañ + (c + a) + (d + a) + si (rule 11)
    → pañcaddasi

    mn83#3.3
  • ✅

    abhikkantataro cando

    🚹①⨀(abhikkantatara) 🚹①⨀(canda)
    more brilliant than | moon

    abhi + kantataro
    → abhi + kantataro
    → abh + (i) + (k + a +n) + tataro (rule 10)
    → abh + (i + k→kk) + a +n + tataro (rule 28)
    → abh + (i) + (kk + a +n) + tataro (rule 11)
    → abhikkantataro

    mn79#16.3

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    idha modati pecca modati

    🔼(idha) ▶️🤟⨀(modati) 🔼(pecca) ▶️🤟⨀(modati)
    here | is glad | after death | is glad

    (no sandhi)

    dhp11

    • 29 [R42] (vowel + ) voiced or unvoiced group (consonant), first and third letters (doubled appropriately)

    𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑁂 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀸 (vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiyapaṭhamā) vidhi apavāda

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    In a consonant following a vowel, the consonant prior in sequence within the group (voiced or unvoiced) corresponding to the third and first letters in that group, are doubled appropriately.

    Vagge kho pubbesaṃ byañjanānaṃ ghosāghosabhūtānaṃ saramhā yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiyapaṭhamakkharā dvebhāvaṃ gacchanti ṭhāne.

    𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑁂 𑀔𑁄 𑀧𑀼𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁂𑀲𑀁 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀸𑀖𑁄𑀲𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀬𑀣𑀸𑀲𑀗𑁆𑀔𑁆𑀬𑀁 𑀢𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀧𑀞𑀫𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀭𑀸 𑀤𑁆𑀯𑁂𑀪𑀸𑀯𑀁 𑀕𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀞𑀸𑀦𑁂𑁇

    वग्गे खो पुब्बेसं ब्यञ्जनानं घोसाघोसभूतानं सरम्हा यथासङ्ख्यं ततियपठमक्खरा द्वेभावं गच्छन्ति ठाने।

    Examples

  • ✅

    eseva cajjhānapphalo

    🔼(eseva ca) 🚻⓪⨀(jhāna) ⏮🤘⨀(phali)
    just this | jhāna | bore fruit

    ca + jhāna + phalo
    → (c + a) + (jh + ā) + (n + a) + (ph + a) + lo (rule 10)
    → c + (a + jh→jjh) + ā + n + (a + ph→pph) + a + lo (rule 29)
    → (c + a) + (jjh + ā) + (n + a) + (pph + a) + lo (rule 11)
    → cajjhānapphalo

    Note: the consonant “jh” is the fourth (voiced) consonant in the “c” group of letters (ca cha ja jha ña), so the consonant prior to it in the group is the “j” consonant (third consonant in the group). This is inserted prior to “jh” creating a doubling of “j”: “jj”. Similarly, the “ph” consonant is the second (unvoiced) consonant in the “p” group of letters (pa pha ba bha ma), which results in a doubling of “p” (the first consonant in the group).

  • ✅

    yatraṭṭhitaṃ nappasaheyya maccu

    🚻①⨀(yatraṭṭhita) ⏯🤟⨀(nappasahati) 🚹①⨀(maccu)
    where remaining | does not overpower | death

    yatra + ṭhita
    → ya + (tr + a) + (ṭh + i) + taṃ (rule 10)
    → ya + tr + (a + ṭh→ṭṭh) + i + taṃ (rule 29)
    → ya + (tr + a) + (ṭṭh + i) + taṃ (rule 11)
    → yatraṭṭhitaṃ

    Note: the consonant “ṭh” is the second (unvoiced) consonant in the “ṭ” group of letters (ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa), so the consonant prior to it in the group is the “ṭ” consonant (first consonant in the group). This is inserted prior to “ṭh” creating a doubling of “ṭ”: “ṭṭ”.

    dn22#6.1
  • ✅

    sele yathā pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito

    🚹②⨂(sela) 🔼(yathā) 🚹⑦⨀(pabbatamuddha) 🚹①⨀(ṭhita)
    rock | as per | on top of mountain | standing

    pabbatamuddhani + ṭhito
    → pabbatamuddha + (n + i) + (ṭh + i) + to (rule 10)
    → pabbatamuddha + n + (i + ṭh→ṭṭh) + i + to (rule 29)
    → pabbatamuddha + (n + i) + (ṭṭh + i) + to (rule 11)
    → pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito

    Note: the consonant “ṭh” is the second (unvoiced) consonant in the “ṭ” group of letters (ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa), so the consonant prior to it in the group is the “ṭ” consonant (first consonant in the group). This is inserted prior to “ṭh” creating a doubling of “ṭ”: “ṭṭ”.

    dn14#3.7.2
  • ✅

    cattāriṭṭhānāni naro pamatto

    🚻①⨂(catu) 🚻①⨂(ṭhāna) 🚹①⨀(nara) 🚹①⨀(pamatta)
    four | grounds | man | careless

    cattāri + ṭhānāni
    → cattā (r +i) + (ṭh + ā) + nāni (rule 10)
    → cattā r +(i + ṭh→ṭṭh) + ā + nāni (rule 29)
    → cattā (r +i) + (ṭṭh + ā) + nāni (rule 11)
    → cattāriṭṭhānāni

    Note: the consonant “ṭh” is the second (unvoiced) consonant in the “ṭ” group of letters (ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa), so the consonant prior to it in the group is the “ṭ” consonant (first consonant in the group). This is inserted prior to “ṭh” creating a doubling of “ṭ”: “ṭṭ”.

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    idha cetaso daḷhaṃ gaṇhāti thāmasā

    🔼(idha) 🚹⑥⨀(cetas) 🚹②⨀(daḷha) ▶️🤟⨀(gaṇhāti) 🚹③⨀(thāmas)
    here | of intention | steady | seizes | with strength

    idha + cetaso + daḷhaṃ
    (no sandhi)

    dhp94

    • 6.2.4 - 1.4 𑀘𑀢𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Catutthakaṇḍa) - Niggahita Sandhi

    This section describes niggahitasandhi (when a niggahita is joined to another letter).

    30 [R58] “aṃ” before consonant (remains) niggahita

    𑀅𑀁𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 (aṃbyañjane niggahitaṃ) vidhi utsarga

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    Niggahita before other consonant remains as “aṃ”.

    Niggahitaṃ kho byañjane pare aṃ iti hoti.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀁 𑀇𑀢𑀺 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    निग्गहितं खो ब्यञ्जने परे अं इति होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    evaṃ vutte

    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(vutta)
    thus | said

    evaṃ + vutte
    (no sandhi)

    snp1.7#3.1
  • ✅

    taṃ sādhūti paṭissuṇitvā

    🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🔼(iti) 🔼(paṭissuṇitvā)
    that | auspicious | like this | having agreed

    taṃ + sādhūti
    (no sandhi)

    • 31 [R49] Optionally, (niggahita changes to) end consonant in group, before (consonant in that) group

    𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀁 𑀯𑀸 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑁂 (vaggantaṃ vā vagge) vidhi apavāda

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    Following a consonant existing in a group, the niggahita becomes the end consonant in that group.

    Vaggabhūte byañjane pare niggahitaṃ kho vaggantaṃ vā pappoti.

    𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀪𑀽𑀢𑁂 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀯𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀁 𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    वग्गभूते ब्यञ्जने परे निग्गहितं खो वग्गन्तं वा पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    tanniccutaṃ

    🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(ni) 🚻①⨀(cuta)
    that | out | died

    taṃ + ni + cutaṃ
    → (ta + ṃ) + (n + i) + (c + u) + taṃ (rule 10)
    → ta + (ṃ→n + n) + i + c + u + taṃ (rule 31)
    → ta + n + n + i + (c→cc + u) + taṃ (rule 28)
    → (ta + n) + (n + i) + (cc + u) + taṃ (rule 11)
    → tanniccutaṃ

    n is the last consonant in the group starting with “t” (ta tha da dha na)

  • ✅

    dhammañcare sucaritaṃ

    🚻①⨀(dhamma) 🔵▶️👆⨀(carati) 🚻①⨀(sucarita)
    dhamma | I practice | moral

    dhammaṃ + care
    → dham + (ma + ṃ) + (c + a) + re (rule 10)
    → dham + ma + (ṃ→ñ + c) + a + re (rule 31)
    → dham + (ma + ñ) + (c + a) + re (rule 11)
    → dhammañcare

    ñ is the last consonant in the group starting with “c” (ca cha ja jha ña)

  • ✅

    cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ

    🚻①⨀(cirappavāsī) 🚻①⨀(purisa)
    who is long absent from home | person

    ciraṃ + pavāsīṃ
    → ci + (r + a + ṃ) + (p +a) + vāsīṃ (rule 10)
    → ci + r + a + (ṃ→m + p) + a + vāsīṃ (rule 31)
    → ci + r + a + (m→p + p) + a + vāsīṃ (rule 35)
    → ci + (r + a + p) + (p +a) + vāsīṃ (rule 11)
    → cirappavāsiṃ

    m is the last consonant in the group starting with “p” (pa pha ba bha ma)

    dhp217
  • ✅

    santantassa manaṃ hoti

    🚻①⨀(santa) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(mana) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    of that calm | having such a mind | is

    santaṃ + tassa
    → san + (t + a + ṃ) + (t + a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → san + t + a + (ṃ→n + t) + a + ssa (rule 31)
    → san + (t + a + n) + (t + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → santantassa

    n is the last consonant in the group starting with “t” (ta tha da dha na)

  • ✅

    taṅkāruṇikaṃ

    🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(kāruṇika)
    that | compassionate

    taṃ + kāruṇikaṃ
    → (ta + ṃ) + (k + ā) + ruṇikaṃ (rule 10)
    → (ta + (ṃ→ṅ + k) + ā + ruṇikaṃ (rule 31)
    → (ta + ṅ) + (k + ā) + ruṇikaṃ (rule 11)
    → taṅkāruṇikaṃ

    ṅ is the last consonant in the group starting with “k” (ka kha ga gha ṅa)

  • ✅

    evaṅkho bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ

    🔼(evaṃ kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(sikkhitabba)
    thus | indeed | bhikkhave | should be learned

    evaṃ + kho
    → e + (v + a + ṃ) + (kh + o) (rule 10)
    → e + v + a + (ṃ→ṅ + kh) + o (rule 31)
    → e + (v + a + ṅ) + (kh + o) (rule 11) → evaṅkho

    ṅ is the last consonant in the group starting with “k” (ka kha ga gha ṅa)

    • block-beta
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    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("niggahita")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("l")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["vagga"]
    class Next context0
  
  
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    class Marker mod10
  
  
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  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    By not taking this optional rule, the niggahita is replaced with the letter “l”.

    Vāggahaṇenaniggahitaṃ kho lakārādeso hoti.

    𑀯𑀸𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀮𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    वाग्गहणेननिग्गहितं खो लकारादेसो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    pulliṅgaṃ

    🚹②⨀(pulliṅga)
    masculine gender

    puṃ + liṅgaṃ
    → (p +u +ṃ) + (l + i) + ṅgaṃ (rule 10)
    → p +u +(ṃ→l + l) + i + ṅgaṃ (rule 31)
    → (p +u +l) + (l + i) + ṅgaṃ (rule 11)
    → pulliṅgaṃ

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu

    🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(kamma) 🚻①⨀(kata) 🚹①⨀(sādhu)
    no | that | karma | completed | excellent

    (no sandhi)

    • 32 [R50] (Optionally, niggahita followed by) “e” or “h” (becomes) “ñ”

    𑀏𑀳𑁂 𑀜𑀁 (ehe ñaṃ) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space space:2 ñaṃ ehe space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("niggahita")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("ñ")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["e, h"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
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    class Marker mod10
  
  
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    Optionally, the niggahita, followed by “e” or “h”, becomes “ñ”.

    Ekārahakāre pare niggahitaṃ kho ñakāraṃ pappoti vā.

    𑀏𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀳𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀜𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    एकारहकारे परे निग्गहितं खो ञकारं पप्पोति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    paccattaññeva parinibbāyissāmi

    🚻①⨀(paccatta) 🔼(eva) ⏭👆⨀(parinibbāyati)
    individual | just | completely quenched

    paccattaṃ + eva
    → paccat + (t + a + ṃ) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → paccat + t + a + (ṃ→ñ + e) + va (rule 32)
    → paccat + t + (a + ñ→ññ) + e + va (rule 28)
    → paccat + (t + a + ñ) + (ñ + e) + va (rule 11)
    → paccattaññeva

  • ✅

    taññevettha paṭipucchissāmi

    🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(eva) 🔼(ettha) ⏭👆⨀(paṭipucchati)
    that just | here | asks about

    taṃ + eva + ettha
    → (t + a + ṃ) + (e) + (v + a) + (e) + ttha (rule 10)
    → t + a + (ṃ→ñ + e) + v + a + e + ttha (rule 32)
    → t + (a + ñ→ññ) + e + v + a + e + ttha (rule 28)
    → t + a + ñ + ñ + e + v + (a + e) + ttha (rule 12)
    → (t + a + ñ) + (ñ + e) + (v + e) + ttha (rule 11)
    → taññevettha

    dn2#34.8
  • ✅

    evañhi vo bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ

    🔼(evaṃ hi vo) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(sikkhitabba)
    thus | certainly | surely | bhikkhave | should be practised

    evaṃ + hi
    → e + (v + a + ṃ) + (h + i) (rule 10)
    → e + v + a + (ṃ→ñ + h) + i (rule 32)
    → e + (v + a + ñ) + (h + i) (rule 11)
    → evañhi

    mn21#19.15
  • ✅

    tañhi tassa musā hoti

    🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(hi) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🔼(musā) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    that | surely | of that | lie | is

    taṃ + hi
    → (t + a + ṃ) + (h + i) (rule 10)
    → t + a + (ṃ→ñ + h) + i (rule 32)
    → (t + a + ñ) + (h + i) (rule 10)
    → tañhi

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    evametaṃ abhiññāya

    🔼(evaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🚺③⨀(abhiñña)
    thus | this | with direct knowledge

    evaṃ + etaṃ
    → e + (v + a + ṃ) + (e) + taṃ (rule 10)
    → e + v + a + (ṃ→m + e) + taṃ (rule 34)
    → e + (v + a + m) + (e) + taṃ (rule 11)
    → evametaṃ

    snp5.15#4.3
  • ⛔️

    evaṃ hoti subhāsitaṃ

    🔼(evaṃ) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻①⨀(subhāsita)
    thus | is | well spoken

    (no sandhi)

    • 33 [R50] (Optionally, niggahita) and “y” (becomes “ñ”)

    𑀲𑀬𑁂 𑀘 (saye ca) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
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    space
  
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      Before("niggahita &amp; y")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("ñ")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
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    class Marker mod10
  
  
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    Optionally, the niggahita, followed by “y”, together with “y” becomes “ñ”.

    Niggahitaṃ kho yakāre pare saha yakārena ñakāraṃ pappoti vā.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀲𑀳 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂𑀦 𑀜𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    निग्गहितं खो यकारे परे सह यकारेन ञकारं पप्पोति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    saññogo

    🚹①⨀(saññoga)
    attachment

    saṃ + yogo
    → (s + a + ṃ) + (y + o) + go (rule 10)
    → s + a + (ṃ + y)→ñ + o + go (rule 33)
    → s + (a + ñ→ññ) + o + go (rule 28)
    → (s + a + ñ) + (ñ + o) + go (rule 11)
    → saññogo

  • ✅

    saññuttaṃ

    🚻①⨀(saññutta)
    tied

    saṃ + yuttaṃ
    → (s + a +ṃ) + (y + u) + ttaṃ (rule 10)
    → s + a + (ṃ + y)→ñ + u + ttaṃ (rule 33)
    → s + (a + ñ→ññ) + u + ttaṃ (rule 28)
    → (s + a +ñ) + (ñ + u) + ttaṃ (rule 11)
    → saññuttaṃ

    thag16.2#16.1

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    saṃyogo

    🚹①⨀(saṃyoga)
    attachment

    (no sandhi)

  • ⛔️

    saṃyuttaṃ

    🚻①⨀(saṃyutta)
    tied

    (no sandhi)

    • 34 [R52] (Optionally, niggahita) before vowel (becomes) “m” or “d”

    𑀫𑀤𑀸 𑀲𑀭𑁂 (madā sare) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space space:2 madā sare space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("niggahita")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("m,d")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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    Optionally, the niggahita before a vowel is replaed with “m” or “d”.

    Niggahitassa kho sare pare makāradakārādesā honti vā.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    निग्गहितस्स खो सरे परे मकारदकारादेसा होन्ति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    tamahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ

    🚻①⨀(ta) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(brūti) 🚹②⨀(brāhmaṇa)
    that | I | call | brahman

    taṃ + ahaṃ
    → (t + a + ṃ) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
    → t + a + (ṃ→m + a) + haṃ (rule 34)
    → (t + a + m) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
    → tamahaṃ

    snp3.9#32.1
  • ✅

    etadavoca satthā

    🔼(etaṃ) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) 🚹①⨂(sattha)
    thus | said | master

    etaṃ + avoca
    → e + (t + a +ṃ) + (a) + voca (rule 10)
    → e + t + a + (ṃ→d + a) + voca (rule 34)
    → e + (t + a +d) + (a) + voca (rule 11)
    → etadavoca

    dn16#4.3.2

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ

    ⏮🤟⨀(akkocchi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(avadhi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ)
    verbally abused | me | beat | me

    (no sandhi)

    mn128#6.9
  • ⛔️

    ajini maṃ ahāsi me

    ⏮🤟⨀(ajini) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(ahāsi) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)
    robbed | me | stole | me

    (no sandhi)

    • 35 [R34] (Optionally) “y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r” or “l” inserted (before vowel)

    𑀬 𑀯 𑀫 𑀤 𑀦 𑀢 𑀭 𑀮𑀸 𑀘𑀸𑀕𑀫𑀸 (ya va ma da na ta ra lā cāgamā) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space cāgamā:2 x1["ya va ma da na ta ra lā"] space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("niggahita")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("y, v, m, d, n, t, r, l")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"āgamā"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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    Optionally, “y”, “v”, “m”, “d”, “n”, “t”, “r”, “ḷ” are inserted before a vowel.

    Sare pare yakāro vakāro makāro dakāro nakāro takāro rakāro lakāro ime āgamā honti vā.

    𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀬𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀯𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀦𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀢𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀭𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀮𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀇𑀫𑁂 𑀆𑀕𑀫𑀸 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    सरे परे यकारो वकारो मकारो दकारो नकारो तकारो रकारो लकारो इमे आगमा होन्ति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    nayimassa vijjā

    🔼(na) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚺①⨀(vijjā)
    no | of this | knowledge

    na + imassa
    → na + (y) + imassa (rule 35)
    → nayimassa

  • ✅

    yathayidaṃ cittaṃ

    ⏹🤘⨂(yāti) 🔼(idaṃ) 🚻①⨀(citta)
    travel | this | mind | mind

    yatha + idaṃ
    → yatha + (y) + idaṃ (rule 35)
    → yathayidaṃ

    an1.1#2.1
  • ✅

    migī bhantā vudikkhati

    🚺①⨀(migī) 🚺①⨀(bhanta) ▶️🤟⨀(udikkhati)
    doe | swerving | perceive

    bhantā + udikkhati
    → bhantā + (v) + udikkhati (rule 35)
    → bhantāvudikkhati

  • ✅

    sittā te lahu messati

    🚺①⨀(sitta) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚺①⨀(lahu) ⏭🤟⨀(eti)
    emptied | by you | fast | becomes

    lahu + essati
    → lahu + (m) + essati (rule 35)
    → lahumessati

    dhp366
  • ✅

    asittā te garu messati

    🚺①⨀(asitta) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚺①⨀(garu) ⏭🤟⨀(eti)
    nonemptied | by you | heavy | becomes

    garu + essati
    → garu + (m) + essati (rule 35)
    → garumessati

  • ✅

    asso bhadro kasāmiva

    🚹①⨀(assa) 🚹①⨀(bhadra) 🚹⓪⨀(kasanta) 🔼(iva)
    horse | fortunate | ploughing | like

    kasā + iva
    → kasā + (m) + iva (rule 35)
    → kasāmiva

    dhp138
  • ✅

    sammadaññā vimuttānaṃ

    🚺①⨀(sammadaññā) 🚹⑥⨂(vimutta)
    complete understanding | of liberation

    sammā + aññā
    → sammā + (d) + aññā (rule 35)
    → sammadaññā

    dhp54
  • ✅

    manasādaññā vimuttānaṃ

    🚹③⨀(manas) 🚹③⨀(añña) 🚹⑥⨂(vimutta)
    with mind | awakening | of liberation

    manasā + aññā
    → manasā + (d) + aññā (rule 35)
    → manasādaññā

  • ✅

    attadatthamabhiññāya

    🚹⓪⨀(attadattha) 🚺③⨀(abhiñña)
    one own’s benefit | with direct knowledge

    attadattha + abhiññāya
    → attadattha + (m) + abhiññāya (rule 35)
    → attadatthamabhiññāya

  • ✅

    ciraṃnāyati

    🚻①⨀(cira) 🚻①⨀(āyati)
    long time | future

    ciraṃ + āyati
    → ciraṃ + (n) + āyati (rule 35)
    → ciraṃnāyati

  • ✅

    ito nāyati

    🚹①⨀(ita) 🚺①⨀(āyati)
    from now | future

    ito + āyati
    → ito + (n) + āyati (rule 35)
    → itonāyati

  • ✅

    yasmātiha bhikkhave

    🚹⑤⨀(ya) 🔼(iha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu)
    from what | here | bhikkhave

    yasmā + iha
    → yasmā + (t) + iha (rule 35)
    → yasmātiha

  • ✅

    tasmātiha bhikkhave

    🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🔼(iha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu)
    from that | here | bhikkhave

    tasmā + iha
    → tasmā + (t) + iha (rule 35)
    → tasmātiha

    dn16#3.50.3
  • ✅

    ajjatagge pāṇupetaṃ

    🔼(ajjatagge) 🚹②⨀(pāṇupeta)
    from today onwards | until death

    ajja + agga + e
    → ajja + (t) + agga + e (rule 35)
    → ajjatagge

    dn5#28.5
  • ✅

    āraggeriva sāsapo

    🚻⑦⨀(āragga) 🔼(iva) 🚹①⨀(sāsapa)
    in pin point | like | mustard seed

    āragge + iva
    → āragge + (r) + iva (rule 35)
    → āraggeriva

    mn98#11.24
  • ✅

    sāsaporiva āraggā

    🚹①⨀(sāsapa) 🔼(iva) 🚻③⨀(āragga)
    mustard seed | like | with pin-point

    sāsapo + iva
    → sāsapo + (r) + iva (rule 35)
    → sāsaporiva

    mn98#11.49
  • ✅

    chaḷabhiññā

    🚹①⨂(chaḷabhiñña)
    having six higher knowledges

    cha + abhiññā
    → cha + (ḷ) + abhiññā (rule 35)
    → chaḷabhiññā

    thig11.1#5.3
  • ✅

    saḷāyatanaṃ

    🚻①⨀(saḷāyatana)
    six sense fields

    sa + āyatana
    → sa + (ḷ) + āyatana (rule 35)
    → saḷāyatanaṃ

    dn14#2.18.33

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    evaṃ mahiddhiyā esā

    🔼(evaṃ) 🚺①⨀(maha) 🚺③⨀(iddhi) 🚺①⨀(eta)
    thus | great | with psychic power | this

    mahā + iddhiyā
    → ma + (h + ā) + (i) + ddhiyā (rule 10) → ma + h + (ā + i) + ddhiyā (rule 12)
    → ma + (h + i) + ddhiyā (rule 11)
    → mahiddhiyā

  • ⛔️

    akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ

    ⏮🤟⨀(akkocchi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(avadhi) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ)
    verbally abused | me | beat | me

    (no sandhi)

    mn128#6.9
  • ⛔️

    ajini maṃ ahāsi me

    ⏮🤟⨀(ajini) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(ahāsi) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)
    robbed | me | stole | me

    (no sandhi)

  • ⛔️

    ajeyyo anugāmiko

    🚹①⨀(ajeyya) 🚹①⨀(anugāmika)
    invincible | follower

    (no sandhi)

    kp8#8.2

    • block-beta
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    By using the word “ca” in this rule, “m” becomes “p”.

    Caggahaṇena idheva makārassa pakāro hoti.

    𑀘𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀇𑀥𑁂𑀯 𑀫𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    चग्गहणेन इधेव मकारस्स पकारो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ

    🚻①⨀(cirappavāsī) 🚻①⨀(purisa)
    who is long absent from home | person

    ciraṃ + pavāsīṃ
    → ci + (r + a + ṃ) + (p +a) + vāsīṃ (rule 10)
    → ci + r + a + (ṃ→m + p) + a + vāsīṃ (rule 31)
    → ci + r + a + (m→p + p) + a + vāsīṃ (rule 35)
    → ci + (r + a + p) + (p +a) + vāsīṃ (rule 11)
    → cirappavāsiṃ

    dhp217

    • block-beta
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    (Similarly,) “k” becomes “d”.

    Kakārassa ca dakāro hoti.

    𑀓𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    ककारस्स च दकारो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    sadatthapasuto siyā

    🚹①⨀(sadatthapasuta) ⏯🤟⨀(siyā)
    intent on one’s own benefit | will be

    sa + kattha + pasuto
    → sa + (k→d) attha + pasuto (rule 35)
    → sadatthapasuto

    dhp166

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    (Similarly,) “d” becomes “t”.

    Dakārassa ca takāro hoti.

    𑀤𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 𑀢𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    दकारस्स च तकारो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    sugato

    🚹①⨀(sugata)
    well gone

    sugado
    → suga + (d + o) (rule 35)
    → sugato

    • 36 [R47] Occasionally, (insertion of) “o” before consonant

    𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀑 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 (kvaci o byañjane) vidhi apavāda

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    Occasionally, there is insertion of “o” before consonant.

    Byañjane pare kvaci okārāgamo hoti.

    𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀑𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि ओकारागमो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    atippago kho tāva sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ

    🔼(atippago kho) 🔼(tāva) 🚺⑦⨀(sāvatthī) 🚹④⨀(piṇḍa) 🔼(carituṃ)
    too early to | indeed | as far as | at Sāvatthī | for alms | walk

    atippago + kho???

    Note: this appears to be an invalid example as it is assuming the joining of atippag(a) + kho, using application on this rule and rule 12, however atippaga is not found in the dictionary but atippago is found in the Tipiṭaka.

  • ✅

    parosahassaṃ

    🚻①⨀(parosahassa)
    more than 1000

    para + sahassaṃ
    → pa + (r + a) + (s + a) + hassaṃ (rule 10)
    → pa + r + a + (o) + s + a + hassaṃ (rule 36)
    → pa + r + (a + o) + s + a + hassaṃ (rule 12)
    → pa + (r + o) + (s + a) + hassaṃ (rule 11)
    → parosahassaṃ

    dn3#1.5.6

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    etha passathimaṃ lokaṃ

    ▶️🤘⨂(eti) ⏹🤘⨂(passati) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(loka)
    come you all | must lok | this | world

    passatha + imaṃ
    → passa + (th + a) + (i) + maṃ (rule 10)
    → passa + th + (a + i) + maṃ (rule 12)
    → passa + (th + i) + maṃ (rule 11)
    → passathimaṃ

  • ⛔️

    andhabhūto ayaṃ loko

    🚹①⨀(andhabhūta) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(loka)
    blind | this | world

    andha + bhūto
    (no sandhi)

    dhp173

    • 37 [R57] And niggahita (is occasionally inserted before consonant)

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀜𑁆𑀘 (niggahitañca) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
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    Occasionally, a niggahita is inserted before a vowel or consonant.

    Niggahitañcāgamo hoti sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺𑁇

    निग्गहितञ्चागमो होति सरे वा ब्यञ्जने वा परे क्वचि।

    Examples

  • ✅

    cakkhuṃudapādi

    🚻①⨀(cakkhu) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi)
    eye | arose

    cakkhu + udapādi
    → cakkhu + (ṃ) + udapādi (rule 37)
    → cakkhuṃudapādi

    dn14#2.19.6
  • ✅

    avaṃsiro

    🚹①⨀(avaṃsira)
    head down

    ava + siro
    → ava + (ṃ) + siro (rule 37)
    → avaṃsiro

  • ✅

    yāvañcidha bhikkhave purimaṃ jātiṃ sarāmi

    🚻①⨀(yāvant) 🔼(ca idha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(purima) 🚺①⨀(jāti) ▶️👆⨀(sarati)
    as many as | and | here | bhikkhave | past | life | recollect

    jāti + sarāmi
    → jāti + (ṃ) + sarāmi (rule 37)
    → jātiṃsarāmi

  • ✅

    aṇuṃthūlāni sabbaso

    🔼(anu) 🚻①⨂(thūla) 🔼(sabbaso)
    after | massive | altogether

    aṇu + thūlāni
    → aṇu + (ṃ) + thūlāni (rule 37)
    → aṇuṃthūlāni

    dhp261
  • ✅

    manopubbaṅgamā dhammā

    🚹③⨀(manopubbaṅgama) 🚹③⨀(dhamma)
    led by mind | by nature

    mano + pubba + gama
    → mano + pubba + (ṃ) + gama (rule 37)
    → mano + pubba + (ṃ→ṅ + g) + ama (rule 31)
    → mano + pub + (b + a + ṅ) + (g + a) + ma (rule 11)
    → manopubbaṅgamā

    dhp1

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    idheva naṃ pasaṃsanti

    🔼(idheva) 🚻①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨂(pasaṃsati)
    right here | that | praise

    idha + eva
    → i + (dh + a) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → i + dh + (a + e) + va (rule 12)
    → i + (dh + e) + va (rule 11)
    → idheva

    sn3.25#10.3
  • ⛔️

    pecca sagge pamodati

    🔼(pecca) 🚹⑦⨀(sagga) ▶️🤟⨀(pamodati)
    after death | in heaven | is happy with

    (no sandhi)

    sn3.25#10.4
  • ⛔️

    na hi etehi yānehi

    🔼(nahi) 🚹③⨂(eta) 🚻③⨂(yāna)
    certainly not | by this | by carriage

    (no sandhi)

    dhp321
  • ⛔️

    gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ

    ⏯🤟⨀(gacchati) 🚹②⨀(agata) 🚹②⨀(disa)
    will go | not gone | enemy

    (no sandhi)

    dhp321

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  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    By using the word “ca” in this rule, “vi” becomes “pa”.

    Caggahaṇena visaddassa ca pakāro hoti.

    𑀘𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀤𑁆𑀤𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘 𑀧𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    चग्गहणेन विसद्दस्स च पकारो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    pacessati / vicessati

    ⏭🤟⨀(pacessati)
    will understand

    vicessati vā.
    ⏭🤟⨀(vicessati)
    will understand

    • 38 [R53] Occasionally, elision (of niggahita) before vowel

    𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 (kvaci lopaṃ) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space lopaṃ:2 space space kvaci space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("niggahita")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~niggahita~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Occasionally, the niggahita before a vowel is elided.

    Niggahitaṃ kho sare pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    निग्गहितं खो सरे परे क्वचि लोपं पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    tāsāhaṃ santike

    🚻⑥⨂(ta) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(santika)
    of that | I | near

    tāsaṃ + ahaṃ
    → tāsa (ṃ) + ahaṃ (rule 38)
    → tā + (s + a) + (a) + haṃ (rule 10)
    → tā + s + (a + a) + haṃ (rule 12)
    → tā + (s + a) + haṃ (rule 11)
    → tāsāhaṃ

    mn85#56.4
  • ✅

    vidūnaggamiti

    🚹⑥⨂(vidū) 🚻①⨀(agga) 🔼(iti)
    of wise men | foremost | and so

    vidūnaṃ + aggaṃ + iti
    → vidūna + (ṃ) + aggaṃ + iti (rule 38)
    → vidū + (n + a) + (a) + g + (g + a + ṃ) + (i) + ti (rule 10)
    → vidū + n + (a + a) + g + g + a + ṃ + i + ti (rule 12)
    → vidū + n + a + g + g + a + (ṃ→m + i) + ti (rule 34)
    → vidū + (n + a) + g + (g + a) + (m + i) + ti (rule 11)
    → vidūnaggamiti

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    ahameva nūna bālo etamatthaṃ viditvāna

    🔼(ahameva) 🔼(nūna) 🚹①⨀(bāla) 🔼(etamatthaṃ) 🔼(viditvāna)
    I am just | could it be | foolish | this meaning | having known

    ahaṃ + eva
    → a + (h + a + ṃ) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → a + h + a + (ṃ→m + e) + va (rule 34)
    → a + h + a + (m + e) + va (rule 11)
    → ahameva

    • 39 [R54] And (occasionally, elision of niggahita) before consonant

    𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂𑀘 (byañjaneca) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space space space:2 space byañjaneca space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("niggahita")
      class Before pre0
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~niggahita~~")
      class After post0
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Occasionally, the niggahita before a consonant is elided.

    Niggahitaṃ kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀁 𑀔𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    निग्गहितं खो ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि लोपं पप्पोति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    ariyasaccānadassanaṃ

    🚻①⨀(ariyasaccānadassana)
    understanding the noble truths

    ariyasaccānaṃ + dassana
    → ariyasaccāna + (ṃ) + dassana (rule 39)
    → ariyasaccānadassanaṃ

  • ✅

    etaṃ buddhānasāsanaṃ

    🚻①⨀(eta) 🚻①⨀(buddhānasāsana)
    this | Buddhas’ teaching

    buddhānaṃ + sāsana
    → buddhāna + (ṃ) + sāsana (rule 39)
    → buddhānasāsanaṃ

    dn14#3.28.9

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    etaṃ maṅgalamuttamaṃ

    🚻①⨀(eta) 🚻①⨀(maṅgala) 🚻①⨀(uttama)
    this | blessing | best

    maṅgalaṃ + uttamaṃ
    → maṅga + (l + a + ṃ) + (u) + ttamaṃ (rule 10)
    → maṅga + l + a + (ṃ→ m + u) + ttamaṃ (rule 34)
    → maṅga + l + a + (m + u) + ttamaṃ (rule 11)
    → maṅgalamuttamaṃ

    snp2.4#3.4
  • ⛔️

    taṃ vo vadāmi bhaddante

    🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(vo) ▶️👆⨀(vadati) 🚹②⨂(bhaddanta)
    that | truly | I say | to venerable

    (no sandhi)

    • 40 [R55] Optionally, next vowel (after niggahita is elided)

    𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀭𑁄 (paro vāsaro) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["paro vāsaro"] space:2 space space space space

  
    Previous["niggahita"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("sara")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("~~sara~~")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Optionally, phoneme following niggahita is elided.

    Niggahitamhā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑀁 𑀧𑀧𑁆𑀧𑁄𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    निग्गहितम्हा परो सरो लोपं पप्पोति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    bhāsitaṃ abhinandunti

    🚻①⨀(bhāsita) ⏮🤟⨂(abhinandi) 🔼(iti)
    speech | they were pleased with | like this

    abhinanduṃ + iti
    → abhinan + (d + u + ṃ) + (i) + ti (rule 10)
    → abhinan + d + u + (ṃ + i) + ti (rule 40)
    → abhinan + d + u + (ṃ→n + i) + ti (rule 34)
    → abhinan + (d + u + n) + ti (rule 11)
    → abhinandunti

    dn1#3.74.5
  • ✅

    uttattaṃva

    🚻①⨀(uttatta) 🔼(iva)
    shining | like

    uttattaṃ + iva
    → uttat + (t + a + ṃ) + (i) + va (rule 10)
    → uttat + t + a + (ṃ + i) + va (rule 40)
    → uttat + (t + a + ṃ) + va (rule 11)
    → uttattaṃva

  • ✅

    yathābījaṃva

    🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(bīja) 🔼(iva)
    as per | seed | like this

    yathā + bījaṃ + iva
    → yathā + bī + (j + a + ṃ) + (i) + va (rule 10)
    → yathā + bī + j + a + (ṃ + i) + va (rule 40)
    → yathā + bī + (j + a + ṃ) + va (rule 11)
    → yathābījaṃva

  • ✅

    yathābījaṃva

    🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(dhañña) 🔼(iva)
    as per | crop | like this

    yathā + dhaññaṃ + iva
    → yathā + dhañ + (ñ + a + ṃ) + (i) + va (rule 10)
    → yathā + dhañ + ñ + a + (ṃ + i) + va (rule 40)
    → yathā + dhañ + (ñ + a + ṃ) + va (rule 11)
    → yathādhaññaṃva

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    ahameva nūna bālo

    🔼(ahameva) 🔼(nūna) 🚹①⨀(bāla)
    I am just | could it be | foolish

    ahaṃ + eva
    → a + (h + a + ṃ) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → a + h + a + (ṃ→m + e) + va (rule 34)
    → a + h + a + (m + e) + va (rule 11)
    → ahameva

  • ⛔️

    tadahosi

    🚻①⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    that | was

    (no sandhi)

    • 41 [R55] And (after vowel is elided following niggahita) consonant is detached

    𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁄 𑀘 𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁄𑀕𑁄 (byañjano ca visaññogo) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space byañjano visaññogo:2 space space ca space

  
    Previous["niggahita~~sara~~"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("byañjanax2")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("byañjana")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"visaññogo"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"ca"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    When vowel following niggahita is elided, if (next) consonant is a double consonant, it becomes single consonant.

    Niggahitamhā parasmiṃ sare lutte yadi byañjano sasaññogo visaññogo hoti.

    𑀦𑀺𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀺𑀢𑀫𑁆𑀳𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀫𑀺𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀮𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀬𑀤𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁄 𑀲𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁄𑀕𑁄 𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀜𑁆𑀜𑁄𑀕𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    निग्गहितम्हा परस्मिं सरे लुत्ते यदि ब्यञ्जनो ससञ्ञोगो विसञ्ञोगो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    evaṃsa te āsavo

    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🤘⑥⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹①⨀(āsava)
    thus | of this | of you | discharge

    evaṃ + assa
    → e + (v + a + ṃ) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → e + v + a + (ṃ + a) + ssa (rule 40)
    → e + v + a + ṃ + (ss→s) + a (rule 41)
    → e + (v + a + ṃ) + (s + a) (rule 11)
    → evaṃsa

    mn2#12.3
  • ✅

    pupphaṃsā uppajji

    🚺①⨀(pupphaṃsā) ⏮🤟⨀(uppajji)
    fertile period | arose

    pupphaṃ + assā
    → pup + (ph + a + ṃ) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → pup + ph + a + (ṃ + a) + ssa (rule 40)
    → pup + ph + a + ṃ + (ss→s) + a (rule 41)
    → pup + (ph + a + ṃ) + (s + a) (rule 11)
    → pupphaṃsā

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    evamassa vidūnaggamiti

    🔼(evamassa) 🚹⑥⨂(vidū) 🚻①⨀(agga) 🔼(iti)
    thus to him | of wise men | highest | like this

    evaṃ + assa
    → e + (v + a + ṃ) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → e + v + a + (ṃ→m + a) + ssa (rule 34)
    → e + v + a + (m + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → evamassa

    • block-beta
  columns 8
  

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("byañjanax2")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("byañjana")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"lopaṃ"-->After
  end
  
    Next["y"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"ca"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    By employing the word “ca”, when there are three consonants, double consonants together with “y”, there is elision (of double consonant into single consonant).

    Caggahaṇena tiṇṇaṃ byañjanānamantare ye sarūpā, tesampi lopo hoti.

    𑀘𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀢𑀺𑀡𑁆𑀡𑀁 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀸𑀦𑀫𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀭𑁂 𑀬𑁂 𑀲𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸, 𑀢𑁂𑀲𑀫𑁆𑀧𑀺 𑀮𑁄𑀧𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    चग्गहणेन तिण्णं ब्यञ्जनानमन्तरे ये सरूपा, तेसम्पि लोपो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    agyāgāraṃ

    🚻①⨀(agyāgāra)
    room for keeping the sacred fire

    aggi + agāraṃ
    → ag + (g + i) + (a) + gāraṃ (rule 10)
    → ag + g + (i→y) + a + gāraṃ (rule 21)
    → a + (gg→g) + y + a + gāraṃ (rule 41)
    → a + (g + y + a) + gāraṃ (rule 11)
    → agyāgāraṃ

    dn3#2.3.11
  • ✅

    paṭisanthāravutyassa

    🔼(paṭisanthāravutyassa)
    one should be cordial by nature

    paṭisanthāra + vutti + assa
    → paṭisanthāra + vut + (t + i) + (a) + ssa (rule 10)
    → paṭisanthāra + vut + t + (i→y) + a + ssa (rule 21)
    → paṭisanthāra + vu + (tt→t + y) + a + ssa (rule 41)
    → paṭisanthāra + vu + (t + y + a) + ssa (rule 11)
    → paṭisanthāravutyassa

    dhp366

    • 6.2.5 - 1.5 𑀧𑀜𑁆𑀘𑀫𑀓𑀡𑁆𑀟 (Pañcamakaṇḍa) - VuttaSandhi

    This section describes vuttasandhi (when letters are elided or augmented to obey metrical rules or where there are multiple operations).

    42 [R32] Occasionally, there is insertion of “g” after “putha” before vowel

    𑀕𑁄𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀼𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 (gosare puthassāgamo kvaci) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
puthassa space āgamo:2 go sare kvaci space

  
    Previous["putha"]
    class Previous context
    
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before(" ")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("g")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"āgama"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
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  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Occasionally, in a word ending with “putha” followed by a vowel, “g” is inserted (in between).

    Puthaiccetassa ante sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti.

    𑀧𑀼𑀣𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀕𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    पुथैच्चेतस्स अन्ते सरे परे क्वचि गकारागमो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    puthage va

    🚹①⨀(puthu) 🔼(eva)
    broad | even

    puthu + eva
    → pu + (th + u) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → pu + (th + (u + e) + va (rule 12)
    → pu + th + a + (g) + e + va (rule 42)
    → pu + (th + a) + (g + e) + va (rule 11)
    → puthageva

    (invalid example?)

    • 43 [R33] (Occasionally, the) ending of “pā” is shortened (together with insertion of “g”)

    𑀧𑀸𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 (pāssa canto rasso) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space x1["pāssa canto"] rasso:2 space space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("pā")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("pag")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"āgama"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Occasionally, in a word ending with “pā” followed by a vowel, “g” is inserted (in between), and the end vowel is shortened.

    Pāiccetassa ante sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti, anto ca saro rasso hoti.

    𑀧𑀸𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁂 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀕𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀕𑀫𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺, 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀘 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀭𑀲𑁆𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    पाइच्चेतस्स अन्ते सरे परे क्वचि गकारागमो होति, अन्तो च सरो रस्सो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    pageva vutyassa

    🔼(pageva) 🚺⓪⨀(vutti) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
    all the more | of this way of life

    pā + eva
    → (p +ā) + (e) + va (rule 10)
    → p +(ā→ag + e) + va (rule 43)
    → (p +a) + (g + e) + va (rule 11)
    → pageva

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    pā eva vutyassa

    🔼(pā eva) 🚺⓪⨀(vutti) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
    all the more | of this way of life

    (no sandhi)

    • 44 [R24] “abbh” (from) “abhi”

    𑀅𑀩𑁆𑀪𑁄 𑀅𑀪𑀺 (abbho abhi) vidhi utsarga

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space abhi space:2 abbho space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("abhi")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("abbh")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    “abhi” followed by vowel is replaced by “abbh”.

    Abhiiccetassa sare pare abbhādeso hoti.

    𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀩𑁆𑀪𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    अभिइच्चेतस्स सरे परे अब्भादेसो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    abbhudīritaṃ

    🔼(abhi) 🚻①⨀(udīrita)
    highly | mentioned

    abhi + udīritaṃ
    → (abhi→abbh) + udīritaṃ (rule 44)
    → abbhudīritaṃ

  • ✅

    abbhuggacchati

    🔼(abhi) ▶️🤟⨀(uggacchati)
    highly | rises

    abhi + uggacchati
    → (abhi→abbh) + uggacchati (rule 44)
    → abbhuggacchati

    dn16#1.23.6

    • 45 [R25] “ajjh” (from) “adhi”

    𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀛𑁄𑀅𑀥𑀺 (ajjhoadhi) vidhi utsarga

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space adhi space:2 ajjho space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("adhi")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("ajjh")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    Next["sara"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    “adhi” followed by vowel is replaced by “ajjh”.

    Adhiiccetassa sare pare ajjhādeso hoti.

    𑀅𑀥𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀸𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    अधिइच्चेतस्स सरे परे अज्झादेसो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    ajjhokāse

    🚹⑦⨀(ajjhokāsa)
    in open air

    adhi + okāse
    → (adhi→ajjh) + okāse (rule 45)
    → ajjhokāse

    sn17.8#1.5
  • ✅

    ajjhāgamā

    🔵⏮🤟⨀(ajjhāgami)
    found

    adhi + āgamā
    → (adhi→ajjh) + āgamā (rule 45)
    → ajjhāgamā

    Note: CSCD misspells this example.

    mn14#5.5

    • 46 [R26] Optionally, the (above two rules) do not apply before “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”)

    𑀢𑁂 𑀦 𑀯𑀸 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁂 (te na vā ivaṇṇe) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space te na:2 space ivaṇṇe vā space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("abhi,adhi")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("(abhi,adhi)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["i,ī"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"vā"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Optionally, “abhi” and “adhi” before the “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”) do not become “abbh” and “ajjh”.

    Te ca kho abhiadhiiccete ivaṇṇe pare abbho ajjhoitivuttarūpā na honti vā.

    Note: CSCD misspells “na” as “naṃ”.

    𑀢𑁂 𑀘 𑀔𑁄 𑀅𑀪𑀺𑀅𑀥𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑁂 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀩𑁆𑀪𑁄 𑀅𑀚𑁆𑀛𑁄𑀇𑀢𑀺𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀸 𑀦 𑀳𑁄𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀸𑁇

    ते च खो अभिअधिइच्चेते इवण्णे परे अब्भो अज्झोइतिवुत्तरूपा न होन्ति वा।

    Examples

  • ✅

    abhicchitaṃ

    🔼(abhi) + 🚻①⨀(icchita)
    desired

    (no sandhi)

  • ✅

    adhīritaṃ

    🔼(adhi) + 🚻①⨀(īrita)
    uttered

    (no sandhi)

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    abbhīritaṃ

    🔼(abhi) 🚻①⨀(īrita)
    highly | moved

    abhi + īritaṃ
    → (abhi→abbh) + īritaṃ (rule 44)
    → abbhīritaṃ

  • ⛔️

    ajjhiṇamutto

    🔼(adhi) 🚻①⨀(iṇamutta)
    towards | free from debt

    adhi + iṇamutto
    → (adhi→ajjh) + iṇamutto (rule 45)
    → ajjhiṇamutto

    • 47 [R23] “ati” not (replaced with) “c” (before “i” phoneme)

    𑀅𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀘𑀦𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 (atissa canatassa)1 vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space atissa space:2 cantassa space space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("ati")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("(ati)")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"pakati"-->After
  end
  
    Next["i,ī"]
    class Next context0
  
  
    space
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    The “ti” of word “ati” is not replaced with “c” (rule 19) when followed by “i” phoneme (“i” and “ī”).

    Atiiccetassa antabhūtassa tisaddassa ivaṇṇe pare “sabbo cantī"ti vuttarūpaṃ na hoti.

    Note: CSCD incorrectly spells rule 19

    𑀅𑀢𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀢𑀺𑀲𑀤𑁆𑀤𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀇𑀯𑀡𑁆𑀡𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 “𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁄 𑀘𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀻"𑀢𑀺 𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀭𑀽𑀧𑀁 𑀦 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    अतिइच्चेतस्स अन्तभूतस्स तिसद्दस्स इवण्णे परे “सब्बो चन्ती"ति वुत्तरूपं न होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    atīsigaṇo

    🔼(ati) 🚹①⨀(isi) 🚹①⨀(gaṇa)
    too | sage | with group

    ati + isi + gaṇo
    → a + (t + i) + (i) + si + gaṇo (rule 10)
    → a + t + (i + i) + si + gaṇo (rule 12)
    → a + t + (i→ī) + si + gaṇo (rule 15)
    → a + (t + ī) + si + gaṇo (rule 11)
    → atīsigaṇo

  • ✅

    atīritaṃ

    🚻①⨀(atīrita)
    not tested

    ati + īritaṃ
    → a + (t + i) + (ī) + ritaṃ (rule 10)
    → a + t + (i + ī) + ritaṃ (rule 12)
    → a + (t + ī) + ritaṃ (rule 11)
    → atīritaṃ

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    accantaṃ

    🚻①⨀(accanta)
    final

    ati + antaṃ
    → a + (ti→c) + (a) + ntaṃ (rule 19)
    → a + (c→cc) + (a) + ntaṃ (rule 28)
    → a + (cc + a) + ntaṃ (rule 11)
    → accantaṃ

    sn5.3#5.1

    • 48 [R43] Occasionally, “pati” becomes “paṭi”

    𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀧𑀝𑀺 𑀧𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲 (kvaci paṭi patissa) vidhi apavāda

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space patissa space:2 paṭi space kvaci space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("pati")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("paṭi")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"ādesa"-->After
  end
  
    space
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod1
    
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
  classDef context fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef context0 fill:#D2C4D6,stroke:#A49E9E,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef operation fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef operation0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef pre fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef pre0 fill:#64BFA4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef post fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef post0 fill:#3CADD4,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod1 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod10 fill:#EADA4F,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3
  classDef mod2 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F
  classDef mod20 fill:#F7CACA,stroke:#615F5F,stroke-dasharray: 3 3

    Occasionally, “pati” followed by vowel or consonant is replaced by “paṭi”.

    Patiiccetassa sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci paṭiādeso hoti.

    𑀧𑀢𑀺𑀇𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀧𑀝𑀺𑀆𑀤𑁂𑀲𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    पतिइच्चेतस्स सरे वा ब्यञ्जने वा परे क्वचि पटिआदेसो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    paṭaggi dātabbo

    🚹①⨀(paṭaggi) 🚹①⨀(dātabba)
    counter fire | should be given

    pati + aggi
    → (pati→paṭi) + (a) + ggi (rule 48)
    → paṭaggi

  • ✅

    paṭihaññati

    ▶️🤟⨀(paṭihaññati)
    is struck

    pati + haññati
    → (pati→paṭi) + (h) + aññati (rule 48)
    → paṭihaññati

    mn130#17.1

    • Counter Examples

  • ⛔️

    paccantimesu janapadesu

    🚹⑦⨂(paccantima) 🚹⑦⨂(janapada)
    in outlying | in countries

    pati + antimesu
    → pa + (ti→c) + (a) + ntimesu (rule 19)
    → pa + (c→cc) + (a) + ntimesu (rule 28)
    → pa + (cc + a) + ntimesu (rule 11)
    → paccantimesu

    dn33#3.2.60
  • ⛔️

    patilīyati

    ▶️🤟⨀(patilīyati)
    withdraws from

    pati + līyati
    (no sandhi)

    an7.49#2.3
  • ⛔️

    patirūpadesavāso ca

    🚹①⨀(patirūpadesavāsa) 🔼(ca)
    living in a suitable place | and

    pati + rūpadesavāso
    (no sandhi)

    • 49 [R44] (Occasionally, the end of) “putha” becomes “u” before consonant

    𑀧𑀼𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀼 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 (puthassu byañjane) vidhi utsarga

    block-beta
  columns 8
  
space puthassa space:2 u byañjane space space

  
    space
  
  block:operation:4
    columns 4
    
      Before("putha")
      class Before pre
      
    
    space:2
    
      After("puthu")
      class After post
      
    
    Before--"vikāra"-->After
  end
  
    Next["byañjana"]
    class Next context
    
  
  
    Marker[/"kvaci"\]
    class Marker mod10
  
  
    space
  
  class arrow operation
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    The end vowel of “putha” followed by consonant becomes “u”.

    Puthaiccetassa anto saro byañjane pare ukāro hoti.

    𑀧𑀼𑀣𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁄 𑀲𑀭𑁄 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀉𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    पुथैच्चेतस्स अन्तो सरो ब्यञ्जने परे उकारो होति।

    Examples

  • ✅

    puthujjano

    🚹①⨀(puthujjana)
    common man

    putha + jano
    → puth + (a→u) + jano (rule 49)
    → puthujjano

    dn1#1.7.1
  • ✅

    puthubhūtaṃ

    🚻①⨀(puthubhūta)
    widely spread

    putha + bhūtaṃ
    → puth + (a→u) + bhūtaṃ (rule 49)
    → puthubhūtaṃ

    dn16#3.8.16

    • block-beta
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    By exception the end vowel of a word, even when not “putha”, becomes “u”.

    Antaggahaṇena aputhassāpi sare pare antassa ukāro hoti.

    𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀳𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀅𑀧𑀼𑀣𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀸𑀧𑀺 𑀲𑀭𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀅𑀦𑁆𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀉𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    अन्तग्गहणेन अपुथस्सापि सरे परे अन्तस्स उकारो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    manuññaṃ

    🚻①⨀(manuñña)
    beautiful

    mano + ñaṃ
    → ma + (n + o) + (ñ + a + ṃ) (rule 10)
    → ma + n + (o→u) + ñ + a + ṃ (rule 49)
    → ma + n + u + (ñ→ññ) + a + ṃ (rule 28)
    → ma + (n + u) + (ññ + a + ṃ) (rule 11)
    → manuññaṃ

    dn17#2.13.2

    • 50 [R45] (Occasionally, the end vowel of) “ava” (becomes) “o” (before consonant)

    𑀑 𑀅𑀯𑀲𑁆𑀲 (o avassa) vidhi apavāda

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    Occasionally, the end vowel of “ava” followed by consonant becomes “o”.

    Avaiccetassa byañjane pare kvaci okāro hoti.

    𑀅𑀯𑁃𑀘𑁆𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀲𑁆𑀲 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀧𑀭𑁂 𑀓𑁆𑀯𑀘𑀺 𑀑𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁄 𑀳𑁄𑀢𑀺𑁇

    अवैच्चेतस्स ब्यञ्जने परे क्वचि ओकारो होति।

    Example

  • ✅

    andhakārena onaddhā

    🚹③⨀(andhakāra) 🚹⑤⨀(onaddha)
    with darkness | enveloped with

    ava + naddhā
    → (ava→o) + naddhā (rule 50)
    → onaddhā

    an4.50#12.1

    • Counter Example

  • ⛔️

    avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ

    ⏹🤟⨀(avasussati) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ)🚻⑦⨀(sarīra) 🚻①⨀(maṃsalohita)
    dries up | for me | in body | flesh and blood

    (no sandhi)

    sn21.3#3.6

    • 51 [R32] Further application of previous euphonic grammatical rules

    𑀅𑀦𑀼𑀧𑀤𑀺𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀬𑁄𑀕𑀢𑁄 (anupadiṭṭhānaṃ vuttayogato) paribhāsā vidhyaṅga

    The previous rules of vowel sandhi, consonant sandhi and miscellaneous sandhi should also be applied to upasagga (prefixes) and nipāta (particles) following the stated order.

    Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ upasagganipātānaṃ sarasandhīhi byañjanasandhīhi vuttasandhīhi ca yathāyogaṃ yojetabbaṃ.

    𑀅𑀦𑀼𑀧𑀤𑀺𑀝𑁆𑀞𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀉𑀧𑀲𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀦𑀺𑀧𑀸𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀁 𑀲𑀭𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀻𑀳𑀺 𑀩𑁆𑀬𑀜𑁆𑀚𑀦𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀻𑀳𑀺 𑀯𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀲𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀻𑀳𑀺 𑀘 𑀬𑀣𑀸𑀬𑁄𑀕𑀁 𑀬𑁄𑀚𑁂𑀢𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀁𑁇

    अनुपदिट्ठानं उपसग्गनिपातानं सरसन्धीहि ब्यञ्जनसन्धीहि वुत्तसन्धीहि च यथायोगं योजेतब्बं।

    Examples (before vowels)

  • ✅

    pāpanaṃ

    🚻①⨀(pāpana)
    attaining
    pa + √ap + *e + ana

    dhp261
  • ✅

    parāyaṇaṃ

    🚻①⨀(parāyaṇa)
    destined
    parā + √i + *aṇa

    sn43.44#1.3
  • ✅

    upāyanaṃ

    🚻①⨀(upāyana)
    tribute
    upa + ā + √i

    dn1#1.23.2
  • ✅

    upāhanaṃ

    🚹②⨀(upāhana)
    sandals
    upa + ā + √nah + a

  • ✅

    nyāyogo

    🔼(ni) 🚹①⨀(āyoga)
    without devotion
    ni + ā + √yuj + *e + a

  • ✅

    nigupadhi

    🔼(ni) 🚹①⨀(upadhi)
    without attachment
    ni + upa + √dhā

  • ✅

    anubodho

    🚹①⨀(anubodha)
    knowledge
    anu + √budh + *a

    an7.66#14.5
  • ✅

    duvūpasantaṃ

    🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(upasanta)
    difficulty calming
    du + upa + √sam + ta

  • ✅

    suvūpasantaṃ

    🔼(su) 🚻①⨀(upasanta)
    easy calming
    su + upa + √sam + ta

  • ✅

    dvālayo

    🔼(du) 🚹①⨀(ālaya)
    bad attachment
    du + ā + √lī + *a

  • ✅

    svālayo

    🔼(su) 🚹①⨀(ālaya)
    good attachment
    su + ā + √lī + *a

  • ✅

    durākhyātaṃ

    🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(ākhyāta)
    wrongly proclaimed
    du + ā + √khyā + ta

  • ✅

    svākhyāto

    🚹①⨀(svākhyāta)
    well proclaimed
    su + ā + √khyā + ā

    dn16#2.9.6
  • ✅

    udīritaṃ

    🚻①⨀(udīrita)
    uttered
    ud + √īr + ita

    ud4.8#19.3
  • ✅

    samuddiṭṭhaṃ

    🚻①⨀(samuddiṭṭha)
    explained
    saṃ + ud + √dis + ta

  • ✅

    viyaggaṃ

    🔼(vi) 🚻①⨀(agga)
    very highest
    vi + aggaṃ

  • ✅

    vijjhaggaṃ

    🔼(vi adhi) 🚻①⨀(agga)
    very highest
    vi + adhi + aggaṃ

  • ✅

    byaggaṃ

    ↩️👆⨀(byaggā)
    departed
    vi + a + √gam + ā

  • ✅

    avayāgamanaṃ

    🔼(ava) 🚻①⨀(āgamana)
    lower arrival
    ava + ā + √gam + ana

  • ✅

    anveti

    ▶️🤟⨀(anveti)
    follows
    anu + √i + a + ti

  • ✅

    anupaghāto

    🚹①⨀(anupaghāta)
    not hurtful
    na + upa + √ghaṭ + *a

    mn103#10.2
  • ✅

    anacchariyaṃ

    🚻①⨀(anacchariya)
    natural
    na + acchara + iya

    dn16#2.8.1
  • ✅

    pariyesanā

    🚺①⨀(pariyesanā)
    searching
    pari + √es + anā

    dn15#18.3
  • ✅

    parāmāso

    🚺①⨀(pariyesanā)
    searching
    pari + √es + anā

    sn22.46#2.3

    • Examples (before consonants)

  • ✅

    pariggaho

    🚹①⨀(pariggaha) surrounding pari + √gah + a

    dn15#9.1
  • ✅

    paggaho

    🚹①⨀(paggaha)
    effort
    pa + √gah + a

    dn33#1.9.28
  • ✅

    pakkamo

    🚹①⨀(pakkama)
    initial effort
    pa + √kam + a

  • ✅

    pakkamo

    🚹①⨀(parakkama)
    continued effort
    parā + √kam + a

  • ✅

    nikkamo

    🚹①⨀(nikkama)
    endurance
    nī + √kam + a

  • ✅

    nikkasāvo

    🚹①⨀(nikkama)
    endurance
    nī + √kam + a

    ud1.4#4.2
  • ✅

    nillayanaṃ

    🔼(ni) 🚹⑥⨀(laya)
    without clinging
    ni + √lī + *a

  • ✅

    dullayanaṃ

    🔼(du) 🚹⑥⨀(laya)
    bad clinging
    du + √lī + *a

  • ✅

    dumbhikkhaṃ

    🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(bhikkha)
    wrong begging
    du + √bhikkh + a

  • ✅

    dubbuttaṃ

    🔼(du) 🚻①⨀(bhikkha)
    wrong begging
    du + √bhikkh + a

    dn1#1.25.2
  • ✅

    sandiṭṭhaṃ

    🚻①⨀(sandiṭṭha)
    well-pronounced
    saṃ + √dis + ta

  • ✅

    duggaho

    🚹①⨀(duggaha)
    taking hold of wrongly
    du+√gah + a

  • ✅

    viggaho

    🚹①⨀(viggaha)
    quarrel
    vi + √gah + a

    dn13#8.8
  • ✅

    niggato

    🚹①⨀(niggata)
    gone out
    nī + √gam + ta

  • ✅

    abhikkamo

    🚹①⨀(niggata)
    gone out
    nī + √gam + ta

    dn2#10.12
  • ✅

    paṭikkamo

    🚹①⨀(paṭikkama)
    recession
    pati + √kam + a + a

    sn22.88#3.1

    • All remaining (rules) should be applied.

    Sesā sabbe yojetabbā.

    𑀲𑁂𑀲𑀸 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑁂 𑀬𑁄𑀚𑁂𑀢𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀸𑁇

    सेसा सब्बे योजेतब्बा।

    1. CSCD incorrectly spells “canatassa” as “cantassa” ↩︎

    7 - Pali Learning Notes and Answers to Warder's textbook

    Notes from the Pali course based on Warder’s “Introduction to Pali”

    This section contains various notes on learning Pāli. I attended Bhante Sujato’s Pāli course held on 1 August 2023 till 31 October 2023, and then continued by John Kelly from 7 November till February 2024. The textbook used for the course was A.K. Warder’s Introduction to Pali 3rd edition, Pali Text Society, Oxford (2001)

    7.1 - My Translations from "Pali Buddhist Texts"

    My independent translation of the excerpts from the Tipiṭaka in Pali Buddhist Texts Explained to the Beginner, Rune E A Johansson, Curzon Press, Copenhagen, Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, Third Edition, 1981.

    1. EXPERIENCE IS THE ONLY CRITERION

    Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta MN 38 PTS 1.257–1.271 (Majjhima Nikaya I 265):

    24.4 “Api nu tumhe, bhikkhave, evaṁ jānantā evaṁ passantā evaṁ vadeyyātha—
    🔼(apinu) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(jānanta) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(passanta) ⏯🤘⨂(vadati)
    are? | youse | bhikkhave | thus | knowing | thus | seeing | will say
    Thus knowing and thus seeing, bhikkhave, will you say -

    24.5 satthā no garu, satthugāravena ca mayaṁ evaṁ vademā”ti?
    🚹①⨀(satthar) 👆⑥⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(garu) , 🚹③⨀(satthugārava) 🔼(ca) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(evaṃ) ⏯👆⨂(vadati) 🔼(ti)
    teacher | of us | respected , with respect for the teacher | and | we | thus | will say | quote
    “Our teacher is respected, and we will say thus with (relying on) the respect for our teacher.”

    24.6 “No hetaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(no hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    no | certainly | Bhante
    Certainly not, Bhante.

    24.7 “Api nu tumhe, bhikkhave, evaṁ jānantā evaṁ passantā evaṁ vadeyyātha—
    🔼(apinu) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(jānanta) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(passanta) ⏯🤘⨂(vadati)
    are? | youse | bhikkhave | thus | knowing | thus | seeing | will say
    Thus knowing and thus seeing, bhikkhave, will you say -

    24.8 samaṇo evamāha, samaṇā ca nāma mayaṁ evaṁ vademā”ti?
    🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🔼(evamāha) 🚹①⨂(samaṇa) 🔼(ca) 🔼(nāma) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(evaṃ) ⏯👆⨂(vadati) 🔼(ti)
    ascetic | one said thus | ascetics | and | called | we | thus | will say | quote
    An ascetic said thus, and (those) called ascetics, (so) we say thus.

    24.9 “No hetaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(no hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    no | certainly | Bhante
    Certainly not, Bhante.

    24.10 “Api nu tumhe, bhikkhave, evaṁ jānantā evaṁ passantā aññaṁ satthāraṁ uddiseyyāthā”ti?
    🔼(apinu) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(jānanta) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(passanta) 🚹②⨀(añña) 🚹②⨀(satthar) ⏯🤘⨂(uddisati)
    are? | youse | bhikkhave | thus | knowing | thus | seeing | another | teacher | appoint
    Thus knowing and thus seeing, bhikkhave, will you appoint another teacher?

    24.11 “No hetaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(no hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    no | certainly | Bhante
    Certainly not, Bhante.

    24.12 “Api nu tumhe, bhikkhave, evaṁ jānantā evaṁ passantā yāni tāni puthusamaṇabrāhmaṇānaṁ vata kotūhalamaṅgalāni tāni sārato paccāgaccheyyāthā”ti?
    🔼(apinu) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(jānanta) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(passanta) 🚻①⨂(ya) 🚻①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(puthusamaṇabrāhmaṇā) 🔼(vata) 🚻①⨂(kotūhalamaṅgala) 🚻①⨂(ta) 🔼(sārato) ⏯🤘⨂(paccāgacchati)
    are? | youse | bhikkhave | thus | knowing | thus | seeing | whatever | that | various religious practitioners | certainly | noisy debates and auspicious ceremonies | that | as essential/valuable | will return to
    Thus knowing and thus seeing, bhikkhave, will you return to whatever (you regarded as) valuable, such as various religious practitioners, noisy debates and auspicious ceremonies?

    24.13 “No hetaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(no hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    no | certainly | Bhante
    Certainly not, Bhante.

    24.14 “Nanu, bhikkhave, yadeva tumhākaṁ sāmaṁ ñātaṁ sāmaṁ diṭṭhaṁ sāmaṁ viditaṁ, tadeva tumhe vadethā”ti.
    🔼(nanu) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(yadeva) 🤘⑥⨂(tvaṃ) 🚻①⨀(sāma) 🚻①⨀(ñāta) 🚻①⨀(sāma) 🚻①⨀(diṭṭha) 🚻①⨀(sāma) 🚻①⨀(vidita) , 🔼(tadeva) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) ⏯🤘⨂(vadati)
    surely? | bhikkhave | whatever | of you | oneself | known | oneself | seen | experienced , that very thing | you | will say
    Would you say whatever amongst you that you have known by yourselves, seen by yourselves, experienced by yourselves?

    24.15 “Evaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    yes | Bhante
    Yes, Bhante.

    25.1 “Sādhu, bhikkhave, upanītā kho me tumhe, bhikkhave, iminā sandiṭṭhikena dhammena akālikena ehipassikena opaneyyikena paccattaṁ veditabbena viññūhi.
    🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(upanīta) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹③⨀(ima) 🚹③⨀(sandiṭṭhika) 🚹③⨀(dhamma) 🚹③⨀(ehipassika) 🚻①⨀(paccatta) 🚹③⨀(veditabba) 🚹③⨂(viññū)
    Excellent | bhikkhave | instructed | indeed | by me | you | bhikkhave | by this | by evident | by doctrine | by verifiable | personal | by should be experienced | by intelligent
    Excellent, bhikkhave. Bhikkhave, you have indeed been instructed by me with an evident doctrine that is verifiable and should be personally experienced by those who are intelligent.

    2. DEFINITION OF SUFFERING

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 305):

    18.1 Katamañca, bhikkhave, dukkhaṁ ariyasaccaṁ?
    🚻①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(dukkha) 🚻①⨀(ariyasacca)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | suffering | pure truth
    And what, bhikkhave, is the pure truth of dukkha (suffering)?

    18.2 Jātipi dukkhā, jarāpi dukkhā, maraṇampi dukkhaṁ, sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsāpi dukkhā, appiyehi sampayogopi dukkho, piyehi vippayogopi dukkho, yampicchaṁ na labhati tampi dukkhaṁ, saṅkhittena pañcupādānakkhandhā dukkhā.
    🚺①⨀(jāti) 🔼(pi) 🚺①⨀(dukkha) 🚺①⨀(jara) 🔼(pi) 🚺①⨀(dukkha) 🚻①⨀(maraṇa) 🔼(pi) 🚻①⨀(dukkha) 🚹①⨂(sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā) 🔼(pi) 🚹①⨂(dukkha) 🚹③⨂(appiya) 🚹①⨀(sampayoga) 🔼(pi) 🚹①⨀(dukkha) 🚹⑤⨂(piya) 🚹①⨀(vippayoga) 🔼(pi) 🚹①⨀(dukkha) 🔼(yampicchaṃ) 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨀(labhati) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(pi) 🚻①⨀(dukkha) 🚹③⨀(saṅkhitta) 🚹①⨂(pañcupādānakkhandhā) 🚹①⨂(dukkha)
    birth | too | dukkha | old age | too | dukkha | death | too | dukkha | grief, wailing, pain, suffering and trouble | too | dukkha | with disliked | association with | too | dukkha | from loved | separation from | too | dukkha | what one desires | gets | that | too | dukkha | in summary | the five masses of fuel | dukkha
    Birth, too, is dukkha, old age, too, is dukkha, death, too, is dukkha, grief, wailing, pain, suffering and trouble, too, are dukkha, association with disliked, too, is dukkha, separation from loved, too, is dukkha, not getting what one desires, too, is dukkha, in summary, the five masses of fuel are dukkha.

    3. THE CAUSE OF SUFFERING

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 308):

    19.1 Katamañca, bhikkhave, dukkhasamudayaṁ ariyasaccaṁ?
    🚻①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(dukkhasamudaya) 🚻①⨀(ariyasacca)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | source of dukkha | pure truth
    And what, bhikkhave, is the pure truth of the source of dukkha?

    19.2 Yāyaṁ taṇhā ponobbhavikā nandīrāgasahagatā tatratatrābhinandinī, seyyathidaṁ
    🔼(yāyaṃ) 🚹①⨂(taṇha) 🚹①⨂(ponobbhavika) 🚹①⨂(nandīrāgasahagata) 🚺①⨀(tatratatrābhinandī) 🔼(seyyathidaṃ)
    whatever | craving | leading to rebirth | accompanied by delight and desire | who takes delight here and there; thoroughly enjoying this and that | as follows
    Whatever craving, leading to rebirth, accompanied by delight and desire, experienced by one who takes delight here and there; thoroughly enjoying this and that, as follows:

    19.3 kāmataṇhā bhavataṇhā vibhavataṇhā.
    🚺①⨀(kāmataṇhā) 🚺①⨀(bhavataṇhā) 🚺①⨀(vibhavataṇhā)
    craving for sensual pleasure | craving for existence | craving for annihilation
    Craving for sensual pleasure, craving for existence, craving for annihilation.

    4. THE CESSATION OF SUFFERING

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 310):

    20.1 Katamañca, bhikkhave, dukkhanirodhaṁ ariyasaccaṁ?
    🚻①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(dukkhanirodha) 🚻①⨀(ariyasacca)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | end of dukkha | pure truth
    And what, bhikkhave, is the pure truth of the end of dukkha?

    20.2 Yo tassāyeva taṇhāya asesavirāganirodho cāgo paṭinissaggo mutti anālayo.
    🚹①⨀(ya) 🔼(tassāyeva) 🚹⑥⨀(taṇha) 🚹①⨀(asesavirāganirodha) 🚹①⨀(cāga) 🚹①⨀(paṭinissagga) 🚺①⨀(mutti) 🚹①⨀(anālaya)
    whatever | of that exact | of craving | complete fading away and ending | giving up | relinquishing | freedom | non-attachment
    It is the complete fading away and ending, giving up, relinquishing, freedom, non-attachment of whatever craving (there is).

    5. THE WAY TO FREEDOM FROM SUFFERING

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 311):

    21.1 Katamañca, bhikkhave, dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccaṁ?
    🚻①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚺①⨀(dukkhanirodhagāmī) 🚺①⨀(paṭipada) 🚻①⨀(ariyasacca)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | leading to the end of dukkha | path of progress | pure truth
    And what, bhikkhave, is the pure truth of the path of progress leading to the end of dukkha?

    21.2 Ayameva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo seyyathidaṁ—
    🔼(ayameva) 🚹①⨀(ariya) 🚹①⨀(aṭṭhaṅgika) 🚹①⨀(magga) 🔼(seyyathidaṃ)
    just this | pure | 8-part | path | as follows
    It is just this, the pure path in eight parts, as follows:

    21.3 sammādiṭṭhi sammāsaṅkappo sammāvācā sammākammanto sammāājīvo sammāvāyāmo sammāsati sammāsamādhi.
    🚹①⨀(sammādiṭṭhi) 🚹①⨀(sammāsaṅkappa) 🚹①⨂(sammāvāca) 🚹①⨀(sammākammanta) 🚹①⨀(sammāājīva) 🚹①⨀(sammāvāyāma) 🚹①⨀(sammāsati) 🚹①⨀(sammāsamādhi)
    right view | right intention | right speech | right conduct | right livelihood | right effort | right awareness | right mental composure
    Right view, right intention, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right awareness, right mental composure.

    6. THE IMPERMANENCE OF LIFE

    Dutiyaāyusutta SN 4.10 PTS (1st ed) 1.109 PTS (2nd ed) 1.243 (Samyutta Nikaya I 109):

    5.1 “Accayanti ahorattā,
    ▶️🤟⨂(accayati) 🚻①⨂(ahoratta)
    passes | time
    5.2 jīvitaṁ uparujjhati;
    🚻①⨀(jīvita) ▶️🤟⨀(uparujjhati)
    life | is finished
    5.3 Āyu khīyati maccānaṁ,
    🚻①⨀(āyu) ▶️🤟⨀(khīyati) 🚹⑥⨂(macca)
    life energy | is exhausted | of mortal men
    5.4 kunnadīnaṁva odakan”ti.
    🚺⑥⨂(kunnadī) 🚻①⨀(odaka)
    of stream | water

    Time passes,
    life is finished;
    the life energy of mortal men is exhausted,
    water of stream.

    7. THERE IS NO SOUL

    Buddhaghosa: Visuddhimagga, Based on the ed. by C.A.F. Rhys Davids, 2 vols., London : Pali Text Society 1920-1921, Input by the Dhammakaya Foundation, Thailand, 1989-1996 GRETIL-Version vom 4.9.2014

    Saccāni suññatekavidhādīhi 513 (Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga XVI 90):

    Dukkham eva hi na koci dukkhito
    🚻①⨀(dukkha) 🔼(eva) 🔼(hi) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(kaci) 🚹①⨀(dukkhita)
    dukkha | only | for | no | anyone | suffering
    kārako na kiriyā va vijjati,
    🚹①⨀(kāraka) 🔼(na) 🚻①⨂(kiriya) 🔼(va) ▶️🤟⨀(vijjati)
    doer | no | one who is doing | or | exists
    atthi nibbuti, na nibbuto pumā,
    ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🚺①⨀(nibbuti) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(nibbuta) 🚹①⨀(puma)
    there is | extinguishment | not | extinguished | male
    maggam atthi, gamako na vijjatī ti.
    🚻①⨀(magga) ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🚹①⨀(gamaka) ▶️🤟⨀(vijjati) 🔼(ti)
    path | there is | one who goes | no | exist | quote

    There is suffering, but no one is suffering
    There is action, but no one is performing
    There is entinguishment, but no one is extinguishing
    There is a path, but no one is travelling.

    8. DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY

    The nun Vajirā was harrassed with doubts by Māra, the Tempter or god of Death: What is a “person”? How does he arise? Who creates him? However, Vajirā understood that questions of this type are misleading and gave the following answer:

    Vajirāsutta SN 5.10 PTS (1st ed) 1.135 PTS (2nd ed) 1.296–1.297 (Samyutta Nikaya I 135):

    4.1 “Kiṁ nu sattoti paccesi,
    🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(nu) 🚹①⨀(satta) 🔼(iti) ▶️🤘⨀(pacceti)
    what | ? | being | like this | you believes to be
    4.2 māra diṭṭhigataṁ nu te;
    🚹⓪⨀(māra) 🚻①⨀(diṭṭhigata) 🔼(nu) 🤘⑥⨀(tvaṃ)
    Māra | misconception | ? | of you
    4.3 Suddhasaṅkhārapuñjoyaṁ,
    🚹①⨀(suddhasaṅkhārapuñja) 🚹①⨀(ima)
    merely a pile of processes | this
    4.4 nayidha sattupalabbhati.
    🔼(nayidha) 🚹①⨀(satta) ▶️🤟⨀(upalabbhati)
    not here | being | is found
    5.1 Yathā hi aṅgasambhārā,🔼(yathā hi) 🚹①⨂(aṅgasambhāra)
    like | definitely | collection of parts
    5.2 hoti saddo ratho iti;
    ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(sadda) 🚹①⨀(ratha) 🔼(iti)
    is | sound | chariot | like this
    5.3 Evaṁ khandhesu santesu,
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑦⨂(khandha) 🚹⑦⨂(santa)
    thus | in mass | existence
    5.4 hoti sattoti sammuti.
    ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(satta) 🔼(iti) 🚺①⨀(sammuti)
    is | being | like this | general consensus

    What you refer as a “being”,
    Māra, a misconception of yours?
    This is merely a pile of saṅkhāra (volitional formations),
    No being is found in here.
    Like a collection of parts,
    Is (referred by) the word “chariot”.
    Thus in the collection of the (five fuel) masses,
    Is generally regarded as a “being.”

    9. THE FACTORS OF PERSONALITY

    The Five Masses of Fuel (“pañcupādānakkhandhā”).

    Mahāmālukyasutta MN 64 PTS 1.433–1.437 (Majjhima Nikaya I 435):

    9.3 So yadeva tattha hoti rūpagataṁ vedanāgataṁ saññāgataṁ saṅkhāragataṁ viññāṇagataṁ te dhamme aniccato dukkhato rogato gaṇḍato sallato aghato ābādhato parato palokato suññato anattato samanupassati.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(yadeva) 🔼(tattha) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻①⨀(rūpagata) 🚻①⨀(vedanāgata) 🚻①⨀(saññāgata) 🚻①⨀(saṅkhāragata) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇagata) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨂(dhamma) 🚹⑤⨀(anicca) 🚹⑤⨀(dukkha) 🚹⑤⨀(roga) 🚹⑤⨀(gaṇḍa) 🚹⑤⨀(salla) 🚹⑤⨀(agha) 🚹⑤⨀(ābādha) 🚹⑤⨀(para) 🚹⑤⨀(paloka) 🚹⑤⨀(suñña) 🚹⑤⨀(anatta) ▶️🤟⨀(samanupassati)
    that | whichever | in that regard | is | related to form | related to feelings | related to perception | related to volitional results | related to consciousness | those | chracteristics/processes | from impermanence | from suffering | from disease | from body disfigurement | from sharp objects | from trouble | from oppression | from infliction by others | from disintegration | from emptiness | from non-permanent self | perceived as
    Whatever that is regarded as related to rūpa (form), vedanā (feelings), saññā (perceptions), saṅkhāra (volitional results), viññāṇa (consciousness), those processes are perceived as impermanent, suffering, disease, body disfigurements, cuts from sharp objects, trouble and misfortune, oppression , inflictions by others, disintegration, emptiness, and do not represent a non-permanent self.

    9.4 So tehi dhammehi cittaṁ paṭivāpeti.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⑤⨂(ta) 🚹⑤⨂(dhamma) 🚻①⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(paṭivāpeti)
    that | from those | from processes | mind | pulls back
    That, the mind pulls back from those processes.

    10. FEELING

    Cūḷavedallasutta MN 44 PTS 1.299–1.305 (Majjhima Nikaya I 302 f):

    22.2 “Tisso kho imā, āvuso visākha, vedanā—
    🚺①⨂(ti) 🔼(kho) 🚺①⨂(ima) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚺①⨀(vedanā)
    three | indeed | these | friend | Visākha | feelings
    There are indeed three types of vedanā (feelings), friend Visākha:

    22.3 sukhā vedanā, dukkhā vedanā, adukkhamasukhā vedanā”ti.
    🚺①⨂(sukha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🚺①⨂(dukkha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🚺①⨂(adukkhamasukha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🔼(ti)
    happy | feelings | painful | feelings | neutral | quote
    “Happy/pleasant feelings, unhappy/painful feelings, neutral feelings.”

    23.1 “Katamā panāyye, sukhā vedanā, katamā dukkhā vedanā, katamā adukkhamasukhā vedanā”ti?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(pana) 🚺⑦⨀(ayya) 🚺①⨂(sukha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🚺①⨀(katama) 🚺①⨂(dukkha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🚺①⨀(katama) 🚺①⨂(adukkhamasukha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🔼(ti)
    what | morever | pure | happy | feelings | what | painful | feelings | what | neutral | quote
    And furthermore: “What are happy feelings, what are painful feelings, what are neutral feelings?”

    23.2 “Yaṁ kho, āvuso visākha, kāyikaṁ vā cetasikaṁ vā sukhaṁ sātaṁ vedayitaṁ—
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚻①⨀(kāyika) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(cetasika) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(sukha) 🚻①⨀(vedayita)
    whatever | indeed | friend | Visākha | related to body | or | related to mind | or | pleasant | which is felt
    Friend Visākha, whatever is felt that is pleasant, either relating to the body or to the mind.

    23.3 ayaṁ sukhā vedanā.
    🚺①⨀(ima) 🚺①⨂(sukha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā)
    these | happy | feelings
    These are happy feelings.

    23.4 Yaṁ kho, āvuso visākha, kāyikaṁ vā cetasikaṁ vā dukkhaṁ asātaṁ vedayitaṁ—
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚻①⨀(kāyika) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(cetasika) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(dukkha) 🚻①⨀(vedayita)
    whatever | indeed | friend | Visākha | related to body | or | related to mind | or | unpleasant | which is felt
    Friend Visākha, whatever is felt that is unpleasant, either relating to the body or to the mind.

    23.5 ayaṁ dukkhā vedanā.
    🚺①⨀(ima) 🚺①⨂(dukkha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā)
    these | painful | feelings
    These are painful feelings.

    23.6 Yaṁ kho, āvuso visākha, kāyikaṁ vā cetasikaṁ vā neva sātaṁ nāsātaṁ vedayitaṁ—
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚻①⨀(kāyika) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(cetasika) 🔼(vā) 🔼(neva) 🚻①⨀(sāta) 🚻①⨀(nāsāta) 🚻①⨀(vedayita)
    whatever | indeed | friend | Visākha | related to body | or | related to mind | or | neither | pleasant | nor unpleasant | which is felt
    Friend Visākha, whatever is felt that is neither pleasant nor unpleasant, either relating to the body or to the mind.

    23.7 ayaṁ adukkhamasukhā vedanā”ti.
    🚺①⨀(ima) 🚺①⨂(adukkhamasukha) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🔼(ti)
    this | neutral | feelings | quote
    “These are neutral feelings.”

    27.2 “Sukhāya kho, āvuso visākha, vedanāya rāgānusayo pahātabbo, dukkhāya vedanāya paṭighānusayo pahātabbo, adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo”ti.
    🚺③⨀(sukha) 🔼(kho) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚺③⨀(vedanā) 🚹①⨀(rāgānusaya) 🚹①⨀(pahātabba) 🚺③⨀(dukkha) 🚺③⨀(vedanā) 🚹①⨀(paṭighānusaya) 🚹①⨀(pahātabba) 🚺③⨀(adukkhamasukha) 🚺③⨀(vedanā) 🚹①⨀(avijjānusaya) 🚹①⨀(pahātabba) 🔼(ti)
    with happy | indeed | friend | Visākha | with feelings | underlying tendency towards desire | should be given up | with painful | with feelings | underlying tendency towards aversion | should be given up | with neutral | with feelings | underlying tendency towards ignorance | should be given up | quote
    “Friend Visākha, with happy feelings, there is an underlying tendency towards desire, which should be given up. With painful feelings, there is an underlying tendency towards aversion, which should be given up. With neutral feelings, there is an underlying tendency towards ignorance, which should be given up.”

    11. PERCEPTION AND IDEATION

    Nibbedhikasutta AN 6.63 PTS 3.410–3.417 (Anguttara Nikaya III 413):

    21.3 Chayimā, bhikkhave, saññā—
    🔼(chayimā) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚺①⨀(sañña)
    these six | bhikkhave | perceptions
    Bhikkhave, these six sañña (perceptions) -

    21.4 rūpasaññā, saddasaññā, gandhasaññā, rasasaññā, phoṭṭhabbasaññā, dhammasaññā.
    🚺①⨀(rūpasaññā) 🚺①⨀(saddasaññā)🚺①⨀(gandhasaññā) 🚺①⨀(rasasaññā) 🚺①⨀(phoṭṭhabbasaññā) 🚺①⨀(dhammasaññā)
    perception of form | perception of sound | perception of smells | perception of taste | perception of touch | perception of mental characteristics
    Perception of form, perception of sound, perception of smells, perception of taste, perception of touch, perception of mental characteristics.

    Mahāvedallasutta MN 43 PTS 1.292–1.298 (Majjhima Nikaya I 293):

    8.3 “‘Sañjānāti sañjānātī’ti kho, āvuso, tasmā saññāti vuccati.
    ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti) ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti) 🔼(ti kho) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(sañña) 🔼(ti) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati)
    recognition | recognising | quote | indeed | friend | from that | perception | quote | is said to be
    “Recognising recognition” indeed, friend, from that is said to be “sañña” (perception).

    8.4 Kiñca sañjānāti?
    🔼(kiñca) ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti)
    and what | recognition
    And what is “recognition”?

    8.5 Nīlakampi sañjānāti, pītakampi sañjānāti, lohitakampi sañjānāti, odātampi sañjānāti.
    🚻①⨀(nīlaka) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti) 🚻①⨀(pītaka) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti) 🚻①⨀(lohitaka) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti) 🚻①⨀(odāta) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨀(sañjānāti)
    blue | too | recognise | yellow | too | recognise | red | too | recognise | white | too | recognise
    The recognition of “blue”, “yellow”, “red”, “white”, (etc.)

    12. THREE TYPES OF ACTIVITY

    Cūḷavedallasutta MN 44 PTS 1.299–1.305 (Majjhima Nikaya I 301):

    13.2 “Tayome, āvuso visākha, saṅkhārā—
    🔼(tayome) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚹①⨂(saṅkhāra)
    these three | friend | Visākha | volitional thought processes
    Friend Visākha, there are three types of “saṅkhārā” (volitional thought processes)

    13.3 kāyasaṅkhāro, vacīsaṅkhāro, cittasaṅkhāro”ti.
    🚹①⨀(kāyasaṅkhāra) 🚹①⨀(vacīsaṅkhāra) 🚹①⨀(cittasaṅkhāra) 🔼(ti)
    intention which results in bodily action | intention which results in verbal action | intention which result in thought formation | quote
    “Bodily thought process (intention which result in bodily action), verbal thought process (intention which result in verbal action), mental thought process (intention which result in thought formation).”

    14.1 “Katamo panāyye, kāyasaṅkhāro, katamo vacīsaṅkhāro, katamo cittasaṅkhāro”ti?
    🚹①⨀(katama) 🔼(pana) 🚹⑦⨀(ayya) 🚹①⨀(kāyasaṅkhāra) 🚹①⨀(katama) 🚹①⨀(vacīsaṅkhāra) 🚹①⨀(katama) 🚹①⨀(cittasaṅkhāra) 🔼(ti)
    what | morever | pure | bodily thought process | verbal thought process | mental thought process | quote
    “And furthermore, what is a bodily thought process, a verbal thought process, a mental thought process?”

    14.2 “Assāsapassāsā kho, āvuso visākha, kāyasaṅkhāro, vitakkavicārā vacīsaṅkhāro, saññā ca vedanā ca cittasaṅkhāro”ti.
    🚹①⨂(assāsapassāsa) 🔼(kho) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(visākha) 🚹①⨀(kāyasaṅkhāra) 🚹①⨂(vitakkavicārā) 🚹①⨀(vacīsaṅkhāra) 🚺①⨂(sañña) 🔼(ca) 🚺①⨀(vedanā) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨀(cittasaṅkhāra) 🔼(ti)
    breathing in and out | indeed | friend | Visākha | bodily thought process | inner dialogue | verbal thought process | perceptions | and | feelings | mental thought process | quote
    “Breathing in and out is (an example of) a bodily thought process, inner dialogue is a verbal thought process, perceptions and feelings are mental thought processes.”

    13. VOLITION AND THE ACTIVITIES

    Upādānaparipavattasutta SN 22.56 PTS 3.59–3.61 (Samyutta Nikaya III 60):

    10.1 Katame ca, bhikkhave, saṅkhārā?
    🚹①⨂(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(saṅkhāra)
    what | and | bhikkhave | volitional thought processes
    Bhikkhave, and what are volitional thought processes?

    10.2 Chayime, bhikkhave, cetanākāyā—
    🔼(chayime) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(cetanākāyā)
    these six | bhikkhave | classes of volitional thoughts (intentions)
    Bhikkhave, these six classes of volitional thoughts (intentions) -

    10.3 rūpasañcetanā, saddasañcetanā, gandhasañcetanā, rasasañcetanā, phoṭṭhabbasañcetanā, dhammasañcetanā.
    🚺①⨀(rūpasañcetanā) 🚺①⨀(saddasañcetanā) 🚺①⨀(gandhasañcetanā) 🚺①⨀(rasasañcetanā) 🚺①⨀(phoṭṭhabbasañcetanā) 🚺①⨀(dhammasañcetanā)
    thoughts about forms | thoughts about sounds | thoughts about smells | thoughts about tastes | thoughts about contacts | thoughts about mental characteristics
    Thoughts about forms, thoughts about sounds, thoughts about smells, thoughts about tastes, thoughts about contacts, thoughts about mental characteristics.

    10.4 Ime vuccanti, bhikkhave, saṅkhārā.
    🚹①⨂(ima) ▶️🤟⨂(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(saṅkhāra)
    these | are said to be | bhikkhave | volitional thought processes
    Bhikkhave, these are said to be volitional thought processes.

    14. THE ORIGIN OF CONSCIOUS PROCESSES

    Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta MN 38 PTS 1.257–1.271 (Majjhima Nikaya I 259):

    8.1 “Yaṁ yadeva, bhikkhave, paccayaṁ paṭicca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, tena teneva viññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati.
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(yadeva) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🔼(paṭicca) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🔼(teneva) 🔼(viññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    whenever | any | bhikkhave | preequisite | dependency | arise | consciousness | by that | by that alone | just consciousness | definition | becomes
    “Whenever any prerequisite or dependency causing consciousness arises, just by that alone “consciousness” becomes defined.

    8.2 Cakkhuñca paṭicca rūpe ca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, cakkhuviññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati;
    🚻①⨀(cakkhu) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🚹⑦⨀(rūpa) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(cakkhuviññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    eye (faculty of seeing) | and | dependency | in form | arise | consciousness | just sight-consciousness | categorisation | becomes
    The eye (faculty of seeing) is a dependency of form causing consciousness to arise, to become categorised as “visual-consciousness”

    8.3 sotañca paṭicca sadde ca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, sotaviññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati;
    🚻①⨀(sota) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🚹⑦⨀(sadda) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(sotaviññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    ear (faculty of hearing) | and | dependency | in sound | arise | consciousness | just auditory-consciousness | categorisation | becomes
    The ear (faculty of hearing) is a dependency of sound causing consciousness to arise, to become categorised as “auditory-consciousness”

    8.4 ghānañca paṭicca gandhe ca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, ghānaviññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati;
    🚻①⨀(ghāna) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🚹⑦⨀(gandha) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(ghānaviññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    nose (faculty of smelling) | and | dependency | in smell | arise | consciousness | just olfactory-consciousness | categorisation | becomes
    The nose (faculty of smelling) is a dependency of smell causing consciousness to arise, to become categorised as “olfactory-consciousness”

    8.5 jivhañca paṭicca rase ca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, jivhāviññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati;
    🚻①⨀(jivha) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🚹⑦⨀(rasa) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(jivhāviññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    tongue (faculty of tasting) | and | dependency | in taste | arise | consciousness | just gustatory-consciousness | categorisation | becomes
    The tongue (faculty of tasting) is a dependency of taste causing consciousness to arise, to become categorised as “gustatory-consciousness”

    8.6 kāyañca paṭicca phoṭṭhabbe ca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, kāyaviññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati;
    🚻①⨀(kaya) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🚹⑦⨀(phoṭṭhabba) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(kāyaviññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    body (faculty of touch) | and | dependency | in physical sensation | arise | consciousness | just tactile-consciousness | categorisation | becomes
    The body (faculty of touch) is a dependency of physical sensation causing consciousness to arise, to become categorised as “tactile-consciousness”

    8.7 manañca paṭicca dhamme ca uppajjati viññāṇaṁ, manoviññāṇantveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchati.
    🚻①⨀(mana) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(paccaya) 🚹⑦⨀(dhamma) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(manoviññāṇantveva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati)
    mind (faculty of thought) | and | dependency | in mental states | arise | consciousness | just mental-consciousness | categorisation | becomes
    The nose (faculty of thought) is a dependency of mental states causing consciousness to arise, to become categorised as “mental-consciousness”

    15. CONSCIOUSNESS AND REBIRTH

    Paṭhamabhavasutta AN 3.76 PTS 1.224 (Anguttara Nikaya I 223):

    1.2 “bhavo, bhavoti, bhante, vuccati.
    🚹①⨀(bhava) 🚹①⨀(bhava) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati)
    bhava | existence | Bhante | is said to be
    Existence is called ‘bhava’, Bhante.

    1.3 Kittāvatā nu kho, bhante, bhavo hotī”ti?
    🔼(kittāvatā) 🔼(nu kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(bhava) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(ti)
    In what way | ? | indeed | Bhante | “bhava” | is | quote
    What is the nature of ‘bhava,’ Bhante?

    2.1 “Kāmadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṁ nābhavissa, api nu kho kāmabhavo paññāyethā”ti?
    🚻①⨀(kāmadhātuvepakka) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🚻①⨀(kamma) 🔀🤟⨀(nābhavissa) 🔼(apinu kho) 🚹①⨀(kāmabhava) 🔵⏯🤟⨀(paññāyati) 🔼(ti)
    ripening in the realm of sensual desire | Ānanda | volitional action | would not exist | what | indeed | desire for existence | is evident | quote
    “It is a fruit ripening in the realm of sensual desire, Ānanda. If there is no volitional action, would desire for existence be evident?”

    2.2 “No hetaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(no hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    no | certainly | Bhante
    Certainly not, Bhante.

    2.3 “Iti kho, ānanda, kammaṁ khettaṁ, viññāṇaṁ bījaṁ, taṇhā sneho.
    🔼(iti kho) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🚻①⨀(kamma) 🚻①⨀(khetta) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🚻①⨀(bīja) 🚹①⨂(taṇha) 🚹①⨀(sneha)
    like this | indeed | Ānanda | action | field | consciousness | seed | craving | moisture
    It is like this, Ānanda. Action is the field, consciousness is the seed, and craving is the moisture.

    2.4 Avijjānīvaraṇānaṁ sattānaṁ taṇhāsaṁyojanānaṁ hīnāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṁ patiṭṭhitaṁ evaṁ āyatiṁ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti.
    🚻⑥⨂(avijjānīvaraṇa) 🚹⑥⨂(satta) 🚹⑥⨂(taṇhāsaṃyojana) 🚺⑥⨀(hīna) 🚺⑥⨀(dhātu) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🚻①⨀(patiṭṭhita) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚻①⨀(āyati) 🚺①⨀(punabbhavābhinibbatti) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    of impeded by ignorance; obstructed by not understanding | of beings | of bound by craving | of fallen away | of root | consciousness | well established | thus | future | production of renewed existence | is
    While beings are impeded by ignorance, bound by craving, fallen away from their roots, consciousness is well established and in the future produces renewed existence.

    4.5 Evaṁ kho, ānanda, bhavo hotī”ti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🚹①⨀(bhava) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(ti)
    thus | indeed | Ānanda | “bhava” | is | quote
    “Thus indeed, Ānanda, is ‘bhava.’”

    16. CONSCIOUSNESS MAY BE CALMED

    Dvayatānupassanāsutta Snp 3.12 PTS 140–150 PTS 140, PTS 141, PTS 142, PTS 143, PTS 144, PTS 145, PTS 146, PTS 147, PTS 148, PTS 149, PTS 150 Verse 730–772 (Sutta Nipata, verses 734, 735):

    19.1 “Yaṁ kiñci dukkhaṁ sambhoti,
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kiñci) 🚹②⨀(dukkha) ▶️🤟⨀(sambhoti)
    whenever | something/anything | suffering | arises
    19.2 Sabbaṁ viññāṇapaccayā;
    🚻①⨀(sabba) 🔼(viññāṇapaccayā)
    all | caused by consciousness
    19.3 Viññāṇassa nirodhena,
    🚻⑥⨀(viññāṇa) 🚹③⨀(nirodha)
    of consciousness | with the cessation
    19.4 Natthi dukkhassa sambhavo.
    ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚹⑥⨀(dukkha) 🚹①⨀(sambhava)
    there is not | of suffering | birth

    20.1 Etamādīnavaṁ ñatvā,
    🚹②⨀(eta) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(ñatvā)
    this | danger | having known
    20.2 Dukkhaṁ viññāṇapaccayā;
    🚻①⨀(dukkha) 🔼(viññāṇapaccayā)
    suffering | caused by consciousness
    20.3 Viññāṇūpasamā bhikkhu,
    🚹①⨂(viññāṇūpasama) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu)
    stilling of consciousness | bhikkhu
    20.4 Nicchāto parinibbutoti.
    🚹①⨀(nicchāta) 🚹①⨀(parinibbuta) 🔼(iti)
    satisfied | attained final Nibbāna | and so

    Whenever any suffering arises,
    All caused by consciousness;
    With the cessation of consciousness,
    There is no birth of suffering.

    Having known this danger,
    suffering is caused by consciousness;
    The bhikkhu stills the consciousness,
    And so attained final Nibbāna satisfied.

    17. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LAW OF CAUSALITY AND ITS USE

    Poṭṭhapādasutta DN 9 PTS 1.178–1.203 (Digha Nikaya I 180 f):

    7.4 Sahetū hi, poṭṭhapāda, sappaccayā purisassa saññā uppajjantipi nirujjhantipi.
    🚹①⨂(sahetu) 🔼(hi) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨂(sappaccaya) 🚹④⨀(purisa) 🚹①⨂(sañña) ▶️🤟⨂(uppajjati) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨂(nirujjhati) 🔼(pi)
    having a cause | definitely | Poṭṭhapāda | conditional | for person | perceptions | arises | too | ceases | too
    Poṭṭhapāda, having a cause is definitely a condition for saññā (perceptions) arising and ceasing for a person.

    7.5 Sikkhā ekā saññā uppajjati, sikkhā ekā saññā nirujjhati.
    🚺①⨀(sikkhā) 🚺①⨀(eka) 🚺①⨀(sañña) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚺①⨀(sikkhā) 🚺①⨀(eka) 🚺①⨀(sañña) ▶️🤟⨀(nirujjhati)
    practice | a single | perception | arise | practice | a single | perception | cease
    Practice arising a single perception, and ceasing a single perception.

    18. LIBERATION IS A NATURAL PROCESS

    Cetanākaraṇīyasutta AN 10.2 PTS 5.3–5.4 (Anguttara Nikaya V 2 f):

    1.1 “Sīlavato, bhikkhave, sīlasampannassa na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹④⨀(sīlavant) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹④⨀(sīlasampanna) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    for moral | bhikkhave | for accomplished in virtue | no | with intention | ought to be done
    Bhikkhave, for the moral and accomplished in virtue, nothing ought to be done with intention.

    1.2 ‘avippaṭisāro me uppajjatū’ti.
    🚹①⨀(avippaṭisāra) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) ⏹🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🔼(ti)
    non-regret | of me | must arise | quote
    “May no regrets arise of me.”

    1.3 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ sīlavato sīlasampannassa avippaṭisāro uppajjati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹④⨀(sīlavant) 🚹④⨀(sīlasampanna) 🚹①⨀(avippaṭisāra) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | for moral | for accomplished in virtue | non-regret | arise
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, non-regret, arises for whoever is moral and accomplished in virtue.

    1.4 Avippaṭisārissa, bhikkhave, na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹①⨀(avippaṭisārī) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    one who has no regrets | bhikkhave | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One who has no regrets, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.5 ‘pāmojjaṁ me uppajjatū’ti.
    🚻①⨀(pāmojja) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) ⏹🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🔼(ti)
    joy | of me | must arise | quote
    “May joy arise of me.”

    1.6 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ avippaṭisārissa pāmojjaṁ jāyati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚻④⨀(avippaṭisārī) 🚻①⨀(pāmojja) ▶️🤟⨀(jāyati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | for non-regret | joy | is born
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, joy, is born for whoever has no regrets.

    1.7 Pamuditassa, bhikkhave, na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹⑥⨀(pamudita) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    joyous | bhikkhave | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One who is joyous, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.8 ‘pīti me uppajjatū’ti.
    🚺①⨀(pīti)👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) ⏹🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🔼(ti)
    delight | | of me | must arise | quote
    “May delight arise of me.”

    1.9 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ pamuditassa pīti uppajjati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹④⨀(pamudita) 🚺①⨀(pīti) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | for joyous | delight | arises
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, delight, arises for whoever is joyous.

    1.10 Pītimanassa, bhikkhave, na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹⑥⨀(pītimana) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    of delight | bhikkhave | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One who is delighted, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.11 ‘kāyo me passambhatū’ti.
    🚹①⨀(kāya) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) ⏹🤟⨀(passambhati) 🔼(ti)
    physical body | of me | must calm down | quote
    “May my body calm down.”

    1.12 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ pītimanassa kāyo passambhati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚻④⨀(pītimana) 🚹①⨀(kāya) ▶️🤟⨀(passambhati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | for delighted | body | calm down
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, body, calms down for whoever is delighted.

    1.13 Passaddhakāyassa, bhikkhave, na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹⑥⨀(passaddhakāya) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    of calm body | bhikkhave | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One of calm body, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.14 ‘sukhaṁ vediyāmī’ti.
    🚺②⨀(sukha) ⏹👆⨀(vediyati) 🔼(ti)
    happiness | must experience | quote
    “May I experience happiness.”

    1.15 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ passaddhakāyo sukhaṁ vediyati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(passaddhakāya) 🚻①⨀(sukha) ▶️🤟⨀(vediyati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | calm body | happiness | experience
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, happiness, is experienced for whoever has a calm body.

    1.16 Sukhino, bhikkhave, na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹①⨂(sukhī) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    one who is happy | bhikkhave | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One is happy, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.17 ‘cittaṁ me samādhiyatū’ti.
    🚻①⨀(citta) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) ⏹🤟⨀(samādhiyati) 🔼(ti)
    mind | of me | must become composed | quote
    “May my mind become composed.”

    1.18 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ sukhino cittaṁ samādhiyati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹④⨀(sukhī) 🚻①⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(samādhiyati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | for happy | mind | beomce composed
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, mind, becomes composed for whoever is happy.

    1.19 Samāhitassa, bhikkhave, na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹⑥⨀(samāhita) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    composed | bhikkhave | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One is composed, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.20 ‘yathābhūtaṁ jānāmi passāmī’ti.
    🚹②⨀(yathābhūta) ⏹👆⨀(jānāti) ⏹👆⨀(passati) 🔼(ti)
    reality as it is | must know | must see
    “May I see and know reality as it is.”

    1.21 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ samāhito yathābhūtaṁ jānāti passati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(samāhita) 🚻①⨀(yathābhūta) ▶️👆⨀(jānāti) ▶️👆⨀(passati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | is composed | reality as it is | know | see
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, reality as it is, is seen and known for whoever is composed.

    1.22 Yathābhūtaṁ, bhikkhave, jānato passato na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹②⨀(yathābhūta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻④⨀(jānanta) 🚹④⨀(passanta) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    reality as it is | bhikkhave | for knowing | for seeing | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One who sees and know reality as it is, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.23 ‘nibbindāmi virajjāmī’ti.
    ⏹👆⨀(nibbindati) ⏹👆⨀(virajjati) 🔼(ti)
    must be dispassionate | must be detached | quote
    “May I be dispassionate and detached.”

    1.24 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ yathābhūtaṁ jānaṁ passaṁ nibbindati virajjati.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹②⨀(yathābhūta) 🚹④⨂(ja) 🚹④⨂(passanta) ▶️🤟⨀(nibbindati) ▶️🤟⨀(virajjati)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | reality as it is | knowing | seeing | become dispassionate | become detached
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, one becomes dispassionate and detached for whoever seeing and knowing reality as it is.

    1.25 Nibbinnassa, bhikkhave, virattassa na cetanāya karaṇīyaṁ:
    🚹⑥⨀(nibbinna) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹⑥⨀(viratta) 🔼(no) 🚺③⨀(cetana) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya)
    of dispassionate | bhikkhave | of detached | no | with intention | ought to be done
    One who becomes dispassionate and detached, Bhikkhave, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    1.26 ‘vimuttiñāṇadassanaṁ sacchikaromī’ti.
    🚻②⨀(vimuttiñāṇadassana) ⏹👆⨀(sacchikaroti) 🔼(ti)
    understanding and insight into liberation | must personally realises | quote
    “May I personally realise understanding and insight into liberation.”

    1.27 Dhammatā esā, bhikkhave, yaṁ nibbinno viratto vimuttiñāṇadassanaṁ sacchikaroti.
    🚺①⨀(dhammatā) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(nibbinna) 🚹①⨀(viratta) 🚻②⨀(vimuttiñāṇadassana) ▶️🤟⨀(sacchikaroti)
    characteristic | this | bhikkhave | whoever | one who is dispassionate | one who is detached | understanding and insight into liberation | personally realises
    This characteristic, Bhikkhave, one personally realises understanding and insight into liberation for whoever is dispassionate and detached.

    19. THE ORIGIN AND CONTROL OF SUFFERING

    Dukkhasamudayasutta SN 35.106 PTS 4.87 (Samyutta Nikaya IV 86):

    2.2 Cakkhuñca paṭicca rūpe ca uppajjati cakkhuviññāṇaṁ. Tiṇṇaṁ saṅgati phasso.
    🚻①⨀(cakkhu) 🔼(ca) 🔼(paṭicca) 🚻⑦⨀(rūpa) 🔼(ca) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(cakkhuviññāṇa) 🚹⑥⨂(ti) 🚺①⨀(saṅgati) 🚹①⨀(phassa)
    faculty of seeing | and | dependent on | on form | and | arises | visual-consciousness | of 3 | combined together| contact
    Visual consciousness (cakkhuviññāṇa) arises dependent on rūpa (form) and the faculty of seeing. The three combined together is phassa (contact).

    2.3 Phassapaccayā vedanā;
    🚺①⨂(phassapaccaya) 🚺①⨂(vedanā)
    dependent on contact | feelings
    Dependent on phassa (contact), vedanā (feelings).

    2.4 vedanāpaccayā taṇhā.
    🚺①⨂(vedanāpaccayā) 🚺①⨂(taṇhā)
    dependent on feelings | craving
    Dependent on vedanā (feelings), taṇhā (craving).

    2.5 Tassāyeva taṇhāya asesavirāganirodhā upādānanirodho;
    🔼(tassāyeva) 🚺⑥⨀(taṇhā) 🚹①⨂(asesavirāganirodha) 🚹①⨀(upādānanirodha)
    of that very | of craving | complete fading away and ending | cessation of grasping
    While completely fading away and ending of craving, cessation of grasping.

    2.6 upādānanirodhā bhavanirodho;
    🚹⑤⨀(upādānanirodha) 🚹①⨀(bhavanirodha)
    from cessation of grasping | cessation of being
    From cessation of grasping, cessation of being.

    2.7 bhavanirodhā jātinirodho;
    🚹⑤⨀(bhavanirodha) 🚹①⨀(jātinirodha)
    from cessation of being | cessation of birth
    From cessation of being, cessation of birth.

    2.8 jātinirodhā jarāmaraṇaṁ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā nirujjhanti.
    🚹⑤⨀(jātinirodha) 🚻①⨀(jarāmaraṇa) 🚹①⨂(sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā) ▶️🤟⨂(nirujjhati)
    From cessation of birth | old age | grief, wailing, pain, suffering and trouble | cease
    From cessation of birth, old age, grief, wailing, pain, suffering and trouble cease.

    2.9 Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hoti.
    🔼(evametassa) 🚹⑥⨀(kevala) 🚹⑥⨀(dukkhakkhandha) 🚹①⨀(nirodha) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    thus of this | of whole lot | of mass of suffering | cessation | is
    Thus of this whole lot, there is cessation of mass of suffering.

    2.10 Ayaṁ dukkhassa atthaṅgamo
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹⑥⨀(dukkha) 🚹①⨀(atthaṅgama)
    this | suffering | disappearance of
    This is disappearance of dukkha (suffering).

    20. EVERYTHING IS CAUSED

    Selāsutta SN 5.9 PTS (1st ed) SN i 134 PTS (2nd ed) 1.295 (Samyutta Nikaya I 134):

    5.1 Yathā aññataraṁ bījaṁ,
    🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(aññatara) 🚻①⨀(bīja)
    like | a certain | seed
    5.2 khette vuttaṁ virūhati;
    🚻⑦⨀(khetta) 🚻①⨀(vutta) ▶️🤟⨀(virūhati)
    in field | sown | grows
    5.3 Pathavīrasañcāgamma,
    🚹②⨀(pathavīrasa) 🔼(ca) 🔼(āgamma)
    soil nutrients | and | meeting with
    5.4 sinehañca tadūbhayaṁ.
    🚹②⨀(sineha) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨀(tadūbhaya)
    moisture | and | both of those

    6.1 Evaṁ khandhā ca dhātuyo,
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(khandha) 🔼(ca) 🚺①⨂(dhātu)
    thus | masses | and | elements
    6.2 cha ca āyatanā ime;
    ⚧①⨂(cha) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨂(āyatana) 🚹①⨂(ima)
    six | and | senses | these
    6.3 Hetuṁ paṭicca sambhūtā,
    🚹②⨀(hetu) 🔼(paṭicca) 🚹①⨂(sambhūta)
    reason for | dependence | arisen
    6.4 hetubhaṅgā nirujjhare”ti.
    🚹①⨂(hetubhaṅga) 🔵▶️🤟⨂(nirujjhati)
    disintegration of dependence | ceases

    Like a certain seed,
    Sown in field, grows;
    Meeting with soil nutrients,
    and moisture, both of these.

    Thus, the masses and elements,
    And these six senses;
    Reason for arise of dependence,
    Disintegration of dependence, ceases

    21. MAN FORMS HIS OWN DESTINY

    Paṇḍitavagga Dhp 76–89 PTS (1st ed) 12–13 PTS (2nd ed) 22–25 Paṇḍitasāmaṇeravatthu (Dhammapada, verse 80):

    1 Udakañhi nayanti nettikā,
    🚻①⨀(udaka) 🔼(hi) ▶️🤟⨂(nayati) 🚹①⨂(nettika)
    water | certainly | guides | irrigator
    2 Usukārā namayanti tejanaṁ;
    🚹①⨂(usukāra) ▶️🤟⨂(namayati) 🚻②⨀(tejana)
    arrow-maker | straighten | arrow
    3 Dāruṁ namayanti tacchakā,
    🚻②⨀(dāru) ▶️🤟⨂(namayati) 🚹①⨂(tacchaka)
    wood | straighten | carpenters
    4 Attānaṁ damayanti paṇḍitā.
    🚹②⨀(atta) ▶️🤟⨂(damayati) 🚹①⨂(paṇḍita)
    self | tames | the wise

    Irrigators guide water,
    Arrow makers straighten arrow;
    Carpenters straighten wood,
    The wise tames the self.

    22. KARMA SOMETIMES WORKS SLOWLY

    Bālavagga Dhp 60–75 PTS (1st ed) 10–11 PTS (2nd ed) 17–20 Ahipetavatthu (Dhammapada, verse 71):

    1 Na hi pāpaṁ kataṁ kammaṁ,
    🔼(nahi) 🚻①⨀(pāpa) 🚻①⨀(kata) 🚻①⨀(kamma)
    by no means | wrong | completed | action
    2 Sajjukhīraṁva muccati;
    🔼(sajju) 🚻①⨀(khīra) 🔼(iva) ▶️🤟⨀(muccati)
    quickly | milk | like | thicken
    3 Ḍahantaṁ bālamanveti,
    🚹②⨀(ḍahanta) 🚻①⨀(bāla) ▶️🤟⨀(anveti)
    smouldering | foolish | follow
    4 Bhasmacchannova pāvako.
    🚹①⨀(bhasmacchanna) 🔼(iva) 🚹①⨀(pāvaka)
    covered with ashes | like | fire

    By no means completed wrong action,
    Thickens quickly like milk;
    Smouldering, heedlessly follows,
    Like fire covered with ashes.

    23. HOW REBIRTH IS INFLUENCED BY ACTIONS

    Saṅkhārasutta AN 3.23 PTS 1.123(Anguttara Nikaya I 122):

    1.3 Idha,, ekacco puggalo sabyābajjhaṁ kāyasaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti, sabyābajjhaṁ vacīsaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti, sabyābajjhaṁ manosaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti.
    🔼(idha) 🚹①⨀(ekacca) 🚹①⨀(puggala) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(kāyasaṅkhāra) ▶️🤟⨀(abhisaṅkharoti) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(vacīsaṅkhāra) ▶️🤟⨀(abhisaṅkharoti) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(manosaṅkhāra) ▶️🤟⨀(abhisaṅkharoti)
    here | a certain | person | harmful | intention which results in bodily action | generates | harmful | intention which results in verbal action | generates | harmful | intention which results in mental action | generates
    Here, a certain person generates harmful intentions resulting in bodily, verbal and mental actions.

    1.4 So sabyābajjhaṁ kāyasaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharitvā, sabyābajjhaṁ vacīsaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharitvā, sabyābajjhaṁ manosaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharitvā sabyābajjhaṁ lokaṁ upapajjati.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(kāyasaṅkhāra) 🔼(abhisaṅkharitvā) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(vacīsaṅkhāra) 🔼(abhisaṅkharitvā) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(manosaṅkhāra) 🔼(abhisaṅkharitvā) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(loka) ▶️🤟⨀(upapajjati)
    he | harmful | intention which results in bodily action | having generated | harmful | intention which results in verbal action | having generated | harmful | intention which results in mental action | having generated | harmful | world | is reborn in
    Having generated harmful intentions resulting in bodily, verbal and mental actions, he is reborn in a harmful world.

    1.5 Tamenaṁ sabyābajjhaṁ lokaṁ upapannaṁ samānaṁ sabyābajjhā phassā phusanti.
    🔼(tamenaṃ) 🚹②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹②⨀(loka) 🚹②⨀(upapanna) 🚻①⨀(samāna) 🚹③⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚹③⨀(phassa) ▶️🤟⨂(phusati)
    that person | harmful | world | is reborn in | being | with harmful | with contact | afflicted
    That being, who is reborn in a harmful world, is afflicted with harmful contact.

    1.6 So sabyābajjhehi phassehi phuṭṭho samāno sabyābajjhaṁ vedanaṁ vedayati ekantadukkhaṁ, seyyathāpi sattā nerayikā.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨂(sabyābajjha) 🚹③⨂(phassa) 🚹①⨀(phuṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚺②⨀(sabyābajjha) 🚺②⨀(vedanā) ▶️🤟⨀(vedayati) 🚺②⨀(ekantadukkha) 🔼(seyyathāpi) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚹①⨂(nerayika)
    that | with harmful | with contact | afflicted with | being | harmful | feelings | totally painful | just like | being | living in hell
    That being, who is afflicted with harmful contact, experiences totally painful harmful feelings just like beings living in hell.

    24. A STRONG WISH MAY INFLUENCE REBIRTH

    Saṅkhārupapattisutta MN 120 PTS 3.100–3.103 (Majjhima Nikaya III 99 f):

    3.1 “Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu saddhāya samannāgato hoti, sīlena samannāgato hoti, sutena samannāgato hoti, cāgena samannāgato hoti, paññāya samannāgato hoti.
    🔼(idha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚺③⨀(saddha) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻③⨀(sīla) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹③⨀(suta) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹③⨀(cāga) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚺③⨀(pañña) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    here | bhikkhave | bhikkhu | with faith | endowed (with) | is | with virtue | endowed (with) | is | with learning | endowed (with) | is | with generosity | endowed (with) | is | with wisdom | endowed (with) | is
    Here, Bhikkhave, a bhikkhu is endowed with faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom.

    3.2 Tassa evaṁ hoti:
    🔼(tassa evaṃ hoti)
    of that | thus | is
    It occurred to him:

    3.3 ‘aho vatāhaṁ kāyassa bhedā paraṁ maraṇā khattiyamahāsālānaṁ sahabyataṁ upapajjeyyan’ti.
    🔼(aho) 🔼(vatāhaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(kāya) 🚹①⨂(bheda) 🚻①⨀(para) 🚻①⨂(maraṇa) 🚹⑥⨂(khattiyamahāsāla) 🚺①⨀(sahabyatā) 🔵⏯👆⨀(upapajjati) 🔼(ti)
    oh dear! | oh no! | of body | death | another | following | death | (for) wealthy man of the ruling caste | company of | should reborn
    “Oh dear, oh no, death (of my) body, following death, I should be reborn in company of wealthy men of the ruling caste.”

    3.4 So taṁ cittaṁ dahati, taṁ cittaṁ adhiṭṭhāti, taṁ cittaṁ bhāveti.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(dahati) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(adhiṭṭhāti) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(citta)
    he | his | mind | takes as | his | mind | focuses | his | mind | cultivates
    He takes his mind, focuses and cultivates it.

    3.5 Tassa te saṅkhārā ca vihārā ca evaṁ bhāvitā evaṁ bahulīkatā tatrupapattiyā saṁvattanti.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(saṅkhāra) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨂(vihāra)🔼(ca) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(bhāvita) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(bahulīkata) 🚺⑦⨀(tatrupapatti) ▶️🤟⨂(saṃvattati)
    of that | those | volitional thought processes | and | state of mind | and | thus | cultivated | thus | practised often | in rebirth | leads to
    Regarding that, those volitional thought processes and state of mind, thus cultivated and practised often, leads to rebirth.

    3.6 Ayaṁ, bhikkhave, maggo ayaṁ paṭipadā tatrupapattiyā saṁvattati.
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(magga) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨂(paṭipada) 🚺⑦⨀(tatrupapatti) ▶️🤟⨂(saṃvattati)
    this | bhikkhave | way | this | path of progress | in rebirth | leads to
    This way, Bhikkhave, this path of progress leads to rebirth.

    25. A SUMMARY OF THE WAY

    Buddhavagga Dhp 179–196 PTS (1st ed) 27–29 PTS (2nd ed) 51–55 Buddhavagga (Dhammapada, verse 183):

    1 Sabbapāpassa akaraṇaṁ,
    🚻⑥⨀(sabbapāpa) 🚻①⨀(akaraṇa)
    of all wrongdoing | non-doing of
    2 kusalassa upasampadā;
    🚹⑥⨀(kusala) 🚺①⨀(upasampadā)
    of wholesome | taking up
    3 Sacittapariyodapanaṁ,
    🚺②⨀(sacittapariyodapanā)
    purifying one’s own mind
    4 etaṁ buddhāna sāsanaṁ.
    🚻①⨀(eta) 🚹⑥⨂(buddha) 🚻①⨀(sāsana)
    this | of Buddha | teaching

    Non-doing of all wrongdoing,
    Taking up of wholesome;
    Purifying one’s own mind,
    This is the teaching of the Buddha.

    26. MONK OR NOT?

    Chabbisodhanasutta MN 112 PTS 3.30–3.37 (Majjhima Nikaya III 33):

    12.2 ‘pubbe kho ahaṁ, āvuso, agāriyabhūto samāno aviddasu ahosiṁ.
    🔼(pubbe) 🔼(kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹①⨀(agāriyabhūta) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹①⨀(aviddasu) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    formerly | indeed | I | friend | living as a layman | being | ignorant | was
    Formerly, I was similar to an ignorant being, living as a layman.

    12.3 Tassa me tathāgato vā tathāgatasāvako vā dhammaṁ desesi.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(tathāgata) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨀(tathāgatasāvaka) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) ⏮🤟⨀(desesi)
    of that | me | Tathāgata | or | disciple of the Buddha | or | Dhamma | taught
    Because of that, the Tathāgata and his disciples taught the Dhamma to me.

    12.4 Tāhaṁ dhammaṁ sutvā tathāgate saddhaṁ paṭilabhiṁ.
    🔼(tāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🔼(sutvā) 🚹⑦⨀(tathāgata) 🚻①⨀(saddha) ⏮👆⨀(paṭilabhi)
    that I | Dhamma | having heard | in Tathāgata | faith | I acquired
    Having heard that Dhamma, I acquired faith in the Tathāgata.

    12.5 So tena saddhāpaṭilābhena samannāgato iti paṭisañcikkhiṁ:
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(saddhāpaṭilābha) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) 🔼(iti) ⏮👆⨀(paṭisañcikkhi)
    that | by that | gaining of faith | endowed with | like this | reflected
    I reflected like that, endowed with the the gaining of that faith.

    12.6 “sambādho gharāvāso rajāpatho, abbhokāso pabbajjā.
    🚹①⨀(sambādha) 🚹①⨀(gharāvāsa) 🚹①⨀(rajāpatha) 🚺①⨀(pabbajjā)
    crowded | household life | dirty | open space | renunciation
    Household life is crowded and dirty, renunciation is open space.

    12.7 Nayidaṁ sukaraṁ agāraṁ ajjhāvasatā ekantaparipuṇṇaṁ ekantaparisuddhaṁ saṅkhalikhitaṁ brahmacariyaṁ carituṁ.
    🔼(nayidaṃ) 🚻①⨀(sukara) 🚻①⨀(agāra) 🚹⑤⨀(ajjhāvasanta) 🚻①⨀(ekantaparipuṇṇa) 🚻①⨀(saṅkhalikhita) 🚻①⨀(brahmacariya) 🔼(carituṃ)
    not this | easy to do | domestic living | domestic settled | completely perfect | flawless | spiritual path | to live
    It is not easy from being settled in domestic living to living a completely perfect and flawless spiritual path.

    12.8 Yannūnāhaṁ kesamassuṁ ohāretvā kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā agārasmā anagāriyaṁ pabbajeyyan”ti.
    🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🚻②⨀(kesamassu) 🔼(ohāretvā) 🚻②⨂(kāsāya) 🚻②⨂(vattha) 🔼(acchādetvā) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚻②⨀(anagāriya) 🔵⏯👆⨀(pabbajati) 🔼(ti)
    what if I were to | hair and beard | having shaved off | ochre | robe | having put on | from household life | to homeless state | renounce | quote
    What if I were to renounce from household life to homeless state, having shaved off hair and heard, and having put on ochre robe.

    13.1 So kho ahaṁ, āvuso, aparena samayena appaṁ vā bhogakkhandhaṁ pahāya mahantaṁ vā bhogakkhandhaṁ pahāya, appaṁ vā ñātiparivaṭṭaṁ pahāya mahantaṁ vā ñātiparivaṭṭaṁ pahāya kesamassuṁ ohāretvā kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā agārasmā anagāriyaṁ pabbajiṁ.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹③⨀(apara) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚹②⨀(appa) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨀(bhogakkhandha) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹②⨀(mahanta) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨀(bhogakkhandha) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹②⨀(appa) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨀(ñātiparivaṭṭa) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹②⨀(mahanta) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨀(ñātiparivaṭṭa) 🔼(pahāya) 🚻②⨀(kesamassu) 🔼(ohāretvā) 🚻②⨂(kāsāya) 🚻②⨂(vattha) 🔼(acchādetvā) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚻②⨀(anagāriya) ⏮🤟⨀(pabbaji)
    that | indeed | I | friend | with next | with time | small | or | pile of wealth | leaving behind | large | or | pile of wealth | leaving behind | small | or | family circle | leaving behind | large | or | family circle | leaving behind | hair and beard | having shaved off | ochre | robe | having put on | from household life | to homeless state | renounced
    Indeed, friend, after some time, having left behind a small or large pile of wealth, and a small or large family circle, I renounced from household life to homeless state, having shaved off hair and heard, and having put on ochre robe.

    27. THE FIRST PART OF THE WAY: RIGHT VIEW

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 311 f):

    21.4 Katamā ca, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammādiṭṭhi)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | right view
    Bhikkhave, and what is “sammādiṭṭhi” (right view)?

    21.5 Yaṁ kho, bhikkhave, dukkhe ñāṇaṁ, dukkhasamudaye ñāṇaṁ, dukkhanirodhe ñāṇaṁ, dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya ñāṇaṁ.
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨂(dukkha) 🚻①⨀(ñāṇa) 🚹②⨂(dukkhasamudaya) 🚻①⨀(ñāṇa) 🚹②⨂(dukkhanirodha) 🚻①⨀(ñāṇa) 🚺④⨀(dukkhanirodhagāmī) 🚺⑥⨀(paṭipadā) 🚻①⨀(ñāṇa)
    whatever | indeed | bhikkhave | suffering | understanding | origin of suffering | understanding | end of suffering | understanding | of leading to the end of suffering | of path of progress | understanding
    Whatever indeed, Bhikkhave, understanding suffering, understanding source of suffering, understanding end of suffering, understanding of the path of progress leading to the end of suffering.

    21.6 Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi.
    🚹①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammādiṭṭhi)
    this | is said | bhikkhave | right view
    Bhikkhave, this said to be “sammādiṭṭhi” (right view).

    28. RIGHT PURPOSE

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 312):

    21.7 Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāsaṅkappo?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammāsaṅkappa)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | right intention
    Bhikkhave, and what is “sammāsaṅkappa” (right intention)?

    21.8 Nekkhammasaṅkappo abyāpādasaṅkappo avihiṁsāsaṅkappo.
    🚹①⨀(nekkhammasaṅkappa) 🚹①⨀(abyāpādasaṅkappa) 🚹①⨀(avihiṃsāsaṅkappa)
    intention of renunciation | intention of good | intention of not harming
    Intention of renunciation, intention of good, intention of not harming.

    21.9 Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāsaṅkappo.
    🚹①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammāsaṅkappa)
    this | is said | bhikkhave | right view
    Bhikkhave, this said to be “sammāsaṅkappo” (right intention).

    29. RIGHT SPEECH

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 312):

    21.10 Katamā ca, bhikkhave, sammāvācā?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(sammāvāca)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | right speech
    Bhikkhave, and what is “sammāvāca” (right speech)?

    21.11 Musāvādā veramaṇī pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī samphappalāpā veramaṇī.
    🚹①⨂(musāvāda) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī) 🚺⑤⨀(pisuṇa) 🚺⑤⨀(vāca) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī) 🚺⑤⨀(pharusa) 🚺⑤⨀(vāca) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī) 🚹①⨂(samphappalāpa) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī)
    false speech | abstinence from | from slanderous | from speech | abstinence from | from harsh | from speech | abstinence from | gossip | abstinence from
    Abstinence from false speech, abstinence from slanderous speech, abstinence from harsh speech, abstinence from gossip.

    21.12 Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāvācā.
    🚹①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammāvāca)
    this | is said | bhikkhave | right speech
    Bhikkhave, this said to be “sammāvāca” (right speech).

    30. A MORE DETAILED DEFINITION OF RIGHT SPEECH

    Upālisutta AN 10.99 PTS 5.202–5.209 (Anguttara Nikaya V 205):

    14.1 Musāvādaṁ pahāya musāvādā paṭivirato hoti saccavādī saccasandho theto paccayiko avisaṁvādako lokassa.
    🚹②⨀(musāvāda) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹⑤⨀(musāvāda) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(saccavādī) 🚹①⨀(saccasandha) 🚹①⨀(theta) 🚹①⨀(paccayika) 🚹①⨀(avisaṃvādaka) 🚹④⨀(loka)
    false speech | giving up | from false speech | abstaining from | is | truthful | true to one’s word | honest | reliable | keeping promises | for people of the world
    Giving up false speech, abstaining from false speech, being truthful, true to one’s word, honest, reliable, keeping promises for everyone in the world.

    15.1 Pisuṇaṁ vācaṁ pahāya pisuṇāya vācāya paṭivirato hoti, ito sutvā na amutra akkhātā imesaṁ bhedāya, amutra vā sutvā na imesaṁ akkhātā amūsaṁ bhedāya. Iti bhinnānaṁ vā sandhātā sahitānaṁ vā anuppadātā, samaggārāmo samaggarato samagganandī; samaggakaraṇiṁ vācaṁ bhāsitā hoti.
    🚹②⨀(pisuṇa) 🚹②⨀(vāca) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹②⨀(pisuṇa) 🚹②⨀(vāca) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(ito) 🔼(sutvā) 🔼(na) 🔼(amutra) 🚹①⨂(akkhāta) 🚹④⨂(ima) 🚹④⨀(bheda) 🔼(amutra) 🔼(vā) 🔼(sutvā) 🔼(na) 🚹④⨂(ima) 🚹①⨂(akkhāta) 🚹④⨂(amu) 🚹④⨀(bheda) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    slanderous | speech | giving up | slanderous | speech | abstaining from | is | here | having listened | no | in such-and-such a place | told | for this | for disturbing/upsetting | in such-and-such a place | or | heaving listened | no | for this | told | for so-and-so | for disturbing.
    Giving up slanderous speech, abstaining from slanderous speech. Having listened here, does not tell in such-and-such place for the purposes of disturbance, or having listened in such and such place, does not tell here for the purposes of disturbance.
    🔼(iti) 🚹⑥⨂(bhinna) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨀(sandhātar) 🚹⑥⨂(sahita) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨀(anuppadātar) 🚹①⨀(samaggārāma) 🚹①⨀(samaggarata) 🚹①⨀(samagganandī) 🚺②⨀(samaggakaraṇa) 🚹②⨀(vāca) 🚻①⨂(bhāsita)
    like this | of broken | conciliator | of friendly terms | or provider of | enjoying concord | liking harmony | delights in unity | peace-making | speech | talking
    Conciliator of the broken, provider of friendly terms, enjoying concord, liking harmony, delighting in unity, talking peace-making speech.

    16.1 Pharusaṁ vācaṁ pahāya pharusāya vācāya paṭivirato hoti. Yā sā vācā nelā kaṇṇasukhā pemanīyā hadayaṅgamā porī bahujanakantā bahujanamanāpā, tathārūpiṁ vācaṁ bhāsitā hoti.
    🚹②⨀(pharusa) 🚹②⨀(vāca) 🔼(pahāya) 🚺⑤⨀(pharusa) 🚹②⨀(vāca) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    harsh speech | giving up | from harsh speech | abstaining from | is Giving up harsh speech, abstaining from harsh speech.
    🚺①⨀(ya) 🚺①⨀(ta) 🚺①⨀(vāca) 🚺①⨀(nela) 🚺①⨀(kaṇṇasukha) 🚺①⨀(pemanīya) 🚺①⨀(hadayaṅgama) 🚺①⨀(porī) 🚺①⨀(bahujanakanta) 🚺①⨀(bahujanamanāpa) 🚺②⨀(tathārūpa) 🚺②⨀(vāca) 🚺①⨀(bhāsita) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    whatever | that | speech | gentle | pleasant to hear | friendly | heart warming | polite | loved by the people | charming to the masses | appropriate | speech | talking | is
    Whatever that speech is, it is gentle, pleasant to hear, friendly, heart-warming, polite, loved by the people, charming to the masses, talking appropriate speech.

    17.1 Samphappalāpaṁ pahāya samphappalāpā paṭivirato hoti kālavādī bhūtavādī atthavādī dhammavādī vinayavādī, nidhānavatiṁ vācaṁ bhāsitā hoti kālena sāpadesaṁ pariyantavatiṁ atthasaṁhitaṁ.
    🚹②⨀(samphappalāpa) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹⑤⨀(samphappalāpa) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(kālavādī) 🚹①⨀(bhūtavādī) 🚹①⨀(atthavādī) 🚹①⨀(dhammavādī) 🚹①⨀(vinayavādī) 🚺②⨀(nidhānavant) 🚹②⨀(vāca) 🚺①⨀(bhāsita) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹③⨀(kāla) 🚹②⨀(sāpadesa) 🚺②⨀(pariyantavant) 🚻①⨀(atthasaṃhita)
    gossip | giving up | from gossip | abstaining from | is | speaking at the proper time | speaking what is true | speaking what is meaningful | speaking about the Dhamma | speaking about the discipline | worth remembering | speech | talking | is | timely | reasonable | purposeful | beneficial
    Giving up gossip, abstaining from gossip, speaking at the proper time, speaking what is true, speaking what is meaningful, speaking about the Dhamma, speaking about the discipline, talking speech worth remembering, timely, reasonable, purposeful, beneficial.

    31. RIGHT ACTION

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 312):

    21.13 Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammākammanto?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(sammākammanta)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | right conduct
    Bhikkhave, and what is “sammākammanta” (right conduct)?

    21.14 Pāṇātipātā veramaṇī adinnādānā veramaṇī kāmesumicchācārā veramaṇī.
    🚹⑤⨀(pāṇātipāta) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī) 🚻⑤⨀(adinnādāna) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī) 🚹⑤⨀(kāmesumicchācāra) 🚺①⨀(veramaṇī)
    from killing living beings | abstinence from | from theft | abstinence from | from sexual misconduct | abstinence from
    Abstinence from killing living beings, abstinence from theft, abstinence from sexual misconduct.

    21.15 Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammākammanto.
    🚹①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammākammanta)
    this | is said | bhikkhave | right conduct
    Bhikkhave, this said to be “sammākammanta” (right conduct).

    32. HOW THE PERFECT ONES LIVE

    Uposathasutta AN 3.70 PTS 1.206–1.215 (Anguttara Nikaya I 211 f):

    21.1 Yāvajīvaṁ arahanto abrahmacariyaṁ pahāya brahmacārī ārācārī viratā methunā gāmadhammā;
    🚻①⨀(yāvajīva) 🚹①⨂(arahant) 🚻①⨀(abrahmacariya) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹①⨂(brahmacāri) 🚹①⨀(ārācārī) 🚹①⨂(virata) 🚹⑤⨀(methuna) 🚹⑤⨀(gāmadhamma)
    life-long | awakened beings | incelibacy | giving up | celibate spiritual practitioner | keeping far away from | abstained from | from sexual intercourse | from vulgar practice
    Life long arahants (awakened beings) give up incelibacy, practice celibacy, keep far away from sexual intercourse, abstain from vulgar practice.

    23.1 Yāvajīvaṁ arahanto surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānaṁ pahāya surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā paṭiviratā;
    🚻①⨀(yāvajīva) 🚹①⨂(arahant) 🚻②⨀(surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhāna) 🔼(pahāya) 🚻⑤⨀(surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhāna) 🚹①⨂(paṭivirata)
    life-long | awakened beings | wine, spirits, drugs and states of intoxication | giving up | wine, spirits, drugs and states of intoxication | abstained from

    Life long arahants (awakened beings) give up and abstains from wine, spirits, drugs and states of intoxication.
    24.1 Yāvajīvaṁ arahanto ekabhattikā rattūparatā viratā vikālabhojanā; 🚻①⨀(yāvajīva) 🚹①⨂(arahant) 🚹①⨂(ekabhattika) 🚹①⨂(rattūparata) 🚹①⨂(virata) 🚻①⨂(vikālabhojana)
    life-long | awakened beings | who eats one meal a day | abstaining from eating at night | stopped | eating between midday and dawn
    Life long arahants (awakened beings) eat one meal a day, abstain from eating at night, and between midday and dawn.

    25.1 Yāvajīvaṁ arahanto naccagītavāditavisūkadassanamālāgandhavilepanadhāraṇamaṇḍanavibhūsanaṭṭhānā paṭiviratā;
    🚻①⨀(yāvajīva) 🚹①⨂((arahant) 🚻 ⑤⨂(naccagītavāditavisūkadassanamālāgandhavilepanadhāraṇamaṇḍanavibhūsanaṭṭhāna) 🚹①⨂(paṭivirata)
    life-long | awakened beings | dancing, singing, instrumental music, watching shows, using garlands, perfumes, oils, adornments and decorations | abstained from
    Life long arahants (awakened beings) abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, watching shows, using garlands, perfumes, oils, adornments and decorations.

    26.1 Yāvajīvaṁ arahanto uccāsayanamahāsayanaṁ pahāya uccāsayanamahāsayanā paṭiviratā nīcaseyyaṁ kappenti mañcake vā tiṇasanthārake vā;
    🚻①⨀(yāvajīva) 🚹①⨂((arahant) 🚻②⨀(uccāsayanamahāsayana) 🔼(pahāya) 🚻⑤⨀(uccāsayanamahāsayana) 🚹①⨂(paṭivirata) 🚺②⨀(nīcaseyyā) ▶️🤟⨂(kappeti) 🚹②⨂(mañcaka) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨂(tiṇasanthāraka) 🔼(vā)
    life-long | awakened beings | large and luxurious beds | giving up | from large and luxurious beds | abstained from | low bed | prepare | small bed | or | spread of grass | or
    Life long arahants (awakened beings) give up and abstain from large and luxurious beds, prepare low or small beds, or spread of grass.

    33. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 312):

    21.16 Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāājīvo?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(sammāājīva)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | right livelihood
    Bhikkhave, and what is “sammāājīva” (right livelihood)?

    21.17 Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako micchāājīvaṁ pahāya sammāājīvena jīvitaṁ kappeti.
    🔼(idha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(ariyasāvaka) 🚹②⨀(micchāājīva) 🔼(pahāya) 🚹③⨀(sammāājīva) 🚻①⨀(jīvita) ▶️🤟⨀(kappeti)
    here | bhikkhave | pure disciples | wrong livelihood | giving up | with right livelihood | way of life | prepares
    Here, Bhikkhave, pure disciples give up wrong livelihood, prepares for a way of life with right livelihood.

    21.18 Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāājīvo.
    🚹①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammāājīva)
    this | is said | bhikkhave | right livelihood
    Bhikkhave, this said to be “sammāājīva” (right livelihood).

    34. WRONG LIVELIHOOD

    Mahācattārīsakasutta MN 117 PTS 3.72–3.78 (Majjhima Nikaya III 75):

    29.1 Katamo ca, bhikkhave, micchāājīvo?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(micchāājīva)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | wrong livelihood
    Bhikkhave, and what is “micchāājīva” (right livelihood)?

    29.2 Kuhanā, lapanā, nemittikatā, nippesikatā, lābhena lābhaṁ nijigīsanatā—
    🚻①⨂(kuhana) 🚻①⨂(lapana) 🚺①⨀(nemittikatā) 🚺①⨀(nippesikatā) 🚹③⨀(lābha) 🚹②⨀(lābha) 🚺①⨀(nijigīsanatā)
    cheating | cajoling | indirect begging | putting others down | with profit | acquisition | desiring
    Cheating, cajoling, indirect begging, putting others down, desiring acquisition with profit.

    29.3 ayaṁ, bhikkhave, micchāājīvo.
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(micchāājīva)
    this | bhikkhave | wrong livelihood
    Bhikkhave, this is “micchāājīva” (wrong livelihood).

    35. RIGHT EFFORT

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 312):

    21.19 Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāvāyāmo?
    🚺①⨀(katama) 🔼(ca) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(sammāvāyāma)
    what? | and | bhikkhave | right effort
    Bhikkhave, and what is “sammāvāyāma” (right effort)?

    21.20 Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu anuppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ anuppādāya chandaṁ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṁ ārabhati cittaṁ paggaṇhāti padahati;
    🔼(idha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹④⨂(anuppanna) 🚹⑥⨂(pāpaka) 🚹⑥⨂(akusala) 🚹⑥⨂(dhamma) 🚹④⨀(anuppāda) 🚹 ②⨀(chanda) ▶️🤟⨀(janeti) ▶️🤟⨀(vāyamati) 🚻②⨀(vīriya) ▶️🤟⨀(ārabhati) 🚻②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(paggaṇhāti) ▶️🤟⨀(padahati)
    here | bhikkhave | bhikkhu | for non-arising | of evil | of unwholesome | of characteristics | for non-arising | desire | generates | tries to make an effort to | effort | start | mind | strives on | exerts oneself
    Here, Bhikkhave, a monk, for the non-arising of evil and unwholesome characteristics, generates a desire for non-arising, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.

    21.21 uppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ pahānāya chandaṁ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṁ ārabhati cittaṁ paggaṇhāti padahati;
    🚹④⨂(uppanna) 🚹⑥⨂(pāpaka) 🚹⑥⨂(akusala) 🚹⑥⨂(dhamma) 🚻④⨀(pahāna) 🚹 ②⨀(chanda) ▶️🤟⨀(janeti) ▶️🤟⨀(vāyamati) 🚻②⨀(vīriya) ▶️🤟⨀(ārabhati) 🚻②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(paggaṇhāti) ▶️🤟⨀(padahati)
    for arising | of evil | of unwholesome | of characteristics | for giving up of | desire | generates | tries to make an effort to | effort | start | mind | strives on | exerts oneself
    He generates a desire for the giving up of the arising of evil and unwholesome characteristics, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.

    21.22 anuppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ uppādāya chandaṁ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṁ ārabhati cittaṁ paggaṇhāti padahati;
    🚹④⨂(anuppanna) 🚹⑥⨂(kusala) 🚹⑥⨂(dhamma) 🚹④⨀(uppāda) 🚹 ②⨀(chanda) ▶️🤟⨀(janeti) ▶️🤟⨀(vāyamati) 🚻②⨀(vīriya) ▶️🤟⨀(ārabhati) 🚻②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(paggaṇhāti) ▶️🤟⨀(padahati)
    for non-arising | of unwholesome | of characteristics | for arising of | desire | generates | tries to make an effort to | effort | start | mind | strives on | exerts oneself
    for the non-arising of wholesome characteristics, he generates a desire for arising, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.

    21.23 uppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ ṭhitiyā asammosāya bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya bhāvanāya pāripūriyā chandaṁ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṁ ārabhati cittaṁ paggaṇhāti padahati.
    🚹④⨂(uppanna) 🚹⑥⨂(kusala) 🚹⑥⨂(dhamma) 🚺④⨀(ṭhiti) 🚹④⨀(asammosa) 🚹④⨀(bhiyyobhāva) 🚻④⨀(vepulla) 🚺④⨀(bhāvanā) 🚺④⨀(pāripūri)🚹 ②⨀(chanda) ▶️🤟⨀(janeti) ▶️🤟⨀(vāyamati) 🚻②⨀(vīriya) ▶️🤟⨀(ārabhati) 🚻②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(paggaṇhāti) ▶️🤟⨀(padahati)
    for arising | of wholesome | of characteristics | for persistence of | for non-confusion | for increase of | for maturity | for developing | for fulfillment |desire | generates | tries to make an effort to | effort | start | mind | strives on | exerts oneself
    He generates a desire for the persistence of, non-confusion of, increase of, maturity of, developing of, fulfillment of the arising of wholesome characteristics, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.

    21.24 Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāvāyāmo.
    🚹①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sammāvāyāma)
    this | is said | bhikkhave | right effort
    Bhikkhave, this is said to be “sammāvāyāma” (right effort).

    36. RIGHT MINDFULNESS

    Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta DN 22 PTS 2.290–2.315 (Digha Nikaya II 292):

    3.1 (Puna caparaṁ), bhikkhave, bhikkhu gacchanto vā ‘gacchāmī’ti pajānāti, ṭhito vā ‘ṭhitomhī’ti pajānāti, nisinno vā ‘nisinnomhī’ti pajānāti, sayāno vā ‘sayānomhī’ti pajānāti,
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(gacchanta) 🔼(vā) ▶️👆⨀(gacchati) 🔼(ti) ▶️🤟⨀(pajānāti) 🚹①⨀(ṭhita) 🔼(vā) 🔼(ṭhitomhi) 🔼(ti) ▶️🤟⨀(pajānāti) 🚹①⨀(nisinna) 🔼(vā) 🔼(nisinnomhi) 🔼(ti) ▶️🤟⨀(pajānāti) 🚹①⨀(sayāna) 🔼(vā) 🔼(sayānomhi) 🔼(ti) ▶️🤟⨀(pajānāti)
    again | and what is more | bhikkhave | bhikkhu | walking | or | I walk | quote | knows clearly | standing | or | I am standing | quote | knows clearly | sitting | or | I am sitting | quote | knows clearly | lying down | or | I am lying down | quote | knows clearly
    (And furthermore) a bhikkhu when walking knows clearly “I am walking”, when standing knows clearly “I am standing”, when sitting knows clearly “I am seating”, when lying down knows clearly “I am lying down”.

    3.2 yathā yathā vā panassa kāyo paṇihito hoti tathā tathā naṁ pajānāti.
    🔼(yathā yathā) 🔼(vā) 🔼(panassa) 🚹①⨀(kāya) 🚹①⨀(paṇihita) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(tathā tathā) 🚹②⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(pajānāti)
    in whatever way | or | and for him | body | orientated | is | in that way | that | knows clearly
    In whatever way his body is orientated, in that way he knows clearly.

    3.3 Iti ajjhattaṁ vā kāye kāyānupassī viharati, bahiddhā vā kāye kāyānupassī viharati, ajjhattabahiddhā vā kāye kāyānupassī viharati.
    🔼(iti) 🚻①⨀(ajjhatta) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨂(kāya) 🚹②⨂(kāyānupassī) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚹①⨂(bahiddha) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨂(kāya) 🚹 ②⨂(kāyānupassī) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚹①⨂(ajjhattabahiddha) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨂(kāya) 🚹 ②⨂(kāyānupassī) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    like this | internally | or | bodies | observing the bodies | mindful | externally | or | bodies | observing the bodies | mindful | internal and external | or | bodies | observing the bodies | mindful
    In this way he is mindful of observing the body internally, externally, internally and externally (together).

    3.4 Samudayadhammānupassī vā kāyasmiṁ viharati, vayadhammānupassī vā kāyasmiṁ viharati, samudayavayadhammānupassī vā kāyasmiṁ viharati.
    🚹①⨀(samudayadhammānupassī) 🔼(vā) 🚹⑦⨀(kāya) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚹①⨀(vayadhammānupassī) 🔼(vā) 🚹⑦⨀(kāya) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚹①⨀(samudayavayadhammānupassī) 🔼(vā) 🚹⑦⨀(kāya) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    contemplating the nature of arising | or | in physical processes | mindful | contemplating the nature of disappearance | or | in physical processes | mindful | contemplating the nature of arising and disappearance | or | in physical processes | mindful
    He is mindful of contemplating the nature of arising, disappearance, arising and disappearing (together) of physical processes.

    3.5 ‘Atthi kāyo’ti vā panassa sati paccupaṭṭhitā hoti yāvadeva ñāṇamattāya paṭissatimattāya anissito ca viharati, na ca kiñci loke upādiyati.
    ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🚹①⨀(kāya) 🔼(ti) 🔼(panassa) 🚺①⨀(sati) 🚹①⨂(paccupaṭṭhita) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(yāvadeva) 🚺③⨀(ñāṇamattā) 🚺③⨀(paṭissatimattā) 🚹①⨀(anissita) 🔼(ca) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🔼(na ca) 🚹②⨀(kaci) 🚹②⨂(loka) ▶️🤟⨀(upādiyati)
    there exists | physical body | quote | and for him | keeping in mind | presence established | as far as | by measure of understanding | by measure of continuous awareness | independent of | and | mindful | not | and | anything | world | cling
    And for him he keeps in mind and establishes “there is a body”, and he is independent and mindful through understanding and continuous awareness, and he does not cling to anything in the world.

    4.1 (Puna caparaṁ, bhikkhave, bhikkhu abhikkante paṭikkante sampajānakārī hoti, ālokite vilokite sampajānakārī hoti, samiñjite pasārite sampajānakārī hoti, saṅghāṭipattacīvaradhāraṇe sampajānakārī hoti, asite pīte khāyite sāyite sampajānakārī hoti, uccārapassāvakamme sampajānakārī hoti), gate ṭhite nisinne sutte jāgarite bhāsite tuṇhībhāve sampajānakārī hoti.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨂(abhikkanta) 🚹②⨂(paṭikkanta) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹②⨂(ālokita) 🚹②⨂(vilokita) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹②⨂(samiñjita) 🚹②⨂(pasārita) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻②⨂(saṅghāṭipattacīvaradhāraṇa) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹②⨂(asita) 🚹②⨂(pīta) 🚹②⨂(khāyita) 🚹②⨂(sāyita) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻②⨂(uccārapassāvakamma) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹②⨂(gata) 🚹②⨂(ṭhita) 🚹②⨂(nisinna) 🚹②⨂(sutta) 🚻②⨂(jāgarita) 🚻②⨂(bhāsita) 🚹②⨂(tuṇhībhāva) 🚹①⨀(sampajānakārī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    again | and what is more | bhikkhave | bhikkhu | going forward | coming back | attentive to | is | looking ahead | looking around | attentive to | is | flexing | stretching | attentive to | is | carrying the outer robe, bowl and robe | attentive to | is | eating | drinking | chewing | tasting | attentive to | is | going to the toilet | attentive to | is | walking | standing | sitting | sleeping | being awake | talking | keeping quiet | attentive to | is
    And what is more, bhikkhave, the bhikkhu is attentive to going forward, coming back, looking ahead, looking around, flexing, stretching, carrying the outer robe, bowl and robe, eating, drinking, chewing, tasting, going to the toilet, walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, being awake, talking, keeping quiet.

    37. IRRADIATION OF FRIENDLINESS, COMPASSION, TENDERNESS, AND EQUANIMITY

    Saṅgītisutta DN 33 PTS 3.207–3.271 (Digha Nikaya III 223 f):

    1.11.52 Idhāvuso, bhikkhu mettāsahagatena cetasā ekaṁ disaṁ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṁ. Tathā tatiyaṁ. Tathā catutthaṁ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṁ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṁ lokaṁ mettāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharati.
    🔼(idhāvuso) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹③⨀(mettāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚺②⨀(eka) 🚺②⨀(disā) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    here friend | bhikkhu | filled with goodwill/friendliness | with intent | one | direction | having filled | mindful
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(dutiya)
    similarly for the second direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(tatiya)
    similarly for the third direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(catuttha)
    similarly for the fourth direction
    🔼(iti) 🔼(uddhamadho) 🔼(tiriyaṃ) 🔼(sabbadhi) 🔼(sabbattatāya) 🚹②⨀(loka) 🚹③⨀(mettāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚹③⨀(vipula) 🚹③⨀(mahaggata) 🚹③⨀(appamāṇa) 🚹③⨀(avera) 🚹③⨀(abyāpajja) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    like this | above and below | horizontally | everywhere | to all beings | universe | filled with goodwill/friendliness | with intent | with expansive | with grand | with infinite | with peaceful | without ill will | having filled | mindful
    Here, friend, a bhikkhu is intent and mindful of filling an entire compass direction with goodwill/friendliness. Similarly in a second, third, fourth compass directions. Thus he is intent and mindful of filling above and below, horizontally, everywhere, to all beings in the universe, with expansive, grand, infinite, peaceful, without ill will, goodwill/friendliness.

    1.11.53 Karuṇāsahagatena cetasā ekaṁ disaṁ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṁ. Tathā tatiyaṁ. Tathā catutthaṁ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṁ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṁ lokaṁ karuṇāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharati.
    🚹③⨀(karuṇāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚺②⨀(eka) 🚺②⨀(disā) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    here friend | bhikkhu | filled with compassion/pity | with intent | one | direction | having filled | mindful
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(dutiya)
    similarly for the second direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(tatiya)
    similarly for the third direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(catuttha)
    similarly for the fourth direction
    🔼(iti) 🔼(uddhamadho) 🔼(tiriyaṃ) 🔼(sabbadhi) 🔼(sabbattatāya) 🚹②⨀(loka) 🚹③⨀(karuṇāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚹③⨀(vipula) 🚹③⨀(mahaggata) 🚹③⨀(appamāṇa) 🚹③⨀(avera) 🚹③⨀(abyāpajja) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    like this | above and below | horizontally | everywhere | to all beings | universe | filled with compassion/pity | with intent | with expansive | with grand | with infinite | with peaceful | without ill will | having filled | mindful
    Here, friend, a bhikkhu is intent and mindful of filling an entire compass direction with compassion/pity. Similarly in a second, third, fourth compass directions. Thus he is intent and mindful of filling above and below, horizontally, everywhere, to all beings in the universe, with expansive, grand, infinite, peaceful, without ill will, compassion/pity.

    1.11.54 muditāsahagatena cetasā ekaṁ disaṁ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṁ. Tathā tatiyaṁ. Tathā catutthaṁ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṁ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṁ lokaṁ muditāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharati.
    🚹③⨀(muditāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚺②⨀(eka) 🚺②⨀(disā) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    here friend | bhikkhu | filled with emphatic happiness | with intent | one | direction | having filled | mindful
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(dutiya)
    similarly for the second direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(tatiya)
    similarly for the third direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(catuttha)
    similarly for the fourth direction
    🔼(iti) 🔼(uddhamadho) 🔼(tiriyaṃ) 🔼(sabbadhi) 🔼(sabbattatāya) 🚹②⨀(loka) 🚹③⨀(muditāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚹③⨀(vipula) 🚹③⨀(mahaggata) 🚹③⨀(appamāṇa) 🚹③⨀(avera) 🚹③⨀(abyāpajja) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    like this | above and below | horizontally | everywhere | to all beings | universe | filled with emphatic happiness | with intent | with expansive | with grand | with infinite | with peaceful | without ill will | having filled | mindful
    Here, friend, a bhikkhu is intent and mindful of filling an entire compass direction with emphatic happiness. Similarly in a second, third, fourth compass directions. Thus he is intent and mindful of filling above and below, horizontally, everywhere, to all beings in the universe, with expansive, grand, infinite, peaceful, without ill will, emphatic happiness.

    1.11.55 upekkhāsahagatena cetasā ekaṁ disaṁ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṁ. Tathā tatiyaṁ. Tathā catutthaṁ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṁ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṁ lokaṁ upekkhāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharati.
    🚹③⨀(upekkhāsahagata) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚺②⨀(eka) 🚺②⨀(disā) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    here friend | bhikkhu | filled with balance/equanimity | with intent | one | direction | having filled | mindful
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(dutiya)
    similarly for the second direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(tatiya)
    similarly for the third direction
    🔼(tathā) 🚻①⨀(catuttha)
    similarly for the fourth direction
    🔼(iti) 🔼(uddhamadho) 🔼(tiriyaṃ) 🔼(sabbadhi) 🔼(sabbattatāya) 🚹②⨀(loka) 🚹③⨀(upekkhāsahagata)) 🚹③⨀(cetas) 🚹③⨀(vipula) 🚹③⨀(mahaggata) 🚹③⨀(appamāṇa) 🚹③⨀(avera) 🚹③⨀(abyāpajja) 🔼(pharitvā) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    like this | above and below | horizontally | everywhere | to all beings | universe | filled with balance/equanimity | with intent | with expansive | with grand | with infinite | with peaceful | without ill will | having filled | mindful
    Here, friend, a bhikkhu is intent and mindful of filling an entire compass direction with balance/equanimity. Similarly in a second, third, fourth compass directions. Thus he is intent and mindful of filling above and below, horizontally, everywhere, to all beings in the universe, with expansive, grand, infinite, peaceful, without ill will, balance/equanimity.

    38. THE FIRST OF THE NINE LEVELS OF CONCENTRATION

    Poṭṭhapādasutta DN 9 PTS 1.178–1.203 (Digha Nikaya I 182):

    10.1 So vivicceva kāmehi, vivicca akusalehi dhammehi, savitakkaṁ savicāraṁ vivekajaṁ pītisukhaṁ paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(vivicceva) 🚹⑤⨂(kāma) 🔼(vivicca) 🚹⑤⨂(akusala) 🚹⑤⨂(dhamma) 🚹②⨀(savitakka) 🚹②⨀(savicāra) 🚹②⨀(vivekaja) 🚹②⨀(pītisukha) 🚹②⨀(paṭhama) 🚹②⨀(jhāna) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    that | just secluding oneself from | sensual pleasures | detaching from | unskillful | behaviour | accompanied by reflection | with consideration | secluded from defilements | with felicity and satisfaction | first | jhāna | entering | remains in
    Secluding oneself from sensual pleasures, detaching from unskillful behaviour, one enters and remains in the first jhāna, accompanied by reflection and consideration, secluded from defilements, with felicity and satisfaction.

    10.2 Tassa yā purimā kāmasaññā, sā nirujjhati.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(ya) 🚹①⨂(purima) 🚺①⨀(kāmasaññā) 🚺①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(nirujjhati)
    of that | whatever | past | perceptions of sensual pleasure | that | ceases
    Of that, whatever past perceptions of sensual pleasure cease.

    10.3 Vivekajapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā tasmiṁ samaye hoti, vivekajapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññīyeva tasmiṁ samaye hoti.
    🚺①⨀(vivekajapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚺①⨀(vivekajapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññī) 🔼(eva) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion | in that | in occasion | is | with a refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion | only | in that | in occasion | is
    In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion.

    39. THE SECOND LEVEL OF CONCENTRATION

    Poṭṭhapādasutta DN 9 PTS 1.178–1.203 (Digha Nikaya I 182):

    11.1 “Puna caparaṁ, poṭṭhapāda, bhikkhu vitakkavicārānaṁ vūpasamā ajjhattaṁ sampasādanaṁ cetaso ekodibhāvaṁ avitakkaṁ avicāraṁ samādhijaṁ pītisukhaṁ dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(vitakkavicārā) 🚹①⨂(vūpasama) 🚻①⨀(ajjhatta) 🚻①⨀(sampasādana) 🚹⑥⨀(cetas) 🚹②⨀(ekodibhāva) 🚻①⨀(avitakka) 🚻①⨀(avicāra) 🚻①⨀(samādhija) 🚹②⨀(pītisukha) 🚹②⨀(dutiya) 🚹②⨀(jhāna) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    again | and what is more | Poṭṭhapāda | bhikkhu | thinking and investigating | subsiding of | inner | calming | of intention | focused | free from thought | free from discursive thought | born from stable mind | with felicity and satisfaction | first | jhāna | entering | remains in
    And furthermore, Poṭṭhapāda, a bhikkhu, with the conclusion of reflection and consideration, enters and remains in the second jhāna, accompanied by an inner calming of intention, focused and free of thought or inner dialogue, born from stable mind, with felicity and satisfaction.

    11.2 Tassa yā purimā vivekajapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā, sā nirujjhati.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(ya) 🚹①⨂(purima) 🚺①⨀(vivekajapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚺①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(nirujjhati)
    of that | whatever | past | refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion | that | ceases
    Of that, whatever past refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion cease.

    11.3 Samādhijapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā tasmiṁ samaye hoti, samādhijapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññīyeva tasmiṁ samaye hoti.
    🚺①⨀(samādhijapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚺①⨀(samādhijapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññī) 🔼(eva) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    refined and true perception of the delight and ease born from mental composure | in that | in occasion | is | refined and true perception of the delight and ease born from mental composure | only | in that | in occasion | is
    In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure.

    40. THE THIRD LEVEL OF CONCENTRATION

    Poṭṭhapādasutta DN 9 PTS 1.178–1.203 (Digha Nikaya I 183):

    12.1 “Puna caparaṁ, poṭṭhapāda, bhikkhu pītiyā ca virāgā upekkhako ca viharati sato ca sampajāno, sukhañca kāyena paṭisaṁvedeti, yaṁ taṁ ariyā ācikkhanti: ‘upekkhako satimā sukhavihārī’ti, tatiyaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚺③⨀(pīti) 🔼(ca) 🚹③⨀(virāga) 🚹①⨀(upekkhaka) 🔼(ca) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚹⑤⨀(sa) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨀(sampajāna) 🚻①⨀(sukha) 🚹③⨀(kāya) ▶️🤟⨀(paṭisaṃvedeti) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(ariya) ▶️🤟⨂(ācikkhati) : 🚹①⨀(upekkhaka) 🚹①⨀(satimant) 🚻①⨀(sukhavihārī) 🔼(ti) 🚻①⨀(tatiya) 🚹②⨀(jhāna) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    again | and what is more | Poṭṭhapāda | bhikkhu | with felicity | and | with detachment | mentally balanced, equanimous | and | continues in | being present | and | purposeful/fully aware | pleasant | and | with body | experiences | whatever | those | pure | describes : mentally balanced, equanimous | attentive | living at ease | quote | third | jhāna | entering | remains in
    And furthermore, Poṭṭhapāda, a bhikkhu, with the detachment from felicity, enters and remains in the third jhāna, remains mentally balanced, is fully aware and being present, experiences body comfort, as the pure ones describe: “equanimous, attentive, living at ease.”

    12.2 Tassa yā purimā samādhijapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā, sā nirujjhati.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(ya) 🚹①⨂(purima) 🚺①⨀(samādhijapītisukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚺①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(nirujjhati)
    of that | whatever | past | refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure | that | ceases
    Of that, whatever past refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure cease.

    12.3 Upekkhāsukhasukhumasaccasaññā tasmiṁ samaye hoti, upekkhāsukhasukhumasaccasaññīyeva tasmiṁ samaye hoti.
    🚺①⨀(upekkhāsukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚺①⨀(upekkhāsukhasukhumasaccasaññī) 🔼(eva) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    refined and true perception of equanimity | in that | in occasion | is | refined and true perception of equanimity | only | in that | in occasion | is
    In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of equanimity, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of equanimity.

    41. THE FOURTH LEVEL OF CONCENTRATION

    Poṭṭhapādasutta DN 9 PTS 1.178–1.203 (Digha Nikaya I 183):

    13.1 “Puna caparaṁ, poṭṭhapāda, bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṁ atthaṅgamā adukkhamasukhaṁ upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṁ catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹⑥⨀(sukha) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨂(pahāna) 🚹⑥⨀(dukkha) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨂(pahāna) 🔼(pubbeva) 🚻⑥⨂(somanassadomanassa) 🚹①⨂(atthaṅgama) 🚻①⨀(adukkhamasukha) 🚹①⨀(upekkhāsatipārisuddhi) 🚻①⨀(catuttha) 🚹②⨀(jhāna) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    again | and what is more | Poṭṭhapāda | bhikkhu | of pleasant | and | giving up of | unpleasant | and giving up of | just before | of (mental) pleasure and displeasure; satisfaction and dissatisfaction | disappearance of | neutral | which possesses purification of awareness by equanimity | fourth | jhāna | entering | remains in
    And furthermore, Poṭṭhapāda, a bhikkhu, just before the giving up of the pleasant and the unpleasant and the disappearance of mental pleasure and displeasure, satisfaction and dissatisfaction, enters and remains in the fourth jhāna, in a neutral state, and possessing purification of awareness by equanimity.

    13.2 Tassa yā purimā upekkhāsukhasukhumasaccasaññā, sā nirujjhati.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(ya) 🚹①⨂(purima) 🚺①⨀(upekkhāsukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚺①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(nirujjhati)
    of that | whatever | past | refined and true perception of equanimity | that | ceases
    Of that, whatever past refined and true perception of equanimity cease.

    13.3 Adukkhamasukhasukhumasaccasaññā tasmiṁ samaye hoti, adukkhamasukhasukhumasaccasaññīyeva tasmiṁ samaye hoti.
    🚺①⨀(adukkhamasukhasukhumasaccasaññā) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚺①⨀(adukkhamasukhasukhumasaccasaññī) 🔼(eva) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    refined and true perception of neither unpleasant nor pleasant sensation | in that | in occasion | is | refined and true perception of neither unpleasant nor pleasant sensation | only | in that | in occasion | is
    In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of neither unpleasant nor pleasant sensation, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of neither unpleasant nor pleasant sensation.

    42. THE FIFTH, SIXTH AND SEVENTH LEVELS OF CONCENTRATION

    Poṭṭhapādasutta DN 9 PTS 1.178–1.203 (Digha Nikaya I 183):

    14.1 “Puna caparaṁ, poṭṭhapāda, bhikkhu sabbaso rūpasaññānaṁ samatikkamā paṭighasaññānaṁ atthaṅgamā nānattasaññānaṁ amanasikārā ‘ananto ākāso’ti ākāsānañcāyatanaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🔼(sabbaso) 🚺①⨀(rūpasaññā) 🚹①⨂(samatikkama) 🚺⑥⨂(paṭighasaññā) 🚹①⨂(atthaṅgama) 🚺①⨀(nānattasaññā) 🚹①⨂(amanasikāra) 🚹①⨀(ananta) 🚹①⨀(ākāsa) 🔼(ti) 🚻①⨀(ākāsānañcāyatana) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    again | and what is more | Poṭṭhapāda | bhikkhu | altogether | perception of form | going beyond | of recognition of sense impression | disappearance of | recognition of multiplicity/diversity | ignoring | infinite | space | quote | base of infinity of space | entering | remains in
    And furthermore, Poṭṭhapāda, a bhikkhu, going beyond perception of form altogether, with the disappearance of perception of sense impressions, ignoring the recognition of multiple/diverse things, enters and remains in the base of the infinity of space, ie. “infinite space”.

    15.1 “Puna caparaṁ, poṭṭhapāda, bhikkhu sabbaso ākāsānañcāyatanaṁ samatikkamma ‘anantaṁ viññāṇan’ti viññāṇañcāyatanaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🔼(sabbaso) 🚻①⨀(ākāsānañcāyatana) 🚹①⨂(samatikkama) 🚹①⨀(ananta) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(ti) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇañcāyatana) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    again | and what is more | Poṭṭhapāda | bhikkhu | altogether | base of infinity of space | going beyond | infinite | consciousness | quote | base of infinity consciousness | entering | remains in
    And furthermore, Poṭṭhapāda, a bhikkhu, going beyond the base of infinite space altogether, enters and remains in the base of the infinite consciousness, ie. “infinite consciousness”.

    16.1 “Puna caparaṁ, poṭṭhapāda, bhikkhu sabbaso viññāṇañcāyatanaṁ samatikkamma ‘natthi kiñcī’ti ākiñcaññāyatanaṁ upasampajja viharati.
    🔼(puna) 🔼(caparaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🔼(sabbaso) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇañcāyatana) 🚹①⨂(samatikkama) ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚹②⨀(kaci) 🔼(ti) 🚻①⨀(ākiñcaññāyatana) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    again | and what is more | Poṭṭhapāda | bhikkhu | altogether | base of infinity of space | going beyond | there is not | anything | quote | base of nothingness | entering | remains in
    And furthermore, Poṭṭhapāda, a bhikkhu, going beyond the base of infinite consciousness altogether, enters and remains in the base of nothingness, ie. “there is nothing”.

    43. THE EIGHTH AND NINTH LEVELS OF CONCENTRATION

    Tapussasutta AN 9.41 PTS 4.439–4.448 (Anguttara Nikaya IV 448):

    15.11 So kho ahaṁ, ānanda, aparena samayena (nevasaññānāsaññāyatane ādīnavaṁ disvā taṁ bahulamakāsiṁ, saññāvedayitanirodhe ānisaṁsaṁ adhigamma tamāseviṁ).
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🚹③⨀(apara) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚻②⨂(nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(disvā) 🚻①⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(bahulamakāsi) 🚹②⨂(saññāvedayitanirodha) 🚹②⨀(ānisaṃsa) 🔼(adhigamma) ⏮👆⨀(tamāsevi)
    that | indeed | I | Ānanda | with another | with occasion | base of neither perception nor non-perception | inadequacy of | having seen | that | one | practised often | ending of recognition and feeling | expecting | attaining | applied oneself to that
    Indeed I, Ānanda, at that other time, having seen the inadequacy of the base of neither perception nor non-perception that is practiced oftenm applied myself to expecting and attaining the ending of recognition and feeling.

    15.13 (So kho ahaṁ, ānanda), sabbaso nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaṁ samatikkamma saññāvedayitanirodhaṁ upasampajja viharāmi, paññāya ca me disvā āsavā parikkhayaṁ agamaṁsu.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🔼(sabbaso) 🚻①⨀(nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) 🔼(samatikkamma) 🚹②⨀(saññāvedayitanirodha) 🔼(upasampajja) ▶️👆⨀(viharati) 🚺③⨀(pañña) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(disvā) 🚹⑤⨀(āsava) 🚹②⨀(parikkhaya) ⏮🤟⨂(agamāsi)
    that | indeed | I | Ānanda | altogether | base of neither perception nor non-perception | going beyond | ending of recognition and feeling | entering | I remain in | by knowledge | by me | having seen | from effluent | exhaustion of | arrived at
    Indeed I, Ānanda, going beyond the base of neither perception nor non-perception altogether, enters and remains in the ending of recognition and feeling, having seen by my knowledge, and arrived at the exhaustion of the effluents.

    16.2 Yato ca kho ahaṁ, ānanda, imā nava anupubbavihārasamāpattiyo evaṁ anulomapaṭilomaṁ samāpajjimpi vuṭṭhahimpi, athāhaṁ, ānanda, sadevake loke samārake sabrahmake sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya ‘anuttaraṁ sammāsambodhiṁ abhisambuddho’ti paccaññāsiṁ.
    🚹⑤⨀(ya) 🔼(ca kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🚺①⨂(ima) ⚧①⨂(nava) 🚺①⨂(anupubbavihārasamāpatti) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(anulomapaṭilomaṃ) ⏮👆⨀(samāpajji) 🔼(pi) ⏮👆⨀(vuṭṭhahi) 🔼(pi) 🔼(athāhaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 🚹⑦⨀(sadevaka) 🚹⑦⨀(loka) 🚹⑦⨀(samāraka) 🚹⑦⨀(sabrahmaka) 🚺⑦⨀(sassamaṇabrāhmaṇa) 🚺⑦⨀(pajā) 🚺⑦⨀(sadevamanussa) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚺①⨀(sammāsambodhi) 🚹①⨀(abhisambuddha) 🔼(ti) ⏮👆⨀(paccaññāsi)
    from whatever | and | indeed | I | Ānanda | these | nine | attainment of the successive stages in meditation | thus | forwards and backwards | entered | too | emerged from | too | then I | Ānanda | in with deities | in universe | with Māra | with Brahmas | with religious practitioners | with people | with kings and commoners | highest | perfect awakening | perfect enligtenment | quote | I claimed
    And from whatever indeed, Ānanda, I entered and emerged from these nine attainments of the successive stages in meditation forwards and backwards, then I claimed to the deities in the world, Māra, Brahmas, religious practitioners, general population, kings and commoners: “This is the highest, perfect awakening, and perfect enligtenment!”

    16.3 Ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṁ udapādi:
    🚻①⨀(ñāṇa) 🔼(ca pana) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)🚻①⨀(dassana) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi)
    Having insight | and | moreover | for me realisation | arose
    Having insight, the realisation arose for me:

    16.4 ‘akuppā me cetovimutti, ayamantimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo’”ti.
    🚹①⨂(akuppa) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)🚺①⨀(cetovimutti) 🔼(ayamantimā) 🚺①⨀(jāti) ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🔼(dāni) 🚹①⨀(punabbhava) 🔼(ti)
    Unshakeable | of me | mental liberation | this is the final | birth | there is no | now | rebirth | quote
    “Unshakeable is the mental liberation of me, this is the final birth, now there is no rebirth.”

    44. THE STATE OF EMPTINESS

    Piṇḍapātapārisuddhisutta MN 151 PTS 3.294–3.297 (Majjhima Nikaya III 293 f):

    1.3 (Atha kho āyasmā sāriputto sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhito yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkami; upasaṅkamitvā bhagavantaṁ abhivādetvā ekamantaṁ nisīdi.) Ekamantaṁ nisinnaṁ kho āyasmantaṁ sāriputtaṁ bhagavā etadavoca:
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(āyasmant) 🚹①⨀(sāriputta) 🚹②⨀(sāyanhasamaya) 🚻⑤⨀(paṭisallāna) 🚹①⨀(vuṭṭhita) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨂(bhagavant) ⏮🤟⨀(tenupasaṅkami) 🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🔼(abhivādetvā) 🔼(ekamantaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(nisīdi)
    after that | Venerable | Sāriputta | in the late afternoon | from seclusion | come out of | by where | Bhagavant | by there approached | having approached | Bhagavant | having bowed down to | to one side | sat down
    🔼(ekamantaṃ) 🚻①⨀(nisinna) 🔼(kho) 🚹②⨀(āyasmant) 🚹②⨀(sāriputta) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(etadavoca)
    to one side | sitting | indeed | Venerable | Sāriputta | Bhagavant | said this :
    (After that, Venerable Sāriputta came out of seclusion in the late afternoon and approached the Bhagavant. Having approached, he bowed to the Bhagavant and sat down to one side.) The Bhagavant said this to Venerable Sāriputta sitting on one side:

    2.1 “Vippasannāni kho te, sāriputta, indriyāni, parisuddho chavivaṇṇo pariyodāto.
    🚻①⨂(vippasanna) 🔼(kho) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(sāriputta) 🚻①⨂(indriya) 🚹①⨀(parisuddha) 🚹①⨀(chavivaṇṇa) 🚹①⨀(pariyodāta)
    tranquil | indeed | you | Sāriputta | appearance | pure | complexion | bright
    “You are tranquil indeed, Sāriputta, and your appearance is pure and complexion bright.”

    2.2 Katamena kho tvaṁ, sāriputta, vihārena etarahi bahulaṁ viharasī”ti?
    🚹③⨀(katama) 🔼(kho) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(sāriputta) 🚹③⨀(vi hāra) 🔼(etarahi) 🚻①⨀(bahula) ▶️🤘⨀(viharati) 🔼(ti) with what | indeed | you | Sāriputta | with way of spending time | now | often | dwells in | quote
    “How have you been spending time lately, Sāriputta?”

    2.3 “Suññatāvihārena kho ahaṁ, bhante, etarahi bahulaṁ viharāmī”ti.
    🚹③⨀(suññatāvihāra) 🔼(kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(etarahi) 🚻①⨀(bahula) ▶️👆⨀(viharati)) 🔼(ti)
    with contemplation on emptiness | indeed | I | Bhante | now | often | dwells in | quote
    “Lately, I often dwell on emptiness, Bhante.”

    2.4 “Sādhu sādhu, sāriputta. 🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🚹①⨀(sādhu) 🚹⓪⨀(sāriputta) Excellent | Sāriputta “Excellent, Sāriputta.”

    2.5 Mahāpurisavihārena kira tvaṁ, sāriputta, etarahi bahulaṁ viharasi. 🚹③⨀(mahāpurisavihāra) 🔼(kira) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(sāriputta) 🔼(etarahi) 🚻①⨀(bahula) ▶️🤘⨀(viharati) with internal dwelling of an illustrious being | truly | you | Sāriputta | now | often | dwells in | quote “Truly, Sāriputta, lately you often dwell in the internal dwelling of an illustrious being.”

    2.6 Mahāpurisavihāro eso, sāriputta, yadidaṁ— 🚹①⨀(mahāpurisavihāra) 🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨀(sāriputta) 🔼(yadidaṃ) internal dwelling of an illustrious being | this | Sāriputta | that is Sāriputta, this is the internal dwelling of an illustrious being:

    2.7 suññatā. 🚹①⨂(suññata) emptiness “That is the internal dwelling of an illustrious being, Sāriputta, this emptiness.”

    45. HOW TO MEET PERSECUTION AND DEATH

    Mahāhatthipadopamasutta MN 28 PTS 1.185–1.191 (Majjhima Nikaya I 186):

    9.1 Tañce, āvuso, bhikkhuṁ pare aniṭṭhehi akantehi amanāpehi samudācaranti—
    🔼(tañce) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹②⨀(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(para) 🚹③⨂(aniṭṭha) 🚹③⨂(akanta) 🚹③⨂(amanāpa) ▶️🤟⨂(samudācarati)
    if that | friend | bhikkhu | others | with unpleasant | disagreeable | dislikeable | behave
    Friend, if others behave with unpleasantness, disagreeableness, dislikeableness to that bhikkhu -

    9.2 pāṇisamphassenapi leḍḍusamphassenapi daṇḍasamphassenapi satthasamphassenapi.
    🚹③⨀(pāṇisamphassa) 🔼(api) 🚹③⨀(leḍḍusamphassa) 🔼(api) 🚹③⨀(daṇḍasamphassa) 🔼(api) 🚹③⨀(satthasamphassa) 🔼(api)
    with slap | even | with throwing stones | even | with beating with a stick | even | with stabbing with a weapon | even
    even hitting him with hands, stones, sticks, weapons.

    9.3 So evaṁ pajānāti:
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(evaṃ) ▶️🤟⨀(pajānāti)
    he | thus | knows:
    Thus he knows:

    9.4 ‘tathābhūto kho ayaṁ kāyo yathābhūtasmiṁ kāye pāṇisamphassāpi kamanti, leḍḍusamphassāpi kamanti, daṇḍasamphassāpi kamanti, satthasamphassāpi kamanti.
    🚹①⨀(tathābhūta) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(kāya) 🚹⑦⨀(yathābhūta) 🚹⑦⨀(kāya) 🚹②⨀(pāṇisamphassa) 🔼(api) ▶️🤟⨂(kamati) 🚹②⨀(leḍḍusamphassa) 🔼(api) ▶️🤟⨂(kamati) 🚹②⨀(daṇḍasamphassa) 🔼(api) ▶️🤟⨂(kamati) 🚹②⨀(satthasamphassa)
    of such nature | indeed | this | body | in reality | in body | slap | even | occurs | throwing stones | even | occurs | beating with a stick | even | occurs | stabbing with a weapon | even | occurs
    This body is of such nature that it is possible to physically hit it with hands, stones, sticks, weapons.

    9.5 Vuttaṁ kho panetaṁ bhagavatā kakacūpamovāde:
    🚻①⨀(vutta) 🔼(kho) 🔼(panetaṃ) 🚹③⨀(bhagavant)🚹⑦⨀(kakacūpamovāda)
    said | indeed | but this | by Bhagavant | exhortation with the simile of the saw
    But this is indeed said by the Bhagavant in the exhortation with the simile of the saw:

    9.6 “ubhatodaṇḍakena cepi, bhikkhave, kakacena corā ocarakā aṅgamaṅgāni okanteyyuṁ, tatrāpi yo mano padūseyya na me so tena sāsanakaro”ti.
    🚹③⨀(ubhatodaṇḍaka) 🔼(cepi) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹③⨀(kakaca) 🚹①⨂(cora) 🚹①⨂(ocaraka) 🚻②⨂(aṅgamaṅgāni) ⏯🤟⨂(okantati) 🔼(tatrāpi) 🚹①⨀(ya) 🚹②⨀(manas) ⏯🤟⨀(padūseti) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(sāsanakara) 🔼(ti)
    with double-handled | even if | Bhikkhave | with saw | robbers | lowlife | all the limbs | cut off | even in that situation | whoever | mind | will corrupt | no | of me | that | by that | practising the teaching | quote
    “Bhikkhave, even if lowlife robbers cut off all the limbs with a doubled handled saw, even in that case whoever will corrupt his mind is not practising the teaching of mine.”

    9.7 Āraddhaṁ kho pana me vīriyaṁ bhavissati asallīnaṁ, upaṭṭhitā sati asammuṭṭhā, passaddho kāyo asāraddho, samāhitaṁ cittaṁ ekaggaṁ.
    🚻①⨀(āraddha) 🔼(kho pana) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(vīriya) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🚻①⨀(asallīna) 🚹①⨂(upaṭṭhita) 🚺①⨀(sati) 🚹①⨂(asammuṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(passaddha) 🚹①⨀(kāya) 🚹①⨀(asāraddha) 🚻①⨀(samāhita) 🚻①⨀(citta) 🚻①⨀(ekagga)
    applied | and now | with me | determination | will become | active | presence | awareness | unmuddled | tranquility | body | unagitated | composed | mind | focused
    And now applied with me there will be active determination, presence and awareness, unmuddled, tranquility, unagitated body, composed and focused mind.

    9.8 Kāmaṁ dāni imasmiṁ kāye pāṇisamphassāpi kamantu, leḍḍusamphassāpi kamantu, daṇḍasamphassāpi kamantu, satthasamphassāpi kamantu, karīyati hidaṁ buddhānaṁ sāsanan’ti.
    🚻①⨀(kāma) 🔼(dāni) 🚹⑦⨀(ima) 🚹⑦⨀(kāya) 🚹②⨀(pāṇisamphassa) 🔼(api) ⏹🤟⨂(kamati) 🚹②⨀(leḍḍusamphassa) 🔼(api) ▶️🤟⨂(kamati) 🚹②⨀(daṇḍasamphassa) 🔼(api) ▶️🤟⨂(kamati) 🚹②⨀(satthasamphassa) ▶️🤟⨀(karīyati) 🔼(hidaṃ) 🚹⑥⨂(buddha) 🚻①⨀(sāsana) 🔼(ti)
    certainly | now | in this | in body | slap | even | must occur | throwing stones | even | must occur | beating with a stick | even | must occur | stabbing with a weapon | even | must occur | is practised | surely in this case | of Buddha | teaching | quote
    “And now certainly, even when hit by hands, stones, sticks, weapons in the body, surely in this case the teaching of the Buddha is practised.”

    45. A NUN TELLS HER STORY

    Sīhātherīgāthā Thig 5.3 PTS 132 Verse 77–81 (Therigatha, verses 78-81):

    2.1 Pariyuṭṭhitā klesehi,
    🚹①⨂(pariyuṭṭhita) 🚹③⨂(klesa)
    consumed by | defilements
    2.2 subhasaññānuvattinī;
    🚺①⨀(subhasaññānuvattī)
    pursuing beautiful perceptions
    2.3 Samaṁ cittassa na labhiṁ,
    🚻①⨀(sama) 🚻⑥⨀(citta) 🔼(na) ⏮🤟⨀(labhi)
    balance | of mind/heart | no | obtained
    Didn’t obtain balance of mind/heart
    2.4 rāgacittavasānugā.
    🚹①⨂(rāgacittavasānuga)
    slave of the impassioned heart
    3.1 Kisā paṇḍu vivaṇṇā ca,
    🚹①⨂(kisa) 🚹①⨀(paṇḍu) 🚹①⨂(vivaṇṇa) 🔼(ca)
    thin | pale | sickly | and
    3.2 satta vassāni cārihaṁ;
    ⚧①⨂(satta) 🚻①⨂(vassa) 🚻①⨀(cārī) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ)
    seven | years | wandered | I
    3.3 Nāhaṁ divā vā rattiṁ vā,
    🔼(nāhaṃ) 🚹③⨀(diva) 🔼(vā) 🔼(rattiṃ) 🔼(vā)
    not I | by day | or | by night | or
    3.4 sukhaṁ vindiṁ sudukkhitā.
    🚻①⨀(sukha) ⏮🤟⨀(vindi) 🚹①⨂(sudukkhita)
    pleasant | experienced | suffering miserably

    4.1 Tato rajjuṁ gahetvāna,
    🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🚺②⨀(rajju) 🔼(gahetvāna)
    from that | rope | having taken
    4.2 pāvisiṁ vanamantaraṁ;
    ⏮🤟⨀(pāvisi) 🚻①⨀(vanamantara)
    entered | inner forest
    4.3 Varaṁ me idha ubbandhaṁ,
    🚹②⨀(vara) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(idha) 🚹②⨀(ubbandha)
    wish | of me | now | suicide
    4.4 yañca hīnaṁ punācare.
    🔼(yañca) 🚻①⨀(hīna) ⏯🤟⨀(punācarati)
    but whatever | deficiencies | will repeat again
    5.1 Daḷhapāsaṁ karitvāna,
    🚹②⨀(daḷhapāsa) 🔼(karitvāna)
    strong noose | having made
    5.2 rukkhasākhāya bandhiya;
    🚺⑦⨀(rukkhasākhā) 🔼(bandhiya)
    at branch of tree | having tied
    5.3 Pakkhipiṁ pāsaṁ gīvāyaṁ,
    ⏮🤟⨀(pakkhipi) 🚹②⨀(pāsa) 🚺⑦⨀(gīvā)
    placed | noose | on neck
    5.4 atha cittaṁ vimucci me”ti.
    🔼(atha) 🚻①⨀(citta) ⏮🤟⨀(vimucci) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(ti)
    then | mind | was liberated | of me | quote

    Consumed by defilements,
    Pursuing beautiful perceptions;
    Did not obtain balance of mind,
    Slave of the impassioned heart.

    Thin, pale, sickly,
    Seven years I wandered;
    By day or night I did not,
    Experience comfort, suffering miserably.

    From that, having taken a rope,
    Entered into the inner forest;
    My wish is now suicide,
    But whatever deficiences will repeat again.

    Having made a strong noose,
    Having tied to a branch of a tree;
    Placed noose on neck,
    Then my mind was liberated.

    46. THE BUDDHA RELATES HOW HE ATTAINED NIRVANA

    Pāsarāsisutta MN 26 PTS 1.161–1.175 (Majjhima Nikaya I 167):

    18.1 (So kho ahaṁ, bhikkhave, attanā jātidhammo samāno jātidhamme ādīnavaṁ viditvā ajātaṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ pariyesamāno ajātaṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ ajjhagamaṁ, attanā jarādhammo samāno jarādhamme ādīnavaṁ viditvā ajaraṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ pariyesamāno ajaraṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ ajjhagamaṁ, attanā byādhidhammo samāno byādhidhamme ādīnavaṁ viditvā abyādhiṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ pariyesamāno abyādhiṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ ajjhagamaṁ, attanā maraṇadhammo samāno maraṇadhamme ādīnavaṁ viditvā amataṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ ajjhagamaṁ, attanā sokadhammo samāno sokadhamme ādīnavaṁ viditvā asokaṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ ajjhagamaṁ), attanā saṅkilesadhammo samāno saṅkilesadhamme ādīnavaṁ viditvā asaṅkiliṭṭhaṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ pariyesamāno asaṅkiliṭṭhaṁ anuttaraṁ yogakkhemaṁ nibbānaṁ ajjhagamaṁ.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹⑤⨀(atta) 🚹①⨀(jātidhamma) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹⑦⨀(jātidhamma) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(viditvā) 🚻①⨀(ajāta) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) 🚹①⨀(pariyesamāna) 🚻①⨀(ajāta) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) ↩️👆⨀(ajjhagamā) 🚹⑤⨀(atta) 🚹①⨀(jarādhamma) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹⑦⨀(jarādhamma) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(viditvā) 🚻①⨀(ajaras) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) 🚹①⨀(pariyesamāna) 🚻①⨀(ajaras) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) ↩️👆⨀(ajjhagamā) 🚹⑤⨀(atta) 🚹①⨀(byādhidhamma) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹⑦⨀(byādhidhamma) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(viditvā) 🚹①⨀(abyādhi) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) 🚹①⨀(pariyesamāna) 🚹①⨀(abyādhi) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) ↩️👆⨀(ajjhagamā) 🚹⑤⨀(atta) 🚹①⨀(maraṇadhamma) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹⑦⨀(maraṇadhamma) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(viditvā) 🚻①⨀(amata) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) 🚹①⨀(pariyesamāna) 🚻①⨀(amata) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) ↩️👆⨀(ajjhagamā) 🚹⑤⨀(atta) 🚹①⨀(sokadhamma) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹⑦⨀(sokadhamma) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(viditvā) 🚻①⨀(asoka) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) 🚹①⨀(pariyesamāna) 🚻①⨀(asoka) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) ↩️👆⨀(ajjhagamā) 🚹⑤⨀(atta) 🚹①⨀(saṅkilesadhamma) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚹⑦⨀(saṅkilesadhamma) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(viditvā) 🚻①⨀(asaṅkiliṭṭha) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) 🚹①⨀(pariyesamāna) 🚻①⨀(asaṅkiliṭṭha) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚹②⨀(yogakkhema) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna) ↩️👆⨀(ajjhagamā)
    that | indeed | I | Bhikkhave | from self | liable to birth | being | in liable to birth | unsatisfactoriness | having perceived | unborn | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | searching for | unborn | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | achieved | from self | liable to old age | being | in liable to old age | unsatisfactoriness | having perceived | not aging | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | searching for | not aging | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | achieved | from self | liable to get sick | being | in liable to get sick | unsatisfactoriness | having perceived | healthy | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | searching for | healthy | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | achieved | from self | liable to death | being | in liable to death | unsatisfactoriness | having perceived | non death | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | searching for | non death | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | achieved | from self | liable to sorrow | being | in liable to sorrow | unsatisfactoriness | having perceived | non sorrow | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | searching for | non sorrow | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | achieved | from self | liable to defilement | being | in liable to defilement | unsatisfactoriness | having perceived | undefiled | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | searching for | undefiled | unsurpassed | sanctuary | extinguishing | achieved
    (That indeed, Bhikkhave, from my own doing I was liable to birth, and having perceived the unsatisfactoriness of being liable to birth, searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of extinguishment from being born, achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of extinguishment from being born. From my own doing I was liable to old age, and having perceived the unsatisfactoriness of being liable to old age, searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of non-aging through extinguishment, achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of non-aging through extinguishment. From my own doing I was liable to sickness, and having perceived the unsatisfactoriness of being liable to sickness, searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of health through extinguishment, achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of health through extinguishment. From my own doing I was liable to death, and having perceived the unsatisfactoriness of being liable to death, searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of non-death through extinguishment, achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of non-death through extinguishment. From my own doing I was liable to sorrow, and having perceived the unsatisfactoriness of being liable to sorrow, searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of non-sorrow through extinguishment, achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of non-sorrow through extinguishment.) From my own doing I was liable to defilement, and having perceived the unsatisfactoriness of being liable to defilement, searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of undefilement through extinguishment, achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of undefilement through extinguishment.

    18.2 Ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṁ udapādi:
    🚻①⨀(ñāṇa) 🔼(ca pana) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)🚻①⨀(dassana) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi)
    Having insight | and | moreover | for me realisation | arose
    Having insight, the realisation arose for me:

    18.3 ‘akuppā me vimutti, ayamantimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo’ti.
    🚹①⨂(akuppa) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ)🚺①⨀(cetovimutti) 🔼(ayamantimā) 🚺①⨀(jāti) ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🔼(dāni) 🚹①⨀(punabbhava) 🔼(ti)
    Unshakeable | of me | mental liberation | this is the final | birth | there is no | now | rebirth | quote
    “Unshakeable is the mental liberation of me, this is the final birth, now there is no rebirth.”

    47. NIRVANA

    Rakkhitattheragāthā Thag 1.79 Verse 79 (Theragatha, verse 79):

    1.1 “Sabbo rāgo pahīno me,
    🚹①⨀(sabba) 🚹①⨀(rāga) 🚹①⨀(pahīna) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ)
    all | passion | abandoned | by me
    1.2 sabbo doso samūhato;
    🚹①⨀(sabba) 🚹①⨀(dosa) 🚹⑤⨀(samūha)
    all | ill will | from the masses
    1.3 Sabbo me vigato moho,
    🚹①⨀(sabba) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(vigata) 🚹①⨀(moha)
    all | by me | gone | delusion
    1.4 sītibhūtosmi nibbuto”ti.
    🚹①⨀(sītibhūta) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🚹①⨀(nibbuta) 🔼(ti)
    liberated | I am | quenched | quote

    All passions abandoned by me,
    All ill will from the masses (of fuel);
    All delusions of me gone,
    I am liberated and quenched.

    48. HAPPINESS

    Bākulattheragāthā Thag 3.3 Verse 225–227 (Theragatha, verse 227):

    3.1 Susukhaṁ vata nibbānaṁ,
    🚻①⨀(susukha) 🔼(vata) 🚻①⨀(nibbāna)
    very satisfying | certainly| Nibbāna
    3.2 sammāsambuddhadesitaṁ;
    🚻①⨀(sammāsambuddhadesita)
    taught by the perfectly awakened one
    3.3 Asokaṁ virajaṁ khemaṁ,
    🚻①⨀(asoka) 🚻①⨀(viraja) 🚻①⨀(khema)
    free from sorrow | pure | sanctuary
    3.4 yattha dukkhaṁ nirujjhatī”ti.
    🔼(yattha) 🚻①⨀(dukkha) ▶️🤟⨀(nirujjhati)
    whenever | suffering | ceases | quote

    Certainly Nibbāna is very satisfying,
    Taught by the perfectly awakened one;
    Free from sorrow, a pure sanctuary,
    Whenever dukkha ceases.

    49. NIRVANA IS WITHIN REACH

    Adhimuttattheragāthā Thag 16.1 PTS 71–72 Verse 705–725 (Therigatha, verses 511-513):

    64.1 Ajaramhi vijjamāne,
    🚹⑦⨀(ajaras) 🚹⑦⨀(vijjamāna)
    in not aging | in existing/possible
    64.2 Kiṁ tava kāmehi yesu jarā;🚻①⨀(ka) 🤘④⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⑤⨂(kāma) 🚹⑦⨂(ya) 🚹③⨀(jara)
    why | for you | from sensual pleasure | in whatever | with old age
    64.3 Maraṇabyādhigahitā,
    🚹①⨂(maraṇabyādhigahita)seized by death and illness
    64.4 Sabbā sabbattha jātiyo.
    🚹①⨀(sabba) 🔼(sabbattha) 🚺①⨂(jāti)
    all | everywhere | classes of beings
    65.1 Idamajaramidamamaraṁ,
    🚻①⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(ajaras) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(amara)
    this | not aging | this | not subject to death
    65.2 Idamajarāmaraṁ padamasokaṁ;
    🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(ajarāmara) 🚻①⨀(pada) 🚻①⨀(asoka)
    this | free from old age and death | way | free from sorrow
    65.3 Asapattamasambādhaṁ,
    🚻①⨀(asapatta) 🚻①⨀(asambādha)
    peaceful | unobstructed
    65.4 Akhalitamabhayaṁ nirupatāpaṁ.
    🚻①⨀(akhalita) 🚻①⨀(abhaya)
    free from stumbling | free from fear
    66.1 Adhigatamidaṁ bahūhi,
    🚻①⨀(adhigata) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚹③⨂(bahu)
    achieved | this | by many
    66.2 Amataṁ ajjāpi ca labhanīyamidaṁ;
    🚻①⨀(amata) 🔼(ajja api ca) 🚻①⨀(labhanīya) 🚻①⨀(ima)
    free from death | now | surely | and | obtainable | this
    66.3 Yo yoniso payuñjati,
    🚹①⨀(ya) 🔼(yoniso) ▶️🤟⨀(payuñjati)
    whoever | properly | applies
    66.4 Na ca sakkā aghaṭamānena”
    🔼(na ca) 🚹①⨂(sakka) 🚹③⨀(aghaṭamāna)
    no | and | able | not striving

    In possibility of non-aging,
    What good in whatever from aging sensual pleasures for you?
    Seized by death and illness,
    All classes of beings wherever.

    This is not aging, not subject to death,
    This is free from old age and death, and sorrow;
    Peaceful and unobstructed,
    Free from stumbling and fear.

    This is achieved by many,
    Obtainable now this freedom from death;
    Whoever applies properly,
    Not able without striving.

    50. THE UNBORN

    Tatiyanibbānapaṭisaṁyuttasutta Ud 8.3 PTS 81 (Udana, p 80):

    3.1 “Atthi, bhikkhave, ajātaṁ abhūtaṁ akataṁ asaṅkhataṁ.
    ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(ajāta) 🚻①⨀(abhūta) 🚻①⨀(akata) 🚻①⨀(asaṅkhata)
    there exists | Bhikkhave | not born | not become | not made | not formed
    “There exists, Bhikkhave, that which is not born, not become, not made, not formed.”

    3.2 No cetaṁ, bhikkhave, abhavissa ajātaṁ abhūtaṁ akataṁ asaṅkhataṁ, nayidha jātassa bhūtassa katassa saṅkhatassa nissaraṇaṁ paññāyetha.
    🔼(no) 🔼(cetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🔀🤟⨀(abhavissa) 🚻①⨀(ajāta) 🚻①⨀(abhūta) 🚻①⨀(akata) 🚻①⨀(asaṅkhata) 🔼(nayidha) 🚹⑥⨀(jāta) 🚹⑥⨀(bhūta) 🚹⑥⨀(kata) 🚹⑥⨀(saṅkhata) 🚻①⨀(nissaraṇa) 🔵⏯🤟⨀(paññāyati)
    surely? | if this | Bhikkhave | could have been | not born | not become | not made | not formed | wouldn’t be here | of born | of becoming | of made | of formed | way out of | will be clearly known
    “Surely if this could have been, Bhikkhave, wouldn’t there be a way out of being born, becoming, made, formed be clearly known?”

    3.3 Yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, atthi ajātaṁ abhūtaṁ akataṁ asaṅkhataṁ, tasmā jātassa bhūtassa katassa saṅkhatassa nissaraṇaṁ paññāyatī”ti.
    🚹⑤⨀(ya) 🔼(ca kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🚻①⨀(ajāta) 🚻①⨀(abhūta) 🚻①⨀(akata) 🚻①⨀(asaṅkhata) 🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(jāta) 🚹⑥⨀(bhūta) 🚹⑥⨀(kata) 🚹⑥⨀(saṅkhata) 🚻①⨀(nissaraṇa) ▶️🤟⨀(paññāyati) 🔼(ti)
    from whatever | and | indeed | Bhikkhave | there exists | not born | not become | not made | not formed | from that | of born | of becoming | of made | of formed | way out of | is clearly known | quote
    “And indeed, Bhikkhave, from that which is not born, not become, not made, not formed, a way out of being born, becoming, made, formed is clearly known.”

    52. NIRVANA AND DEATH

    Upasīvamāṇavapucchā Snp 5.7 PTS 206–207 Verse 1076–1083 (Sutta Nipata, verses 1074, 1076):

    6.1 “Accī yathā vātavegena khittā,
    🚺①⨂(acci) 🔼(yathā) 🚹③⨀(vātavega) 🚹①⨂(khitta)
    flame | is like | gust of wind | blown
    6.3 Atthaṁ paleti na upeti saṅkhaṁ;
    🚻①⨀(attha) ▶️🤟⨀(paleti) 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨀(upeti) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhā)
    essence | runs away | no | approaches | definition
    6.4 Evaṁ munī nāmakāyā vimutto,
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨂(muni) 🚹⑤⨀(nāmakāya) 🚹①⨀(vimutta)
    thus | sage | from name (representation) and body | freed from
    6.5 Atthaṁ paleti na upeti saṅkhaṁ”.
    🚻①⨀(attha) ▶️🤟⨀(paleti) 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨀(upeti) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhā)
    essence | runs away | no | approaches | definition

    8.1 “Atthaṅgatassa na pamāṇamatthi,
    🚹⑥⨀(atthaṅgata) 🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(pamāṇa) ▶️🤟⨀(atthi)
    of disappearance | no | quantification of | there exists
    8.3 Yena naṁ vajjuṁ taṁ tassa natthi;
    🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚺①⨀(vajja) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹④⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(natthi)
    by whatever | that | saying | that | for him | there is no
    8.4 Sabbesu dhammesu samohatesu,
    🚹⑦⨂(sabba) 🚹⑦⨂(dhamma) 🚹⑦⨂(samūhata)
    in every | in characteristic | in eradicating
    8.5 Samūhatā vādapathāpi sabbe”ti.
    🚹①⨂(samūhata) 🚹⑤⨀(vādapatha) 🔼(api) 🚹①⨂(sabba) 🔼(ti)
    Eradicated | from representation | even | all | quote

    Like a flame blown by a gust of wind,
    The essence runs away and approaches eluding definition;
    Thus a sage freed from representation and body,
    The essence runs away and approaches eluding definition.

    There is no quantification of the disappeared,
    By whatever that is said, that is not for him;
    In eradicating every characteristic,
    All eradicated from even representation.

    CONCLUDING SUMMARY

    This is a restatement of the above extracts from the words of the Buddha, with minor rearrangement, edits and clarifications to make the text flow better, and eliminating vocatives and repetition.

    If you know and understand the Buddha’s teachings, you will not need to rely on the authority of teachers, repeat what they say, dependent on teachers, or engage in customs and rituals. Instead, your knowledge and understanding is known by yourself, seen by yourself, experienced by yourself, and the teaching of the Buddha is verifiable and should be personally experienced by those who are able to do so.

    The Buddha’s teaching can be encapsulated as Four “Pure” Truths:

    1. The pure truth of “dukkha” (suffering)
    2. The pure truth of the source of dukkha
    3. The pure truth of the end of dukkha
    4. The pure truth of the path of progress, leading to the end of dukkha

    Dukkha

    Dukkha is an underlying dissatisfaction caused by:

    • birth (and rebirth)
    • old age
    • death
    • grief, wailing, pain, suffering and trouble
    • association with the disliked
    • separation from the loved
    • not getting what one desires

    In summary, the dukkha is analogous to a continuously burning fire fed by the Five Masses of Fuel (“pañcupādānakkhandhā”).

    The Five Masses of Fuel

    These are five processes:

    1. rūpa (form),
    2. vedanā (feelings),
    3. saññā (perceptions),
    4. saṅkhāra (volitional results),
    5. viññāṇa (consciousness),

    These processes result in:

    • suffering,
    • disease,
    • body disfigurements,
    • injury,
    • trouble and misfortune,
    • oppression,
    • inflictions by others,
    • disintegration,
    • emptiness.

    Impermanence

    Life, and everything that is experienced, is impermanent. Time passes, beings die (and are reborn), like water flowing in a stream, ever changing and moving. The impermanence of life is dukkha.

    No permanent “self” or “soul”

    What we regard as a sense of “self” is also impermanent. Our conception of a “being” is nothing more than the collection of the Five Masses of Fuel, there is no “sum” that is greater than the “parts.”

    There is suffering, but no “self” is suffering
    There is action, but no “self” is performing
    There is entinguishment, but no “self” is extinguishing
    There is a path, but no “self” is travelling.

    The source of dukkha.

    Dukkha is caused by craving, leading to rebirth, accompanied by delight and desire, and experienced by one who takes delight here and there; thoroughly enjoying this and that:

    • craving for sensual pleasure,
    • craving for existence,
    • craving for annihilation.

    The end of dukkha

    Dukkha is ended by completely fading away and ending craving, and:

    • giving up
    • relinquishing
    • liberation,
    • non-attachment

    The path of progress leading to the end of dukkha

    Also known as the Pure Path in Eight Parts (“ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo”), consisting of:

    1. sammādiṭṭhi (right view),
    2. sammāsaṅkappa (right intention),
    3. sammāvāca (right speech),
    4. sammākammanta (right conduct),
    5. sammāājīva (right livelihood),
    6. sammāvāyāma (right effort),
    7. sammāsati (right awareness),
    8. sammāsamādhi (right mental composure).

    The basis of the Pure Path is the mind pulling away from the Five Masses of Fuel, which causes the fuel to be spent and the fire to stop burning. Let us examine some of these masses in greater detail.

    vedanā (Feelings)

    There are three types of feelings, either relating to the body or to the mind:

    1. pleasant feelings, with an underlying tendency towards desire
    2. unpleasant feelings, with an underlying tendency towards aversion
    3. neutral feelings, with an underlying tendency towards ignorance

    These underlying tendencies - desire, aversion, ignorance - should be given up.

    sañña (Perceptions)

    There are six types of perceptions:

    1. perception of form,
    2. perception of sound,
    3. perception of smells,
    4. perception of taste,
    5. perception of touch,
    6. perception of mental characteristics.

    Sañña is the process of recognising “recognition.” And what is “recognition”? It is the ability to classify representations, for example colour (“blue”, “yellow”, “red”, “white”, etc.)

    saṅkhārā (Volitional Thought Processes)

    There are three types of volitional thought processes:

    1. bodily thought process (intention which result in bodily action),
      eg. breathing in and out
    2. verbal thought process (intention which result in verbal action),
      eg. inner dialogue
    3. mental thought process (intention which result in thought formation).
      eg. sañña (perceptions) and vedanā (feelings)

    There are six classes of volitional thoughts (intentions):

    1. thoughts about forms,
    2. thoughts about sounds,
    3. thoughts about smells,
    4. thoughts about tastes,
    5. thoughts about contacts,
    6. thoughts about mental characteristics.

    viññāṇa (Consciousness)

    The following prerequisites or dependencies cause consciousness to arise, and be categorised:

    • eye (faculty of seeing)
      dependency of forms
      categorised as “visual-consciousness”
    • ear (faculty of hearing)
      dependency of sounds
      categorised as “auditory-consciousness”
    • nose (faculty of smelling)
      dependency of smells
      categorised as “olfactory-consciousness”
    • tongue (faculty of tasting)
      dependency of taste
      categorised as “gustatory-consciousness”
    • body (faculty of touch)
      dependency of physical sensations
      categorised as “tactile-consciousness”
    • mind (faculty of tought)
      dependency of mental states
      categorised as “mental-consciousness”

    bhava (Existence)

    It is a fruit ripening in the realm of sensual desire. If there is no volitional action, there would not be desire for existence.
    Action is the field, consciousness is the seed, and craving is the moisture.
    While beings are impeded by ignorance, bound by craving, fallen away from their roots, consciousness is well established and in the future produces renewed existence.

    Consciousness May Be Calmed

    Whenever any suffering arises,
    All caused by consciousness;
    With the cessation of consciousness,
    There is no birth of suffering.

    Having known this danger,
    suffering is caused by consciousness;
    The bhikkhu stills the consciousness,
    And so attained final Nibbāna satisfied.

    The Psychological Law Of Causality And Its Use

    Having a cause is a condition for saññā (perceptions) arising and ceasing for a person.
    Practice arising a single perception, and ceasing a single perception.

    Liberation Is A Natural Process

    For the moral and accomplished in virtue, nothing ought to be done with intention.

    “May no regrets arise of me.”
    This characteristic, non-regret, arises for whoever is moral and accomplished in virtue.
    One who has no regrets, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May joy arise of me.”
    This characteristic, joy, is born for whoever has no regrets.
    One who is joyous, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May delight arise of me.”
    This characteristic, delight, arises for whoever is joyous.
    One who is delighted, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May my body calm down.”
    This characteristic, body, calms down for whoever is delighted.
    One of calm body, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May I experience happiness.”
    This characteristic, happiness, is experienced for whoever has a calm body.
    One is happy, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May my mind become composed.”
    This characteristic, mind, becomes composed for whoever is happy.
    One is composed, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May I see and know reality as it is.”
    This characteristic, reality as it is, is seen and known for whoever is composed.
    One who sees and know reality as it is, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May I be dispassionate and detached.”
    This characteristic, one becomes dispassionate and detached for whoever seeing and knowing reality as it is.
    One who becomes dispassionate and detached, has nothing that ought to be done with intention.

    “May I personally realise understanding and insight into liberation.”
    This characteristic, one personally realises understanding and insight into liberation for whoever is dispassionate and detached.

    The Origin And Control Of Suffering

    Visual consciousness (cakkhuviññāṇa) arises dependent on rūpa (form) and the faculty of seeing. The three combined together is phassa (contact).
    Dependent on phassa (contact), vedanā (feelings).
    Dependent on vedanā (feelings), taṇhā (craving).
    While completely fading away and ending of craving, cessation of grasping.
    From cessation of grasping, cessation of being.
    From cessation of being, cessation of birth.
    From cessation of birth, old age, grief, wailing, pain, suffering and trouble cease.
    Thus of this whole lot, there is cessation of mass of suffering.
    This is disappearance of dukkha (suffering).

    Everything Is Caused

    Like a certain seed,
    Sown in field, grows;
    Meeting with soil nutrients,
    and moisture, both of these.

    Thus, the masses and elements,
    And these six senses;
    Reason for arise of dependence,
    Disintegration of dependence, ceases

    Man Forms His Own Destiny

    Irrigators guide water,
    Arrow makers straighten arrow;
    Carpenters straighten wood,
    The wise tames the self.

    Karma Sometimes Works Slowly

    By no means completed wrong action,
    Thickens quickly like milk;
    Smouldering, heedlessly follows,
    Like fire covered with ashes.

    How Rebirth Is Influenced By Actions

    Here, a certain person generates harmful intentions resulting in bodily, verbal and mental actions.
    Having generated harmful intentions resulting in bodily, verbal and mental actions, he is reborn in a harmful world.
    That being, who is reborn in a harmful world, is afflicted with harmful contact.
    That being, who is afflicted with harmful contact, experiences totally painful harmful feelings just like beings living in hell.

    A Strong Wish May Influence Rebirth

    Here, a bhikkhu is endowed with faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom.
    It occurred to him:
    “Oh dear, oh no, death (of my) body, following death, I should be reborn in company of wealthy men of the ruling caste.”
    He takes his mind, focuses and cultivates it.
    Regarding that, those volitional thought processes and state of mind, thus cultivated and practised often, leads to rebirth.
    This way, this path of progress leads to rebirth.

    A Summary Of The Way

    Non-doing of all wrongdoing,
    Taking up of wholesome;
    Purifying one’s own mind,
    This is the teaching of the Buddha.

    Renunciation

    Formerly, I was similar to an ignorant being, living as a layman.
    Because of that, the Tathāgata and his disciples taught the Dhamma to me.
    Having heard that Dhamma, I acquired faith in the Tathāgata.
    I reflected like that, endowed with the the gaining of that faith.
    Household life is crowded and dirty, renunciation is open space.
    It is not easy from being settled in domestic living to living a completely perfect and flawless spiritual path.
    What if I were to renounce from household life to homeless state, having shaved off hair and heard, and having put on ochre robe.
    Indeed, friend, after some time, having left behind a small or large pile of wealth, and a small or large family circle, I renounced from household life to homeless state, having shaved off hair and heard, and having put on ochre robe.

    sammādiṭṭhi (Right View)

    Understanding of:

    • dukkha,
    • source of dukkha,
    • end of dukkha,
    • the path of progress leading to the end of dukkha.

    sammāsaṅkappa (Right Intention),

    Intention of:

    • renunciation,
    • good,
    • not harming.

    sammāvāca (Right Speech)

    Abstinence from:

    • false speech,
    • slanderous speech,
    • harsh speech,
    • gossip.

    Giving up false speech, abstaining from false speech, being truthful, true to one’s word, honest, reliable, keeping promises for everyone in the world.

    Giving up slanderous speech, abstaining from slanderous speech. Having listened here, does not tell in such-and-such place for the purposes of disturbance, or having listened in such and such place, does not tell here for the purposes of disturbance. Conciliator of the broken, provider of friendly terms, enjoying concord, liking harmony, delighting in unity, talking peace-making speech.

    Giving up harsh speech, abstaining from harsh speech. Whatever that speech is, it is gentle, pleasant to hear, friendly, heart-warming, polite, loved by the people, charming to the masses, talking appropriate speech.

    Giving up gossip, abstaining from gossip, speaking at the proper time, speaking what is true, speaking what is meaningful, speaking about the Dhamma, speaking about the discipline, talking speech worth remembering, timely, reasonable, purposeful, beneficial.

    sammākammanta (Right Conduct)

    Abstinence from:

    • killing living beings,
    • theft,
    • sexual misconduct.

    Life long arahants (awakened beings):

    • give up incelibacy, practice celibacy, keep far away from sexual intercourse, abstain from vulgar practice.
    • give up and abstains from wine, spirits, drugs and states of intoxication.
    • eat one meal a day, abstain from eating at night, and between midday and dawn.
    • abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, watching shows, using garlands, perfumes, oils, adornments and decorations.
    • give up and abstain from large and luxurious beds, prepare low or small beds, or spread of grass.

    sammāājīva (Right Livelihood),

    • give up wrong livelihood,
    • prepares for a way of life with right livelihood.

    Wrong livelihood:

    • Cheating,
    • cajoling,
    • indirect begging,
    • putting others down,
    • desiring acquisition with profit.

    sammāvāyāma (Right Effort)

    • For the non-arising of evil and unwholesome characteristics, he generates a desire for non-arising, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.
    • He generates a desire for the giving up of the arising of evil and unwholesome characteristics, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.
    • For the non-arising of wholesome characteristics, he generates a desire for arising, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.
    • He generates a desire for the persistence of, non-confusion of, increase of, maturity of, developing of, fulfillment of the arising of wholesome characteristics, tries to make an effort, start, strives on the mind, and exerts himself.

    sammāsati (Right Awareness)

    The bhikkhu:

    • when walking knows clearly “I am walking”,
    • when standing knows clearly “I am standing”,
    • when sitting knows clearly “I am seating”,
    • when lying down knows clearly “I am lying down.”

    In whatever way his body is orientated, in that way he knows clearly.

    He is aware of:

    • observing the body internally, externally, internally and externally (together),
    • contemplating the nature of arising, disappearance, arising and disappearing (together) of physical processes.

    And for him he keeps in mind and establishes “there is a body”, and he is independent and mindful through understanding and continuous awareness, and he does not cling to anything in the world.

    The bhikkhu is attentive to:

    • going forward,
    • coming back,
    • looking ahead,
    • looking around,
    • flexing,
    • stretching,
    • carrying the outer robe, bowl and robe,
    • eating,
    • drinking,
    • chewing,
    • tasting,
    • going to the toilet,
    • walking,
    • standing,
    • sitting,
    • sleeping,
    • being awake,
    • talking,
    • keeping quiet.

    Irradiation Of Friendliness, Compassion, Tenderness, And Equanimity

    The bhikkhu is intent and mindful of filling all compass directions, above and below, horizontally, everywhere, to all beings in the universe, with expansive, grand, infinite, peaceful, without ill will:

    • mettā (goodwill/friendliness)
    • karuṇā (compassion/pity)
    • muditā (emphatic happiness)
    • upekkhā (balance/equanimity)

    sammāsamādhi (Right Mental Composure)

    Nine levels of mental composure:

    1. Secluding oneself from sensual pleasures, detaching from unskillful behaviour, one enters and remains in the first jhāna, accompanied by reflection and consideration, secluded from defilements, with felicity and satisfaction. Of that, whatever past perceptions of sensual pleasure cease. In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion.
    2. With the conclusion of reflection and consideration, one enters and remains in the second jhāna, accompanied by an inner calming of intention, focused and free of thought or inner dialogue, born from stable mind, with felicity and satisfaction. Of that, whatever past refined and true perception of felicity and satisfaction born from seclusion cease. In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure.
    3. With the detachment from felicity, enters and remains in the third jhāna, one remains mentally balanced, is fully aware and being present, experiences body comfort, as the pure ones describe: “equanimous, attentive, living at ease.” Of that, whatever past refined and true perception of the felicity and satisfaction born from mental composure cease. In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of equanimity, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of equanimity.
    4. Just before the giving up of the pleasant and the unpleasant and the disappearance of mental pleasure and displeasure, satisfaction and dissatisfaction, one enters and remains in the fourth jhāna, in a neutral state, and possessing purification of awareness by equanimity. Of that, whatever past refined and true perception of equanimity cease. In that occasion, there is refined and true perception of neither unpleasant nor pleasant sensation, and in that occasion there is only a refined and true perception of neither unpleasant nor pleasant sensation.
    5. Going beyond perception of form altogether, with the disappearance of perception of sense impressions, ignoring the recognition of multiple/diverse things, one enters and remains in the base of the infinity of space, ie. “infinite space”.
    6. Going beyond the base of infinite space altogether, one enters and remains in the base of the infinite consciousness, ie. “infinite consciousness”.
    7. Going beyond the base of infinite consciousness altogether, one enters and remains in the base of nothingness, ie. “there is nothing”.
    8. Having seen the inadequacy of the base of neither perception nor non-perception that is practiced often, one applies oneself to expecting and attaining the ending of recognition and feeling.
    9. Going beyond the base of neither perception nor non-perception altogether, one enters and remains in the ending of recognition and feeling, having seen by that knowledge, one arrives at the exhaustion of the effluents.

    And from whatever indeed, I entered and emerged from these nine attainments of the successive stages in mental composure forwards and backwards, then I claimed to the deities in the world, Māra, Brahmas, religious practitioners, general population, kings and commoners: “This is the highest, perfect awakening, and perfect enligtenment!”

    Having insight, the realisation arose for me: “Unshakeable is my mental liberation, this is the final birth, now there is no rebirth.”

    The State Of Emptiness

    (After that, Venerable Sāriputta came out of seclusion in the late afternoon and approached the Bhagavant. Having approached, he bowed to the Bhagavant and sat down to one side.) The Bhagavant said this to Venerable Sāriputta sitting on one side:
    “You are tranquil indeed, Sāriputta, and your appearance is pure and complexion bright. How have you been spending time lately, Sāriputta?”
    “Lately, I often dwell on emptiness, Bhante.”
    “Excellent, Sāriputta. Truly, Sāriputta, lately you often dwell in the internal dwelling of an illustrious being. Sāriputta, this is the internal dwelling of an illustrious being: Emptiness.”

    How To Meet Persecution And Death

    Friend, if others behave with unpleasantness, disagreeableness, dislikeableness to that bhikkhu - even hitting him with hands, stones, sticks, weapons. Thus he knows: This body is of such nature that it is possible to physically hit it with hands, stones, sticks, weapons.

    But this is indeed said by the Bhagavant in the exhortation with the simile of the saw: “Bhikkhave, even if lowlife robbers cut off all the limbs with a doubled handled saw, even in that case whoever will corrupt his mind is not practising the teaching of mine. And now applied with me there will be active determination, presence and awareness, unmuddled, tranquility, unagitated body, composed and focused mind. And now certainly, even when hit by hands, stones, sticks, weapons in the body, surely in this case the teaching of the Buddha is practised.”

    A Bhikkhuni’s Story

    Consumed by defilements,
    Pursuing beautiful perceptions;
    Did not obtain balance of mind,
    Slave of the impassioned heart.

    Thin, pale, sickly,
    Seven years I wandered;
    By day or night I did not,
    Experience comfort, suffering miserably.

    From that, having taken a rope,
    Entered into the inner forest;
    My wish is now suicide,
    But whatever deficiences will repeat again.

    Having made a strong noose,
    Having tied to a branch of a tree;
    Placed noose on neck,
    Then my mind was liberated.

    The Buddha Relates How He Attained Nibbāna

    From my own doing, I was liable to:

    • birth
    • old age
    • sickness
    • death
    • sorrow
    • defilement

    Searching for the unsurpassed sanctuary of extinguishment from (birth, old age, sickness, death, sorrow, defilement), I achieved the unsurpassed sanctuary of (non birth, non-aging, health, non-death, non-sorrow, undefiled).

    Having insight, the realisation arose for me: “Unshakeable is the my mental liberation, this is the final birth, now there is no rebirth.”

    Nibbāna

    All passions abandoned by me,
    All ill will from the masses (of fuel);
    All my delusions gone,
    I am liberated and quenched.

    Nibbāna is satisfying

    Certainly Nibbāna is very satisfying,
    Taught by the perfectly awakened one;
    Free from sorrow, a pure sanctuary,
    Whenever dukkha ceases.

    Nibbāna is within reach

    In possibility of non-aging,
    What good in whatever from aging sensual pleasures for you?
    Seized by death and illness,
    All classes of beings wherever.

    This is not aging, not subject to death,
    This is free from old age and death, and sorrow;
    Peaceful and unobstructed,
    Free from stumbling and fear.

    This is achieved by many,
    Obtainable now this freedom from death;
    Whoever applies properly,
    Not able without striving.

    Nibbāna is a way out

    There exists, that which is not born, not become, not made, not formed.
    From that, a way out of being born, becoming, made, formed can be clearly known.

    Nibbāna and death

    Like a flame blown by a gust of wind,
    The essence runs away and approaches eluding definition;
    Thus a sage freed from representation and body,
    The essence runs away and approaches eluding definition.

    There is no quantification of the disappeared,
    By whatever that is said, that is not for him;
    In eradicating every characteristic,
    All eradicated from even representation.

    7.2 - Grammar (vyākaraṇa)

    Grammar guide (evolving) based on Warder “Introduction to Pali”. Currently based on Lessons 1-12.

    pada

    Word

    stateDiagram-v2
  direction LR
    liṅga : liṅga (stem)
    state liṅga {
      direction LR
      dhātu : dhātu (root)
      dhātu --> paccaya
      paccaya : paccaya (suffix)
    }
    liṅga --> vibhatti
    vibhatti : vibhatti (inflectional ending)

    padajāti

    The four parts of speech

    mindmap
  id((padajāti))
   nāma
      id(noun)
      guṇanāma
        id(adjective)
      sabbanāma
        id(pronoun)
        puggalanāma
          id(personal)
        nidassananāma
          id(demonstrative)
        anvayīnāma
          id(relative)
        pucchānāma
          id(interrogative)
   ākhyāta
      id(verb)
      parassapada
        id(active voice)
      attanopada
        id(middle or reflexive voice)
      kammapada
        id(passive)
   upasagga
      id(prefix)
   nipāta
      id(particle)
      id(indeclinable)

    nāma

    Noun

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# nāma
## saṅkhyā (number)
### ekavacana (singular)
### bahuvacana (plural)
## liṅga (gender)
### pulliṅga (masculine)
### itthiliṅga (feminine)
### napuṁsakaliṅga (neuter)
## kāraka (case)
### paccattavacana – nominative case (paṭhamā: first)
### upayogavacana – accusative (dutiyā: second)
### karaṇavacana – instrumental (tatiyā: third)
### sampadānavacana – dative (catutthī: fourth) - 
### apādānavacana, avadhi – ablative (pañcamī: fifth)
### sāmivacana, sambandha – genitive (chaṭṭhī: sixth)
### bhummavacana, okāsa, ādhāra, sambodhana – locative case (sattamī: seventh)
### āmantaṇavacana, ālapanavacana – vocative

    1. paccattavacana

    Nominative:

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# paccattavacana
- `kattar` or agent ("subject" of an active sentence or verb)
  - brāhmaṇo passati
- attribute of an agent in the nominative
  - "predicated" by means of a verb meaning "to be"
    - usually follows the agent
    - brāhmaṇo mahāmatto hoti
  - eso samaṇo
  - brāhmaṇo mahāmatto passati
- used with certain indeclinables relating it to the action
  - yena gāmo … upasaṃkamati
- when a word is quoted or cited
  - kāyo ti

    2. upayogavacana

    Accusative:

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# upayogavacana
- "patient" (kamma) which undergoes the action of an active verb (the "direct object")
  - purisaṃ bandhati
  - samaṇaṃ vadati
- express the goal of motion
  - gāmaṃ pavisati
- express the (extent of) space traversed
  - maggaṃ paṭipajjati
- used for an attribute of another accusative
  - khattiyo brahmaṅaṃ mahāmattaṃ passati
- used to express the pure duration of time
  - aḍḍhamāsaṃ āgacchati
  - ekaṃ samayaṃ
- singular neuter form of some adjectives is used as an "adverb"
  - rassaṃ passasāmi

    3. karaṇavacana

    Instrumental:

    • instrument by means of which an action is done
      • kāyena phusati
      • tuṇhī bhāvena
    • accompaniment
      • brāhmaṇena saddhim
      • “Talking”, “discussing” (mant) with a person need not take saddhim
    • possession (endowment)
      • sīlehi samannāgato
    • “filled” (“with water/happiness/noise/…”)
      • saddena
    • cause
      • but in scientific/philosophical discourse the ablative case is used to express causal connections
      • bhagavatā vādena kupito
        • “angry at (with) the fortunate one’s statement ”
      • cīvarena santuṭṭho
        • “satisfied with the robe ”
      • atthena
        • “because of that business/matter”
      • karaniyena
        • “(engaged in some) business”
      • iminā p’ aṅgena
        • “(you shouldn’t go) for this reason”
        • aṅgaṃ = “limb”, “characteristic”, ”factor”
          • used in “because of this” (”endowment”)
    • equality
      • samasamo vannena
        • “quite equal in beauty”
    • comparison
      • generally and indefinitely
        • purisena purisam
          • “(comparing) a man with a man”
      • for a specific, conclusive comparison, “this is better than that” the ablative case is used
      • price
        • sahassena
          • “for a thousand”
          • (i.e. sell for 1,000 kahāpaṇas, the standard silver coin)
    • way (which way, direction)
      • “by one way”
      • “by another way“
      • dvārena
        • “by the gate” (entering, leaving)
    • direction, orientation
      • “from West to East“ (both in instrumental) and each followed by the indeclinable ca
      • from North to South
    • manner
      • iminā
        • “in this way”
      • iminā pariyāyena
        • “through this course (procedure)”
        • “in this manner”
      • kāyena paṭisaṃvedeti
        • “he experiences through his body”
      • santena
        • “calmly“ (used like “adverbs of manner”)
      • “ on his right side ” (manner of lying)
      • kicchena adhigntaṃ
        • “understood with difficulty”
      • “he sat practising a certain kind of meditation“
      • (instrumental, as if “ manner ” of sitting)
      • adjacent to the ordinary “instrument” sense
        • serving with actions (kammena), whether physical or mental, or with speech
        • honouring, entertaining, etc., with music, dancing, garlands, etc.
    • means of livelihood, means of explanation or description (cf. instrument)
      • means of acquiring goodness, puññaṃ
        • dānena
          • “by giving”
        • expiating past deeds (kammaṃ)
    • vehicle
      • yānena gacchati
        • “he goes in (by) a carriage”
      • nāgena
        • “by elephant”
    • motive
      • gāravena
        • “through respect” (he did not speak)
    • time
      • by means of which (at the end of which)
        • aparena samayena
          • “after some time”
          • “in due course”
      • particular time at which
        • tena samayena
          • “at that time”
      • accayena
        • “through (after) the passage/passing away”
        • (of time or of a person: specified in the genitive case)
    • age at which
    • measure (cf. the ablative case)
      • dvādasayojanāni ahosi āyāmena
        • “it (a city) was twelve leagues in length”
      • sattayojanāni vitthārena
        • “seven leagues in breadth”
      • compounds ending in the word matta meaning “ measure ”
        • jannumattena
          • ”knee deep”
    • classification
      • birth, clan, family, kind, and similar relations
        • Gotamo gottena
          • “a Gotama by clan”
      • jalivadena
        • “in respect of class (station by birth)”
    • dissociation (cf. accompaniment)
      • adaṇḍena
        • “without force” (negative prefix a-)
      • instrumental used with the indeclinable aññatra
        • “except for”
        • aññatra brahmanena
          • “ except for the priest”
        • “apart from”
    • other idioms with the instrumental
      • āsanena nimanteti
        • “he invites to sit down”
        • “he offers a seat”
      • kalena kālaṃ
        • “from time to time”
        • ”regularly”
      • lābhena lābhaṃ
        • “from gain to gain”
        • (wishing always for more gain, with one gain on to another)
      • aññena aññnaṃ
        • ”one with another”
          • literally “other with other”
        • “irrelevantly”
      • sabbena sabbaṃ
        • “all with all”, i.e. “completely”
        • “absolutely thoroughly” (as in knowing some doctrine)

    4. sampadānavacana

    Dative case:

    • the purpose for which an action is done
      • gāmaṃ piṇḍāya pāvisi
    • the person to whom something is given (“indirect object”)
    • “dative of advantage”
      • the person for whom something is done or to whom something which happens is advantageous
    • used with verbs
      • (k)kham
        • “to please” (someone = dative)
        • “to forgive” (someone = dative, something = accusative)
      • (p)paṭi-(s)su
        • “to assent to (someone = dative)”
      • upa-(ṭ)ṭhā
        • to serve, attend on/to someone or something (dative)
      • dhar
        • “hold for/over” person sheltered (dative)
        • “owe” person (dative)
      • ā-ruc
        • “to inform” person informed (dative)
      • to be angry at
        • (kup, etc.)
      • sap
        • to curse
      • pih
        • to long for
      • (p)pa-(k)khā: visible, apparent
        • to be clear to
      • pātu(r)-bhū: manifest
        • to appear to
    • adjective (of verbal import) piya, “dear”, takes the dative of the person to whom.
    • “For the sake of” ( = dative of purpose, above)
      • atthāya preceded by the genitive of the person or object of the endeavour.
    • indeclinable alaṃ (“sufficient”, “enough”, “adequate”, “perfected”) takes the dative.
      • the idiomatic meaning of a refusal or objection
        • (“enough!” = “stop!”, “I won’t!”, etc.)
        • with dative of the person for whom it is sufficient or superfluous
          • “I won’t” = alaṃ me
          • “it is sufficient for you” = alaṃ vo
    • The negative participle abhabba
      • adjective meaning “unable”, “incapable”
      • dative of the action which cannot be done, if the latter is expressed by a noun (“action noun”).
    • When wishes (good wishes) are expressed
    • dative is used for the person for whom they are expressed
      • “may there be (hotu) long life for him”
      • “good luck to you”
        • bhaddaṃ bhavato hotu
    • “welcome to you”
      • svāgataṃ bhavato hotu
      • svāgataṃ (“welcome!”)
    • indeclinables sotthi “safety”, “safely” and namo (“hail!”)
    • infinitive of verbs overlaps in meaning with the dative of purpose.
    • idiomatic construction: proper time for something, the opportunity for something
      • etassa kālo
        • “it is the time for this”, “it is the right time for this”
    • akālo … yācanāya
      • “it is not the right time for asking”
    • yassa dāni kālaṃ maññasi
      • “for which you think it is now (dāni) the right time”
      • extremely common in saying (formally) goodbye (spoken by the host, not the guest - who for his part has made the excuse of pressure of work), being roughly equivalent to “well, if you really must go … "
      • used also by servants reporting to their master that preparations are completed, implying “you can start whenever you wish”, etc

    6. sāmivacana

    Genitive case:

    • may often be translated by “of”, and serves as a “possessive” case
    • denoting the “possessor” (sāmin)
    • the whole of which the related word denotes a part (avayava)
    • immediately precedes the word to which it relates
      • rañño thūpo
    • A construction with a possessive genitive is very often equivalent to an English construction with the verb “to have”
      • idaṃ assa hoti
    • “of him thus it is …” (or was, etc.), “he has this thought …”, “he thinks thus …”
      • tassa evaṃ hoti
    • an idiom consisting of the genitive of the word denoting the period + accayena expresses the time after which (or through the passage of which) something is done:
      • sattāhassa accayena … pabbajissāma
    • “after I have passed away”, “after my death/parinibbāna”
      • mama + accayena = “after me”
    • agent-genitive (“subjective genitive”):
      • brāhmaṇassa pūjito (Soṇadaṇḍo)
      • “(Soṇadaṇḍo was) honoured of (= by) the priest”
      • yesaṃ … devā …adiṭṭhā
      • “those … who have not seen … the gods (negative participle: a-)”
      • (“of (= by) whom the gods are unseen”; Commentary explains yesaṃ by yehi)
    • patient-genitive (“objective genitive”):
      • ahaṃ … tassa yaññassa yājetā
      • “I … (was) the performer of that sacrifice”
    • substitute for the instrumental
      • kumbhiṃ … pūraṃ … suvaṇṇassa
      • “pot … full … of gold”
    • used with certain indeclinables, such as:
      • piṭṭhito - “behind” purato - “before”, “in front of” antarena - “between” me purato - “in front of me” kāyānam antarena - “between the bodies”
      • uttaraṃ nagarassa - “north of the city”
    • The “genitive absolute” consists of a noun (or pronoun) followed by a participle, both inflected in the genitive. This nexus stands apart from the other words of the sentence and means “while (the noun was doing the participle)”
      • special sense of disregarding: “despite (the noun doing the participle)”, “under their very noses,” as when the participle means “seeing”, “looking on”
      • telassa jhāyamānassa “as (while) the oil is burning”
      • mātāpitunnaṃ … rudantānaṃ … pabbajito “though his parents were weeping, he went forth” (i.e. “despite their weeping”)
    • useful for constructing a sentence with two agents, but the similarly constructed locative absolute (Lesson 16) is much more frequently used

    8. āmantaṇavacana, ālapanavacana

    Vocative:

    • used “enclitically”, i.e. it does not stand at the beginning of a sentence

    guṇanāma

    Adjective:

    • When an adjective is common to two or more nouns it may agree with the sum of these (and be plural) or with the nearest. Thirdly the qualified words may be taken as collective and singular and the adjective be singular. Where the genders conflict, the masculine takes precedence over the feminine, the neuter over both.
    • An adjective usually precedes the noun it qualifies, but when there are several adjectives with one noun very often only one adjective precedes and the rest follow the noun.
    • A demonstrative pronoun relating to the same noun will precede the whole group.
    • When an adjective, or (all the) adjectives, follows its noun this usually indicates that it is being “predicated” of the noun, or in other words that the attribute in question is being emphasized.

    sabbanāma

    Pronouns

    niyamita

    Personal and Demonstrative (incomplete TBD)

    • Although the person is expressed by the inflection of the verb, the pronouns of the first and second persons are frequently used, giving a slight emphasis to the subject. The third person pronoun is less often used in this way.
    • The third personal pronoun is used also as a demonstrative, meaning “that”, “it”, in three genders.
    • It is generally used as what is known as an “anaphoric " pronoun, that is to say it refers back to someone or something previously mentioned in a narrative.
    • As opposed to the use in conversation and other direct speech of “pronouns of presence” referring to someone or something present (“this man”, “that jar”), these pronouns are called “pronouns of absence” because it is most often used to speak of someone or something in a story and therefore not present to the listeners.
    • It may serve to connect the sentences of a narrative into a continuous paragraph or longer section. It is used also as an emphatic pronoun (in combination with another pronoun or occasionally with 1st person, for example in the expression so ‘haṃ “I” (literally “that I”).
    • In combination with a noun it is again emphatic and may sometimes be translated “the”
    • There being no “definite article” in Pali the demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used where English would use the definite article, and may sometimes be translated “the” rather than “he”, “that”, “this”, etc.
    • Demonstrative pronouns must agree in number and gender (and case) with the nouns to which they refer.

    ākhyāta

    Verb

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# ākhyāta
## lakāra (tense)
### vattamāna (present indicative)
### pañcamī (imperative) [mood]
### ajjatanī (aorist) [past]
### sattamī (optative) [mood]
### anāgatakāla (future)
### kālātipatti (conditional)
### kārita (causative)
## purisa (person)
### paṭhamapurisa (third person)
### majjhimapurisa (second person)
### uttamapurisa (first person)
## saṅkhyā (number)
### ekavacana (singular)
### bahuvacana (plural)

    kammaka

    Transitivity:

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# kammaka
- akammaka
  – intransitive
- sakammaka
  – transitive
- dvikammaka
  – bitransitive
  - verbs
    - to call
    - to tell
    - to ask (someone something)
    - to take or bring (something somewhere)
  - samaṅaṃ atthaṃ pucchāmi

    kammapada

    Passive sentence:

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# kammapada
- agent is expressed by the instrumental case
- past participle used as an impersonal (bhāva) passive verb
  - inflected in the nominative singular neuter as sentence-verb
  - evaṃ me sutaṃ 
- If there is a patient, and the action is expressed by a past participle
  - patient will be in the nominative case
  - the participle will agree with it in gender, case, and number
    (as if it were an adjective)
  - mayā ime sattā nimmitā
- Passive verbs are not very common in Pali
- aorist passive
  - add the aorist inflections to the passive stem
  - haññiṃsu, "they were killed."
- A present participle passive
  - adding suffix māna to the passive stem
  - inflecting as a participle
  - kayiramāna, "being done."

    gaṇa

    Verb conjugation groups

    mindmap
  gaṇa
    bhūvādigaṇa
      first conjugation
        bhū
    rudhādigaṇa
      second conjugation
        rudh
    divādigaṇa
      third conjugation
        div
    suvādigaṇa
      fourth conjugation
        su
    kiyādigaṇa
      fifth conjugation
        ki
    tanādigaṇa
      sixth conjugation
        tan
    curādigaṇa
      seventh conjugation
        cur

    vattamāna

    Present tense

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# vattamāna
- present (paccuppanna) time (kāla)
- indefinite time
  - timeless statements such as "eternal truths"
- immediate future
  - may include a shade of "imperative" sense
  - cf.English "I'm going"
- past
  - "historic present"
- duration of an action "until" a fixed future time
  - (a vivid future visualized as present)
  - "when"

    pañcamī

    Imperative:

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# pañcamī
- expresses commands and prohibitions, but also invitations and wishes
- (majjhimapurisa)
  - the sense is usually that of a command
- (paṭhamapurisa)
  - used with the title or name of the person addressed, or the polite pronoun
  - expresses a polite invitation
- ettha tiṭṭha
  - "wait here"
  - ("let it be", "never mind", "let him not", "don't trouble")
- tiṭṭhatha tumhe
  - "don't you bother"

    ajjatanī

    “Aorist” (past tense), used for all kinds of past actions:

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# ajjatanī
- "historical" or "narrative" past
- (present-) perfect
  - desesiṃ (I have taught)

    atītakiriya

    Past Participle:

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# atītakiriya
- normally passive (kammapada) in meaning
- past participles of intransitive verbs sometimes active
  - including some transitive verbs used intransitively
  - "go"
  - "move"
  - "go forth"
- equivalent to a (normally passive) finite verb in the past tense
- indicates the "present-perfect", as in conversation
  - mayaṃ ... upasaṃkantā
- may be accompanied (usually followed) by the present tense of verbs meaning "to be"
  - stressing the "present-perfect" sense
- some used as nouns
  - bhāsitaṃ may mean 
  - "what was spoken", "speech", "saying"
- may be used as "adjectives"
  - kupita
    - "angry")

    missakiriya

    Present participle:

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# missakiriya
- indicate an action which takes place simultaneously with (missa) the main action of the sentence
- used like "adjectives" (as past participles may be) "qualifying" nouns, with which they agree in gender, case, and number.

    pubbakiriyā

    Gerund (Absolutive):

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# pubbakiriyā
- indeclinable participle
- used to express an action preceding (pubba) the action of the main verb of a sentence
- conclude a subordinate clause
- agent of the gerund is the same as that of the main action

    bhavissanti

    Future Tense:

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# bhavissanti
- expression of the probable (bhavissati in particular often has this sense) 
- hypothetical future
- certainty
- (in the 1st person) determination or decision
  - `sace ahaṃ … labhissāmi, saṃvibhajissāmi…`
- Obedience to a law of nature
  - `… nikkhipissanti`
    - literally "will throw down, put down" (the body).
    - all living beings (must/will) die
- habit (innate or acquired) may also be expressed by the future
- more emphatic than the use of the present tense to express an "eternal truth"
  - they will do this
- express the emotional colour of regret or disapproval
- Indignation (or disapproval)
  - kathaṃ hi nāma …,"for how could ('will') he …"
- perplexity, surprise, and wonder
  - kim ev' idaṃ bhavissati, "what can this be?", "what is this (stuff)?"

    upasagga

    Prefixes:

    • ati – on, further, towards, over, beyond, past, intensifier
    • adhi – on, towards, by, up to, here, intensifier
    • anu – along, after, towards, on, at, to, according to, second, low, each, every
    • apa – off, away from
    • api – on, to, towards
    • abhi – towards, against, over, on, intensifier
    • ava, o – low, down, away, negative
    • ā – nearness, out, forth, to, at, on
    • u – up, put, forth, onto
    • upa – on, up, by, diminutive
    • du – difficult, hard, bad, poor
    • ni, nī – down, into, back, out, away, without
    • pa – out, on, before, intensifier
    • paṭi, pati – back, against, again away, to
    • parā – onto, over, through
    • pari – around, completely, too much, away, off
    • vi – over, about, away, down, reverses meaning, intensifier
    • saṁ – near, together
    • su – well, happily, thoroughly, intensifier

    vākya

    sentence

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# vākya
## kiriyā
- action
- verb
## kattar
- agent
- noun
## kamma
- patient
- noun

    classDiagram
  class `loko vivaṭṭhati` {
    <<sentence>>
    english(the world evolves)
  }
  class loko {
    <<noun>>
    pulliṅga [masculine]
    paṭhamā: paccattavacana [nominative]
    ekavacana [singular]
    english(world)
  }
  class lok {
    <<root>>
    english(see)
  }
  class loka {
    <<stem>>
  }
  class vivaṭṭhati {
    <<verb>>
    vattamānakāla [present indicative]
    parassapada [active]
    paṭhamapurisa [3rd person]
    ekavacana [singular]
    english(evolves)
  }
  class vi {
    <<prefix>>
    english(apart, asunder)
  }
  class vaṭṭ {
    <<root>>
    english(turn, roll, circle)
  }
  class vaṭṭa {
    <<stem>>
  }
  `loko vivaṭṭhati` *-- loko : kattar
  loko --|> loka : rūpa
  loka --|> lok : dhātu
  vaṭṭa --|> vaṭṭ : dhātu
  vivaṭṭhati --|> vi : upasagga
  vivaṭṭhati --|> vaṭṭa : rūpa
  `loko vivaṭṭhati` *-- vivaṭṭhati : kiriyā

    7.3 - Sentence examples (padamañjarī)

    Sentence examples (evolving) based on Warder “Introduction to Pali” exercises. Contains sample sentences from Lessons 1-12

    Legend

    symbolmeaningexplanation
    vākyasentence
    pada, vacanaword
    nāmanoun
    ākhyātaverb
    🚹pulliṅgamajor (masculine) gender
    🚻napuṁsakaliṅgaspecial (neuter) gender
    🚺itthiliṅgaminor (feminine) gender
    ⚧sabbaliṅgaall genders
    ⨀ekavacanasingular
    ⨂bahuvacanaplural
    🟢parassapadaactive voice
    🔵attanopadamiddle voice - impersonal
    🔴kammapadapassive
    ⨀ekavacanasingular
    ⨂bahuvacanaplural
    🤟paṭhama purisafirst person, equivalent to ’third person’ in English
    🤘majjima purisamiddle person, equivalent to ‘second person’ in English
    👆uttama purisaprimary person, equivalent to ‘first person’ in English
    ⓪ālapanavocative
    ①paṭhamāfirst case (nominative)
    ②dutiyāsecond case (accusative)
    ③tatiyāthird case (instrumental)
    ④catutthīfourth case (dative)
    ⑤pañcamīfifth case (ablative)
    ⑥chaṭṭhīsixth case (genitive)
    ⑦sattamīseventh case (locative)
    ⏏️nipātaparticle
    🔼upasaggaprefix
    🆎samāsacompound noun
    🔽taddhitaaffix
    ▶️vattamānapresent
    ⏹piñcamīimperative
    ⏯sattamīpotential
    🔄parokkhāperfect
    ↩️hiyyattanīimperfect
    ⏮ajjatanīaorist
    ⏭bhavissantifuture
    🔀kālātipatticonditional
    ⏪atītakiriyāpast participle
    ⏬missakiriyāpresent participle
    ⏩kiccafuture participle
    ⏫pubbakiriyāgerund (absolutive)

    Equational

    classDiagram
  class sentence["devo amanusso hoti"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The deva is not human)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class devo {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(deity)
    }
    class amanusso {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(not human)
    }
  }
  class hoti {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(is)
  }
  sentence *-- devo : kattar
  sentence *-- amanusso : vāccaliṅga
  sentence *-- hoti: kiriya

    Intransitive (agent-action)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["devo cavati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The god dies)
  }
  class devo {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(deity)
  }
  class cavati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(dies)
  }
  sentence *-- devo : kattar
  sentence *-- cavati: akammaka

    Transitive (agent-patient-action)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["upāsako pattaṃ āharati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The lay disciple brings the bowl)
  }
  class upāsako {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(lay disciple)
  }
  class pattaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(bowl)
  }
  class āharati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(brings)
  }
  sentence *-- upāsako : kattar
  sentence *-- pattaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- āharati: sakammaka

    Bi-transitive (patient y-patient x-action)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["upāsakaṃ brāhmānaṃ dhāreti"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english([He] accepts the priest as a lay disciple)
  }
  class upāsakaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(lay disciple)
  }
  class brāhmānaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(brahmin)
  }
  class dhāreti {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(accepts X as Y)
  }
  sentence *-- upāsakaṃ : kamma y
  sentence *-- brāhmānaṃ : kamma x
  sentence *-- dhāreti: dvikammaka

    yena … tena

    classDiagram
  class sentence["yena mahāmatto tena upasaṃkamanti"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(By where the minister [is], by there [they] approach)
  }
  namespace yenatena {
    class yena {
      <<nipāta>>
      ③
      english(by where)
    }
    class mahāmatto {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(minister)
    }
    class tena {
      <<nipāta>>
      ③
      english(by there)
    }
  }
  class upasaṃkamanti {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨂🤟▶️
    english(approach)
  }
  sentence *-- yena
  sentence *-- mahāmatto
  yena <-- mahāmatto : kattar
  yena --> tena
  sentence *-- tena : kamma
  sentence *-- upasaṃkamanti: kiriya
    sequenceDiagram
  they ->> place : approach
  place ->> minister : by where
  minister ->> place : by there

    Past (Aorist)

    Historical or “narrative” past

    classDiagram
  class sentence["dhammaṃ desesiṃ"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english([I] taught the dhamma)
  }
  class dhammaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(the dhamma)
  }
  class desesiṃ {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆⏮
    english([I] taught)
  }
  sentence *-- dhammaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- desesiṃ: ajjatanī

    Personal Names

    classDiagram
  class sentence["Uttaro nāma putto ahosi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english([There] was a son by name Uttara)
  }
  namespace kamma {
    class Uttaro {
      <<nāmanāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(Uttara)
    }
    class nāma {
      <<avyaya>>
      english(by name)
    }
    class putto {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(son)
    }
  }
  class ahosi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏮
    english(was)
  }
  Uttaro --> nāma
  sentence *-- Uttaro : nāmanāma
  sentence *-- nāma : guṇanāma
  sentence *-- putto : kamma
  sentence *-- ahosi: ajjatanī

    Agreement of Verb and Agent

    When a verb has two or more agents, it usually agrees with the sum of the agents and is plural.

    classDiagram
  class sentence["Reṇu ca rājaputto Jotipālo ca mānavo sahāyā ahesuṃ"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Prince Reṇu and Jotipāla the Mānava [young priest, descendant of Mānu] were friends)
  }
  namespace kattar1 {
    class Reṇu {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(Reṇu)
    }
    class ca1["ca"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(and)
    }
    class rājaputto {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(prince)
    }
  }
  namespace kattar2 {
    class Jotipālo {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(Jotipāla)
    }
    class ca2["ca"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(and)
    }
    class mānavo {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(mānava)
    }
  }
  class sahāyā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨂②
    english(friends)
  }
  class ahesuṃ {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨂🤟⏮
    english(were)
  }
  sentence *-- Reṇu : nāmanāma
  sentence *-- ca1 : samuccaya
  sentence *-- rājaputto : kattar
  sentence *-- Jotipālo : nāmanāma
  sentence *-- ca2 : samuccaya
  sentence *-- mānavo : kattar
  sentence *-- sahāyā : kamma
  sentence *-- ahesuṃ: kiriya

    Personal pronouns

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ahaṃ asmi brahmā issaro"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(I am the Lord God)
  }
  class ahaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    ⚧⨀①👆
    english(I)
  }
  class asmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆▶️
    english([I] am)
  }
  namespace kamma {
    class brahmā {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(God)
    }
    class issaro {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(Lord)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- ahaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- asmi: kiriya
  sentence *-- brahmā : kamma
  sentence *-- issaro : kamma

    “Anaphoric” demonstrative pronoun

    “that”, “it”: Refers back to someone or something previously mentioned in a narrative.

    Pronoun of absence: speak of someone or something in a story and therefore not present to the listeners.

    classDiagram
  class sentence["mayaṃ taṃ bhagavantaṃ avocuṃha"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(We said that to the Blessed One)
  }
  class mayaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    ⚧⨂①👆
    english(We)
  }
  class taṃ {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤟②
    english(that)
  }
  class bhagavantaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀②
    english(Blessed One)
  }
  class avocuṃha {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨂👆⏮
    english(said)
  }
  sentence *-- mayaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- taṃ : kamma 1
  sentence *-- bhagavantaṃ : kamma 2
  sentence *-- avocuṃha: dvikammaka

    “Diectic” demonstrative pronoun

    “this”, “it”: Refers to present object or person.

    Pronoun of presence: referring to someone or something present

    classDiagram
  class sentence["eso Mahārāja Bhagavā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Mahārāja, this is the Bhagavā [Blessed One])
  }
  class eso {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    🚹⨀🤟①
    english(this)
  }
  class Mahārāja {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀⓪
    english(that)
  }
  class Bhagavā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(Blessed One)
  }
  sentence *-- eso : kattar
  sentence *-- Mahārāja : ālapana
  sentence *-- Bhagavā : kattar

    Emphasise a nearer object

    classDiagram
  class sentence["idaṃ avoca Bhagavā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The Bhagavā said this)
  }
  class idaṃ {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    🚻⨀🤟②
    english(this)
  }
  class avoca {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀🤟⏮
    english(said)
  }
  class Bhagavā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(Blessed One)
  }
  sentence *-- idaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- avoca : ākhyāta
  sentence *-- Bhagavā : kattar

    Emphatic assertion

    classDiagram
  class sentence["atthi kayo"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(There is a body)
  }
  class atthi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(There is)
  }
  class kayo {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(body)
  }
  sentence *-- atthi: ākhyāta
  sentence *-- kayo : kattar

    Negation

    classDiagram
  class sentence["tvaṃ na passasi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(You do not see)
  }
  class tvaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤘①
    english(You)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class passasi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤘▶️
    english(see)
  }
  sentence *-- tvaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- na : nipāta
  sentence *-- passasi: ākhyāta

    Prohibition or negative injunction

    Used with second person in aorist tense (but loses time reference and can apply to present or future)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["mā paridevesi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Don't grieve)
  }
  class mā {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(do not)
  }
  class paridevesi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤘⏮
    english(grieved)
  }
  sentence *-- mā : nipāta
  sentence *-- paridevesi: ākhyāta

    Wish

    Used with third person in aorist tense - appears regularly in polite address

    classDiagram
  class sentence["mā h'eva rājā kālam akāsi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(May the king not die)
  }
  class mā["mā h'eva"] {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(do not)
  }
  class rājā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(king)
  }
  class kālam {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀② 
    english(time)
  }
  class akāsi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏮
    english(made)
  }
  sentence *-- mā : nipāta
  sentence *-- rājā : kattar
  sentence *-- kālam : kamma
  sentence *-- akāsi: ākhyāta

    Double Negation

    Equivalent to a strong affirmation

    classDiagram
  class sentence["mā h'eva kho kumāro na rajjaṃ kāresi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Don't let the prince not rule the kingdom)
  }
  class mā["mā h'eva"] {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(do not)
  }
  class kho {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(indeed)
  }
  class kumāro {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(prince)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class rajjaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀② 
    english(kingdom)
  }
  class kāresi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏮
    english(rule)
  }
  sentence *-- mā : nipāta
  sentence *-- kho : nipāta
  sentence *-- kumāro : kattar
  sentence *-- na : nipāta
  sentence *-- rajjaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- kāresi: ākhyāta

    Vocative

    Nominative of address, used enclitically

    classDiagram
  class sentence["na tvaṃ deva vañcemi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(I don't deceive you, O King)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class tvaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤘①
    english(you)
  }
  class deva {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀⓪
    english(O King)
  }
  class vañcemi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆⏮
    english([I] deceived)
  }
  sentence *-- na : nipāta
  sentence *-- tvaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- deva : ālapana
  sentence *-- vañcemi: ākhyāta

    Imperative (command)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ehi tvaṃ purisa"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(You must go, man)
  }
  class ehi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆⏹
    english([must] go)
  }
  class tvaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤘①
    english(you)
  }
  class purisa {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀⓪
    english(man)
  }
  sentence *-- ehi: piñcamī
  sentence *-- tvaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- purisa : ālapana

    Imperative (invitation or wish)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["etu bhagavā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Let the Blessed One come)
  }
  class etu {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆⏹
    english([must] come)
  }
  class bhagavā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(Blessed One)
  }
  sentence *-- etu: piñcamī
  sentence *-- bhagavā : kattar

    Imperative (don’t bother)

    Let it be, never mind, let him not, don’t trouble

    classDiagram
  class sentence["tiṭṭhatha tumhe"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Don't you bother)
  }
  class tiṭṭhatha {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨂🤟⏹
    english(wait/remain)
  }
  class tumhe {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    ⚧⨂🤟①
    english(you)
  }
  sentence *-- tiṭṭhatha: piñcamī
  sentence *-- tumhe : kattar

    Respectful address

    classDiagram
  class sentence["nisidatu bhagavā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Let the Fortunate One sit down)
  }
  class nisidatu {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀👆⏹
    english([must] sit)
  }
  class bhagavā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(Blessed One)
  }
  sentence *-- nisidatu: piñcamī
  sentence *-- bhagavā : kattar

    Quotation

    Short vowel preceeding ti is lengthened, and ṃ changed to n

    classDiagram
  class sentence["evaṃ devā ti"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english('[It is] so, O King')
  }
  namespace quotation {
    class evaṃ {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(thus)
    }
    class deva {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⓪
      english(O King)
    }
  }
  class ti {
    <<nipāta>>
    marker(quotation)
  }
  sentence *-- evaṃ: nipāta
  sentence *-- deva : ālapana
  sentence *-- ti: nipāta
    classDiagram
  class sentence["n'eso n'atthi ti vadāmi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(I don't say "This doesn't exist")
  }
  class na1["na"] {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  namespace quotation {
    class eso {
      <<sabbanāma>>
      🚻⨀🤟①
      english(this)
    }
    class na2["na"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(not)
    }
    class atthi {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟▶️
      english(exist)
    }
  }
  class ti {
    <<nipāta>>
    marker(quotation)
  }
  class vadāmi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⚧👆▶️
    english([I] say)
  }
  sentence *-- na1: nipāta
  sentence *-- eso: kattar
  sentence *-- na2: nipāta
  sentence *-- atthi : kiriya
  sentence *-- ti: nipāta
  sentence *-- vadāmi : kiriya

    Past participle (present perfect)

    periphrastic: past participle followed by “to be” verb

    classDiagram
  class sentence["paribbājako santuṭṭho hoti"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The wanderer is contented)
  }
  class paribbājako {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(wanderer)
  }
  class santuṭṭho {
    <<past participle>>
    ⏪🚹⨀①
    english(contented)
  }
  class hoti {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(is)
  }
  sentence *-- paribbājako : kattar
  sentence *-- santuṭṭho : past participle
  sentence *-- hoti: kiriya

    Instrumental case

    classDiagram
  class sentence["kāyena phusati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english([He] touches with body)
  }
  class kāyena {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀③
    english([with] body)
  }
  class phusati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(touch)
  }
  sentence *-- kāyena : karaṇa
  sentence *-- phusati: kiriya

    Impersonal (bhāva) Past Participle

    classDiagram
  class sentence["evaṃ me sutaṃ"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Thus [it] was heard by me)
  }
  class evaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(thus)
  }
  class me {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    ⚧⨀👆③
    english([by] me)
  }
  class sutaṃ {
    <<past participle>>
    🔵⏪🚹⨀①
    english(heard)
  }
  sentence *-- evaṃ : nipāta
  sentence *-- me : karaṇa
  sentence *-- sutaṃ: past participle

    Passive (kammapada) Past Participle

    classDiagram
  class sentence["mayā ime sattā nimmitā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(By me these beings [were/have been] created)
  }
  class mayā {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    ⚧⨀👆③
    english([by] me)
  }
  class ime {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚹⨂①
    english(these)
  }
  class sattā {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚹⨂①
    english(beings)
  }
  class nimmitā {
    <<past participle>>
    🔴⏪🚹⨂①
    english(created)
  }
  sentence *-- mayā : karaṇa
  sentence *-- ime : kamma
  sentence *-- sattā : kamma
  sentence *-- nimmitā: past participle

    Active Past Participle

    classDiagram
  class sentence["sujātā nāma bhante upāsikā kālakatā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Venerable Sir, the female lay disciple named Sujātā has died)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class sujātā {
      <<nāmanāma>>
      🚺⨀①
      english(Sujātā)
    }
    class nāma {
      <<avyaya>>
      english(named)
    }
    class upāsikā {
      <<nāma>>
      🚺⨀①
      english(food)
    }
  }
  class bhante {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀⓪
    english(Venerable Sir)
  }
  class kālakatā {
    <<past participle>>
    🟢⏪🚺⨀①
    english(created)
  }
  sujātā --> nāma
  sentence *-- sujātā : kattar
  sentence *-- nāma : guṇanāma
  sentence *-- bhante : ālapana
  sentence *-- upāsikā : kattar
  sentence *-- kālakatā: past participle

    Time by means of which

    aparena samayena
    after some time, in due course
    tena samayena
    at that time
    accayena
    through (after) the passage/passing away [of time/person]
    classDiagram
  class sentence["ahaṃ tena samayena rājā Mahāsudassano ahosiṃ"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(At that time I was King Mahāsudassana)
  }
  class tena {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤟③
    english(that)
  }
  class samayena {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀③
    english(at time)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class ahaṃ {
      <<sabbanāma>>
      ⚧⨀👆①
      english([by] me)
    }
    class rājā {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(king)
    }
    class Mahāsudassano {
      <<nāmanāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(Mahāsudassana)
    }
  }
  class ahosiṃ {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀👆⏮
    english(was)
  }
  sentence *-- ahaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- tena : karaṇa
  sentence *-- samayena : karaṇa
  sentence *-- rājā : kattar
  sentence *-- Mahāsudassano : kattar
  sentence *-- ahosiṃ: ajjatanī

    Present participle

    classDiagram
  class sentence["gacchaṃ passati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(As [he] is going [he] sees)
  }
  class gacchaṃ {
    <<missakiriyā>>
    ⏬🚹⨀①
    english(created)
  }
  class passati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(touch)
  }
  sentence *-- gacchaṃ : missakiriyā
  sentence *-- passati: kiriya

    Gerund (absolutive)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["disvā evaṃ avocumha"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Having seen, [we] said thus)
  }
  class disvā {
    <<pubbakiriyā>>
    ⏫
    english(having seen)
  }
  class evaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(thus)
  }
  class avocumha {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨂👆⏮
    english([We] said)
  }
  sentence *-- disvā : pubbakiriyā
  sentence *-- evaṃ : nipāta
  sentence *-- avocumha: kiriya

    Passive (kammapada)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["bhojanaṃ diyati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Food is given)
  }
  class bhojanaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(food)
  }
  class diyati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     🔴⨀🤟▶️
    english(is given)
  }
  sentence *-- bhojanaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- diyati: kammapada

    Interrogative (saccaṃ)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["saccaṃ Nigrodha bhāsitā te esā vācā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Is it true, Nigrodha, [that] this speech has been spoken by you?)
  }
  class saccaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(is it true that ...)
  }
  class Nigrodha {
    <<nāmanāma>>
    🚹⨀⓪
    english(Nigrodha)
  }
  class bhāsitā {
    <<past participle>>
    🔴⏪🚺⨀①
    english(is spoken)
  }
  class esā {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚺⨀🤟①
    english(this)
  }
  class vācā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚺⨀①
    english(speech)
  }
  class te {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤘③
    english(by you)
  }
  sentence *-- saccaṃ : nipāta
  sentence *-- Nigrodha : ālapana
  sentence *-- bhāsitā : past participle
  sentence *-- te : kattar
  sentence *-- esā : kamma
  sentence *-- vācā : kamma
    classDiagram
  class sentence["saccaṃ bhante bhāsitā me esā vācā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(It is true, Venerable Sir, (that) this speech has been spoken by me)
  }
  class saccaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(it is true that ...)
  }
  class bhante {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀⓪
    english(Venerable Sir)
  }
  class bhāsitā {
    <<past participle>>
    🔴⏪🚺⨀①
    english(is spoken)
  }
  class esā {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚺⨀🤟①
    english(this)
  }
  class vācā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚺⨀①
    english(speech)
  }
  class me {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    ⚧⨀👆③
    english(by me)
  }
  sentence *-- saccaṃ : nipāta
  sentence *-- bhante : ālapana
  sentence *-- bhāsitā : past participle
  sentence *-- me : kattar
  sentence *-- esā : kamma
  sentence *-- vācā : kamma

    Or, either (vā)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["idaṃ vuccati cittan ti vā viññāṇan ti vā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(This is called 'mind' or 'consciousness')
  }
  class idaṃ {
    <<sabbanāma>>
    🚺⨀🤟①
    english(this)
  }
  class vuccati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     🔴⨀🤟▶️
    english(is called)
  }
  namespace kamma1 {
    class cittaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(mind)
    }
    class ti1["ti"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      marker(quotation)
    }
    class vā1["vā"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(or)
    }
  }
  namespace kamma2 {
    class viññāṇaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(consciousness)
    }
    class ti2["ti"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      marker(quotation)
    }
    class vā2["vā"] {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(or)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- idaṃ : kamma
  sentence *-- vuccati : kammapada
  sentence *-- cittaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- ti1: nipāta
  sentence *-- vā1: nipāta
  sentence *-- viññāṇaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- ti2: nipāta
  sentence *-- vā2: nipāta

    Future tense

    classDiagram
  class sentence["na ciraṃ tathāgatassa parinibbānaṃ bhavissati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The extinction of the Tathāgata will be soon)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class ciraṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(for a long time, after a long time)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class tathāgatassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(Tathāgata's)
    }
    class parinibbānaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚻⨀①
      english(extinction)
    }
  }
  class bhavissati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏭
    english(will be)
  }
  tathāgatassa <-- parinibbānaṃ
  sentence *-- na : nipāta
  sentence *-- ciraṃ : nipāta
  sentence *-- tathāgatassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- parinibbānaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- bhavissati: bhavissanti
    classDiagram
  class sentence["imassa jayo bhavissati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Victory will be his)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class imassa {
      <<sabbanāma>>
      ⚧⨀🤟⑥
      english(his)
    }
    class jayo {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(victory)
    }
  }
  class bhavissati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏭
    english(will be)
  }
  imassa <-- jayo
  sentence *-- imassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- jayo : kattar
  sentence *-- bhavissati: bhavissanti

    Genitive

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ayaṃ imassa bhāsitassa attho"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(This is the meaning of this saying)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class ayaṃ {
      <<nidassananāma>>
      ⚧⨀🤟①
      english(this)
    }
    class imassa {
      <<nidassananāma>>
      ⚧⨀🤟⑥
      english(of this)
    }
    class bhāsitassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of speech)
    }
    class attho {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(meaning)
    }
  }
  imassa <-- bhāsitassa
  bhāsitassa <-- attho
  sentence *-- ayaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- imassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- bhāsitassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- attho : kattar

    Agent-Genitive (“Subjective Genitive”)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["brāhmaṇassa pūjito (Soṇadaṇḍo)"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english([Soṇadaṇḍo was] honoured of [by] the priest)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class s["Soṇadaṇḍo"] {
      <<nāmanāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(Soṇadaṇḍa)
    }
    class brāhmaṇassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of the brāhmaṇ)
    }
    class pūjito {
      <<past participle>>
      ⏪🚹⨀①
      english(honoured)
    }
  }
  brāhmaṇassa <-- pūjito
  sentence *-- s : kattar
  sentence *-- brāhmaṇassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- pūjito : kattar

    Patient-Genitive (“Objective Genitive”)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ahaṃ … tassa yaññassa yājetā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(I ... (was) the performer of that sacrifice)
  }
  namespace kattar {
    class ahaṃ {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨀👆①
      english(I)
    }
    class tassa {
      <<nidassananāma>>
      🚹⨀🤟⑥
      english(of that)
    }
    class yaññassa {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀⑥
      english(of sacrifice)
    }
    class yājetā {
      <<past participle>>
      ⏪🚹⨀①
      english(sacrificer (performer))
    }
  }
  tassa <-- yaññassa
  yaññassa <-- yājetā
  sentence *-- ahaṃ : kattar
  sentence *-- tassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- yaññassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- yājetā : kattar

    Genitive Absolute

    The “genitive absolute” consists of a noun (or pronoun) followed by a participle, both inflected in the genitive. This nexus stands apart from the other words of the sentence and means “while (the noun was doing the participle)”. Often the genitive absolute has the special sense of disregarding: “despite (the noun doing the participle)”, “under their very noses,” as when the participle means “seeing”, “looking on”. The genitive absolute is useful for constructing a sentence with two agents,

    classDiagram
  class sentence["kammaṃ kho pana me karontassa kāyo kilamissati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(However, while I am doing the work, (my) body will become tired)
  }
  namespace genitive_absolute {
    class kammaṃ {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(work)
    }
    class kho {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(indeed)
    }
    class pana {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(however)
    }
    class me {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨀👆⑥
      english(of I)
    }
    class karontassa {
      <<past participle>>
      ⏪🚹⨀⑥
      english(of doing)
    }
  }
  class kāyo {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(body)
  }
  class kilamissati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏭
    english(will be tired)
  }
  kammaṃ --> karontassa : kamma
  me <-- karontassa : chaṭṭhī
  sentence *-- kammaṃ
  sentence *-- kho
  sentence *-- pana
  sentence *-- me : genitive absolute
  sentence *-- karontassa : genitive absolute
  sentence *-- kāyo : katar
  sentence *-- kilamissati : bhavissanti

    Adjective (junction)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["sassato loko"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The world [is] eternal)
  }
  class sassato {
    <<guṇanāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(eternal)
  }
  class loko {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(world)
  }
  sentence *-- sassato : guṇanāma
  sentence *-- loko: kattar

    Adjective (nexus)

    “who is/which is”

    classDiagram
  class sentence["vācā kantā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(The speech [which is] agreeable)
  }
  class vācā {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(speech)
  }
  class kantā {
    <<guṇanāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(agreeable)
  }
  sentence *-- vācā: kattar
  sentence *-- kantā : guṇanāma

    Possibility of an event (or inference)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ṭhānaṃ etaṃ vijjati ..."] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(this/it is possible ...)
  }
  class ṭhānaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(it is possible)
  }
  class etaṃ {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤟①
    english(this)
  }
  class vijjati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(it occurs)
  }
  sentence *-- ṭhānaṃ: nipāta
  sentence *-- etaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- vijjati : ākhyāta
    classDiagram
  class sentence["n' etaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati ..."] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(this is impossible .../It is not the case ...)
  }
  class na {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(not)
  }
  class etaṃ {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤟①
    english(this)
  }
  class ṭhānaṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(it is possible)
  }
  class vijjati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟▶️
    english(it occurs)
  }
  sentence *-- na: nipāta
  sentence *-- etaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- ṭhānaṃ: nipāta
  sentence *-- vijjati : ākhyāta

    Dative (purpose)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["gāmaṃ piṇḍāya pāvisi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(He entered the village for alms)
  }
  class gāmaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(village)
  }
  class piṇḍāya {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀④
    english(alms)
  }
  class pāvisi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏮
    english([he] entered)
  }
  sentence *-- gāmaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- piṇḍāya: sampadāna
  sentence *-- pāvisi : ākhyāta

    proper time for something, the opportunity for something

    classDiagram
  class sentence["etassa kālo ..."] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(it is the time for this / it is the right time for this)
  }
  class etassa {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    ⚧⨀④
    english(for this)
  }
  class kālo {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(time)
  }
  sentence *-- etassa: sampadāna
  sentence *-- kālo: kattar

    not the right time

    classDiagram
  class sentence["akālo … yācanāya"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(it is not the right time for asking)
  }
  class akālo {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(not the time for)
  }
  class yācanāya {
    <<nidassananāma>>
    🚻⨀④
    english(asking)
  }
  sentence *-- akālo: kattar
  sentence *-- yācanāya: sampadāna

    for which you think it is now the right time

    The last expression is extremely common in saying (formally) goodbye (spoken by the host, not the guest - who for his part has made the excuse of pressure of work). It is used also by servants reporting to their master that preparations are completed, implying “you can start whenever you wish”, etc.

    classDiagram
  class sentence["yassa dāni kālaṃ maññasi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(for which you think it is now the right time)
  }
  class yassa {
    <<anvayīnāma>>
    ⚧⨀④
    english(for which)
  }
  class dāni {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(now)
  }
  class kālaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(time)
  }
  class maññasi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤘▶️
    english([you] think)
  }
  sentence *-- yassa: sampadāna
  sentence *-- dāni: nipāta
  sentence *-- kālaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- maññasi: ākhyāta

    relative clause

    classDiagram
  class sentence["atha kho ye icchiṃsu te akaṃsu"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(then [indeed] those who wished, they worked)
  }
  class atha {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(then)
  }
  class kho {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(now)
  }
  namespace relative {
    class ye {
      <<anvayīnāma>>
      ⚧⨂①
      english(those who)
    }
    class icchiṃsu {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨂🤟⏮
      english([they] wished)
    }
  }
  namespace main {
    class te {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨂①
      english(they)
    }
    class akaṃsu {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨂🤟⏮
      english([they] worked)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- atha: nipāta
  sentence *-- kho: nipāta
  sentence *-- ye: aniyamuddesa
  sentence *-- icchiṃsu: ajjatanī
  sentence *-- te: kattar
  sentence *-- akaṃsu: ajjatanī
    classDiagram
  class sentence["yena dvārena nikkhami taṃ Gotamadvāraṃ nāma ahosi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(the gate by which he left was called Gotama Gate)
  }
  namespace relative {
    class yena {
      <<anvayīnāma>>
      ⚧⨀④
      english(by which)
    }
    class dvārena {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀④
      english(by gate)
    }
    class nikkhami {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟⏮
      english([he] left)
    }
  }
  namespace main {
    class taṃ {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨀①
      english(that)
    }
    class Gotamadvāraṃ {
      <<nāmanāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(Gotamadvāro)
    }
    class nāma {
      <<avyaya>>
      english(name)
    }
    class ahosi {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟⏮
      english([it] was)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- yena: aniyamuddesa
  sentence *-- dvārena: karaṇa
  sentence *-- nikkhami: ajjatanī
  sentence *-- taṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- Gotamadvāraṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- nāma: avyaya
  sentence *-- ahosi: ajjatanī

    pronominal adjective

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ye … ahesuṃ, … sabbe … bhakkhesi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(those … who were there, … he devoured (bhakkh) them all)
  }
  namespace relative {
    class ye {
      <<anvayīnāma>>
      ⚧⨂①
      english(those who)
    }
    class ahesuṃ {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨂🤟⏮
      english([they] were)
    }
  }
  namespace main {
    class sabbe {
      <<sabbanāma>>
      ⚧⨂②
      english(them all)
    }
    class bhakkhesi {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟▶️
      english(devour)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- ye: aniyamuddesa
  sentence *-- ahesuṃ: ajjatanī
  sentence *-- sabbe: kamma
  sentence *-- bhakkhesi: ākhyāta

    universal relative pronoun

    classDiagram
  class sentence["yo yo … ādiyissati tassa tassa … anuppadassāmi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(whoever will take … to him I will grant …)
  }
  namespace relative {
    class yo["yo yo"] {
      <<anīyamanāma>>
      ⚧⨀①
      english(whoever)
    }
    class ādiyissati {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟⏭
      english(will take)
    }
  }
  namespace main {
    class tassa["tassa tassa"] {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨀④
      english(to him)
    }
    class anuppadassāmi {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟⏭
      english([I] will grant)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- yo: aniyamuddesa
  sentence *-- ādiyissati: bhavissanti
  sentence *-- tassa: sampadāna
  sentence *-- anuppadassāmi: bhavissanti
    classDiagram
  class sentence["yena yena gacchati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(wherever he goes)
  }
  class yena["yena yena"] {
    <<anīyamanāma>>
    ⚧⨀⑥
    english(wherever)
  }
  class gacchati {
    <<ākhyāta>>
    ⨀🤟▶️
    english([he] goes)
  }
  sentence *-- yena: anīyamanāma
  sentence *-- gacchati : ākhyāta

    emphatic demonstrative pronoun

    classDiagram
  class sentence["yo so satto paṭhamaṃ upapanno, tassa evaṃ hoti: ahaṃ asmi brahmā"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(that being who has come into existence first (in the evolution of the universe) thinks he is God)
  }
  namespace relative {
    class yoso["yo so"] {
      <<anvayīnāma>>
      ⚧⨀①
      english(he who)
    }
    class satto {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(being)
    }
    class paṭhamaṃ {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(firstly)
    }
    class upapanno {
      <<past participle>>
      ⏪🚹⨀①
      english(arose)
    }
  }
  namespace idiom {
    class tassa {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨂④
      english(to him)
    }
    class evaṃ {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(thus)
    }
    class hoti {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟▶️
      english(is)
    }
  }
  namespace thought {
    class ahaṃ {
      <<puggalanāma>>
      ⚧⨀①👆
      english(I)
    }
    class asmi {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟▶️
      english([I] am)
    }
    class brahmā {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀②
      english(God)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- yoso: nidassananāma
  sentence *-- satto: kattar
  sentence *-- paṭhamaṃ: nipāta
  sentence *-- upapanno: kattar
  sentence *-- tassa: sampadāna
  sentence *-- evaṃ: nipāta
  sentence *-- hoti: ākhyāta
  sentence *-- ahaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- asmi: ākhyāta
  sentence *-- brahmā: kattar

    Relative Indeclinable

    relative clause follows main clause = elevated speech emphasising main clause

    classDiagram
  class sentence["hoti kho so samayo yaṃ … ayaṃ loko vivaṭṭati"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(there is indeed the (so) time that (i.e. when) ... this world evolves)
  }
  namespace main {
    class hoti {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤟▶️
      english(is)
    }
    class kho {
      <<nipāta>>
      english(indeed)
    }
    class so {
      <<pucchānāma>>
      🚹⨀🤟
      english(that)
    }
    class samayo {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(time)
    }
  }
  namespace relative {
    class yaṃ {
      <<anvayīnāma>>
      ⚧⨀①
      english(when)
    }
    class ayaṃ {
      <<nidassananāma>>
      ⚧⨀🤟①
      english(this)
    }
    class loko {
      <<nāma>>
      🚹⨀①
      english(world)
    }
    class vivaṭṭati {
      <<ākhyāta>>
      ⨀🤘▶️
      english(revolves)
    }
  }
  sentence *-- hoti : ākhyāta
  sentence *-- kho: nipāta
  sentence *-- so: kattar
  sentence *-- samayo: kattar
  sentence *-- yaṃ: aniyamuddesa
  sentence *-- ayaṃ: nidassananāma
  sentence *-- loko: kattar
  sentence *-- vivaṭṭati: ākhyāta

    Interrogative

    classDiagram
  class sentence["ko 'si tvaṃ āvuso"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Who are you, friend?)
  }
  class ko {
    <<pucchānāma>>
    🚹⨀🤟
    english(who?)
  }
  class asi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤘▶️
    english([you] are)
  }
  class tvaṃ {
    <<puggalanāma>>
    ⚧⨀🤘①
    english(you)
  }
  class āvuso {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(friend)
  }
  sentence *-- ko: pucchānāma
  sentence *-- asi : ākhyāta
  sentence *-- tvaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- āvuso: kattar

    Interrogative (indeclinable)

    classDiagram
  class sentence["kiṃ saddaṃ assosi"] {
    <<vākya>>
    english(Did he hear the noise?)
  }
  class kiṃ {
    <<nipāta>>
    english(who?)
  }
  class saddaṃ {
    <<nāma>>
    🚹⨀①
    english(noise)
  }
  class assosi {
    <<ākhyāta>>
     ⨀🤟⏮
    english([he] heard)
  }
  sentence *-- kiṃ: nipāta
  sentence *-- saddaṃ: kattar
  sentence *-- assosi : ākhyāta

    7.4 - Answers to Warder Lesson 7

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 7

    Translate from Pali

    1. iminā mayaṃ nimmitā (D I 18,16)
    2. mayaṃ brahmunā nimmitā (D I 18,16)

    DN 1 2.5.10:
    Iminā mayaṁ (bhotā) brahmunā nimmitā.
    🚹③⨀(ima) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹③⨀(bhavant) 🚹③⨀(brahma) 🚹①⨂(nimmita)
    By this | we | by sir | by God | created
    We have been created by this Lord God.

    1. desito Ānanda mayā dhammo (D II 100,2)

    DN 16 2.25.2:
    Desito, ānanda, mayā dhammo (anantaraṁ abāhiraṁ karitvā).
    🚹①⨀(desita) 🚹⓪⨀(ānanda) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(dhamma) 🚻①⨀(anantara) 🚻①⨀(abāhira) 🔼(karitvā)
    Taught by , Ānanda , by me | teaching | no secret teaching | no public teaching | having made
    The Dhamma was taught by me, Ānanda, (having made no secret teaching and no public teaching).

    1. iminā tvaṃ purisa dhanena jivāhi (D III 66,2-3)

    DN 26 10.15:
    Atha kho, bhikkhave, rājā khattiyo muddhābhisitto tassa purisassa dhanamanuppadāsi:
    ‘iminā tvaṁ, (ambho) purisa, dhanena (attanā ca) jīvāhi, mātāpitaro ca posehi, puttadārañca posehi, kammante ca payojehi, samaṇabrāhmaṇesu uddhaggikaṁ dakkhiṇaṁ patiṭṭhāpehi sovaggikaṁ sukhavipākaṁ saggasaṁvattanikan’ti.
    🔼(atha kho) , 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) , 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(khattiya) 🚹①⨀(muddhābhisitta) 🚹④⨀(ta) 🚹④⨀(purisa) ⏮🤟⨀(dhanamanuppadāsi) :
    After that , monks , king | noble | inaugurated | for that | for man | gave money :
    After that, the noble inaugurated king gave money to that man:
    🚹③⨀(ima) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🔼(ambho) 🚹⓪⨀(purisa) 🚻③⨀(dhana) 🚹③⨀(atta) 🔼(ca) ⏹🤘⨀(jīvati)
    With this | you | look here | man | with money | with self | and | may you subsist
    Look here, my man, with this money, may you subsist by yourself,
    🚹②⨂(mātāpitar) 🔼(ca) ⏹🤘⨀(poseti) 🚹②⨀(puttadāra)
    Parents | and | please look after , wife and kids | please look after ,
    And please look after parents, wife and kids,
    🚹②⨂(kammanta) 🔼(ca) ⏹🤘⨀(payojeti) ,
    Work | and | engage in
    And engage in work,
    🚹⑦⨂(samaṇabrāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(uddhaggika) 🚹②⨀(dakkhiṇa) ⏹🤘⨀(patiṭṭhāpeti)
    In religious practitioners | promoting spiritual welfare | donation | please offer
    Please offer donation to religious practitioners promoting spiritual welfare
    🚻①⨀(sovaggika) 🚻①⨀(sovaggika) 🚻①⨀(saggasaṃvattanika) 🔼(ti)
    Leading to heaven | resulting in happiness | leading to heaven | quote
    Leading to heaven and resulting in happiness.

    1. vimutto tathāgato (D I 29,31)

    DN 1 1.36.4:
    Vedanānaṁ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṁ viditvā (anupādā)vimutto, bhikkhave, tathāgato.
    🚺④⨂(vedanā) 🚹②⨀(samudaya) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(atthaṅgama) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(assāda) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(ādīnava) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨀(nissaraṇa) 🚻①⨀(yathābhūta) 🔼(viditvā)
    For feelings | appearance | and | passing away | and | satisfaction | and | unsatisfactoriness | and | escape from | as it truly is | having perceived
    … 🚹①⨀(anupādāvimutta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(tathāgata)
    liberated through non-attachment | monks | Tathāgata
    Having perceived the appearance and passing away of feelings, satisfaction and dissatisfaction, escape from feelings, as they truly are,
    … the Tathāgata is liberated (through non-attachment).

    1. te ca me evaṃ puṭṭhā āmā ti vadanti (Cf. D III 28,16 & D I 194,1)

    DN 24 2.20.2:
    Te ca me evaṁ puṭṭhā ‘āmo’ti paṭijānanti.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(ca) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(evaṁ) 🚹①⨂(puṭṭha) 🔼(āmo) 🔼(ti) ▶️🤟⨂(paṭijānāti)
    They | and | by me | thus | asked | quote | assent
    And thus asked by me: they assent: “Yes!”

    1. idam āsanaṃ paññattaṃ (D III 39,22-23)

    DN 9 5.6:
    (Nisīdatu, bhante, bhagavā), idaṁ āsanaṁ paññattan”ti.
    ⏹🤟⨀(nisīdati) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(āsana) 🚻①⨀(paññatta) 🔼(ti)
    Please sit down | bhante | Blessed One | this | chair | prepared
    “(Please sit down, Bhante, o Blessed One), this chair has been prepared.”

    1. ete manussā gehaṃ pavisanti (D I 83,7-8)

    DN 2 96.1:
    Seyyathāpi, mahārāja, majjhe siṅghāṭake pāsādo. Tattha cakkhumā puriso ṭhito passeyya manusse gehaṁ pavisantepi nikkhamantepi rathikāyapi vīthiṁ sañcarante majjhe siṅghāṭake nisinnepi. Tassa evamassa: ‘ete manussā gehaṁ pavisanti, ete nikkhamanti, ete rathikāya vīthiṁ sañcaranti, ete majjhe siṅghāṭake nisinnā’ti.
    🔼(seyyathāpi) 🚹⓪⨀(mahārāja) 🚹②⨂(majjha) 🚹②⨂(siṅghāṭaka) 🚹①⨀(pāsāda)
    Just like | o great king | middle of | crossroads | palace
    🔼(tattha) 🚹①⨀(cakkhumant) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚹①⨀(ṭhita) ⏯🤟⨀(passati) 🚹②⨂(manussa) 🚻②⨀(geha) 🚹②⨂(pavisanta) 🔼(pi) 🔵▶️🤟⨂(nikkhamati) 🔼(pi) 🚺⑦⨀(rathikā) 🔼(pi) 🚺②⨀(vīthi) 🔵▶️🤟⨂(sañcarati) 🚹②⨂(majjha) 🚻②⨂(siṅghāṭaka) 🚹②⨂(nisinna) 🔼(pi)
    In that place | who can see | person | stood still | will see | people | house | entering | too | exiting | too | at main road | too | path | wandering | middle of | crossroads | seated | too
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🔼(evamassa) :
    Of that | he would think thus :
    🚹①⨂(eta) 🚹①⨂(manussa) 🚻②⨀(geha)
    These | people | house | enter
    🚹①⨂(eta) ▶️🤟⨂(nikkhamati)
    These exit
    🚹①⨂(eta) 🚺⑦⨀(rathikā) 🚺②⨀(vīthi) ▶️🤟⨂(sañcarati)
    These | at main road | path | wander
    🚹①⨂(eta) 🚹②⨂(majjha) 🚻②⨂(siṅghāṭaka) ①⨂(nisinna) 🔼(ti)
    These | middle of | crossroads | seated | quote
    (O great king, just like a palace in the middle of a crossroad. In that place, a person who is able to see, standing still, will see people entering a house, exiting, wandering along a path on the main road, seated in the middle of the crossroad. Of that, he would think thus): “These people enter a house, (exit, wander along a path on the main road, seated in the middle of the crossroad).”

    1. niggahīto ‘si (D III 117,13-14)

    DN 29 1.5:
    “na tvaṁ imaṁ dhammavinayaṁ ājānāsi, ahaṁ imaṁ dhammavinayaṁ ājānāmi, kiṁ tvaṁ imaṁ dhammavinayaṁ ājānissasi? Micchāpaṭipanno tvamasi, ahamasmi sammāpaṭipanno. Sahitaṁ me, asahitaṁ te. Purevacanīyaṁ pacchā avaca, pacchāvacanīyaṁ pure avaca. Adhiciṇṇaṁ te viparāvattaṁ, āropito te vādo, niggahito tvamasi, cara vādappamokkhāya, nibbeṭhehi vā sace pahosī”ti.
    🚻①⨀(adhiciṇṇa) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚻①⨀(viparāvatta) 🚹①⨀(āropita) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹①⨀(vāda) 🚹①⨀(niggahita) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) ▶️🤘⨀(atthi) ⏹🤘⨀(carati) 🚹④⨀(vādappamokkha) ⏹🤘⨀(nibbeṭheti) 🔼(vā) 🔼(sace) ▶️🤘⨀(pahoti) 🔼(ti)
    What one has prepared | by you | refuted | debunked | by you | statement | disproved | you | is , wandered | saving an argument , you must wriggle | or | if | you are able | quote
    “(What has been prepared by you is refuted, statement by you is debunked), you are disproved, (you must wander around to save the argument, or wriggle, if you are able).”

    1. kilanto ‘smi (D II 128,18)

    DN 16 4.39.3:
    “iṅgha me tvaṁ, cundaka, catugguṇaṁ saṅghāṭiṁ paññapehi, kilantosmi, cundaka, nipajjissāmī”ti.
    🔼(iṅgha) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(cundaka) 🚺②⨀(catugguṇa) 🚺②⨀(saṅghāṭi) ⏹🤘⨀(paññapeti) 🚹①⨀(kilanta) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🚹⓪⨀(cundaka) ⏭👆⨀(nipajjati) 🔼(ti)
    Please | by me | you | Cundaka | folded in four | outer robe | you prepare | tired | I am | Cundaka | I will rest | quote
    “(Please, Cundaka, prepare to fold my outer robe in four for me). I am tired, (Cundaka, I will rest).”

    1. dānaṃ detha (D II 357,15)

    DN 23 33.14:
    “sakkaccaṁ dānaṁ detha, sahatthā dānaṁ detha, cittīkataṁ dānaṁ detha, anapaviddhaṁ dānaṁ detha.
    🔼(sakkaccaṃ) 🚹①⨂(da) ⏹🤘⨂(deti) , 🚹③⨀(sahattha) … 🚻①⨀(cittīkata) … 🚻①⨀(anapaviddha) …
    Respectfully | offering | you please give , with your own hand … thoughtfully … without throwing
    Please give offering (respectfully, with your own hand, thoughtfully, without throwing).

    Translate into Pali

    1. They experience happiness (Cf. D I 75,7-8)
      sukhaṃ paṭisaṃvedenti.

    2. The doctrine has been declared by me (D II 154,6)
      mayā dhammo paññatto.

    3. The wanderer is (hoti) contented (Cf. D I 71,3)
      paribbājako santuṭṭho hoti.

    4. Death (is) misery (D II 305,3)
      maraṇaṃ dukkhaṃ.

    5. I have heard this (D I 128,29)
      sutaṃ (kho pana) me taṃ.

    6. I did the work (D III 257,1-2)
      ahaṃ (kho) kammaṃ akāsiṃ.

    7. He gives a donation (D III 258,10)
      dānaṃ deti.

    8. The body (is) tired (D III 255,16)
      kāyo kilanto.

    7.5 - Answers to Warder Lesson 8

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 8

    Translate from Pali

    ahaṃ tena samayena rājā Mahāsudassano ahosiṃ (D II 196,11-12)
    👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(mahāsudassana) ⏮👆⨀(ahosi)
    I | by that | by time | King | Mahāsudassana | was
    At that time, I was King Mahāsudassana.

    dānena n’ atthi puññaṃ (D I 53,1)
    🚻③⨀(dāna) ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚻①⨀(puñña)
    by giving | is not | merit
    There is no merit by giving.

    te ‘haṃ upasaṃkamitvā evaṃ vadāmi (D III 28,13-14)
    🚹①⨂(ta) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) 🔼(evaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(vadati)
    they | I | having approached | thus | say
    Having approached them, I say thus.

    maṃ abhivādetvā pakkāmi (Cf. D I 222,18 and D I 85,33)
    👆②⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(abhivādetvā) ⏮🤟⨀(pakkāmi)
    me | having bowed down to | he left
    Having bowed down to me, (he) left.

    disvā evaṃ avocumha (D III 39,33 - 40,1)
    🔼(disvā) 🔼(evaṃ) ⏮👆⨂(avoca)
    having seen | thus | we said
    Having seen, (we) said thus.

    diṭṭhā bho satta jīvasi (D III 73,18)
    🔼(diṭṭhā) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹⓪⨀(satta) ▶️🤘⨀(jīvati)
    thank heavens | honourable | being | you live
    Thank heavens, honourable being, (you) live!

    jayaṃ veraṃ pasavati (D III 183,17)
    🚻①⨀(jaya) 🚻②⨀(vera) ▶️🤟⨀(pasavati)
    winning | hatred | he produces
    Winning, (he) produces hatred

    brāhmaṇo brahmunā manteti (D II 237,4-5)
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹③⨀(brahma) ▶️🤟⨀(manteti)
    brahman | with Brahma | discusses
    Brahman discusses with Brahma.

    evaṃ bho ti (D I 236,20)
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(ti)
    yes | o Lord | quote
    “Yes, Lord.”

    handa vata bho gacchāma (D III 16,18)
    🔼(handa) 🔼(vata) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) ▶️👆⨂(gacchati)
    come on | certainly | sir | we go
    Come on, sir, we are certainly going!

    kālaṃ karonto avoca (D III 181,3)
    🚹②⨀(kāla) 🚹①⨀(karonta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca)
    time | making | he said
    Making time (dying), (he) said …

    rājā samāno idaṃ labhati (D III 146,24-25)
    🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚻①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(labhati)
    king | being | this | he obtains
    Being the king, (he) obtains this.

    jhānaṃ jhāyati (D II 238,11)
    🚻①⨀(jhāna) ▶️🤟⨀(jhāyati)
    jhāna | he contemplates
    He contemplates jhāna.

    mayaṃ bhagavantaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāma, dhammañ ca (D II 43,27-28)
    👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(saraṇa) ▶️👆⨂(gacchati) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🔼(ca)
    we | Blessed One | refuge | we go | Dhamma | and
    We go to the Blessed One and the Dhamma for refuge.

    jīvitaṃ demi (D I 148,3)
    🚻②⨀(jīvita) ▶️👆⨀(deti)
    life | I give
    (I) give life.

    Translate into Pali

    They enter by this gate (D II 83,16)
    Te iminā dvārena pavisanti.

    The king, having greeted the fortunate one, sat down (D I 50,33 - 51,1)
    Rājā Bhagavantaṃ abhivādetvā nisīdi.

    Having approached (and) greeted the fortunate one, they sat down (D II 84,16-17)
    Upasaṇkamitvā Bhagavantaṃ abhivādetvā nisīdiṃsu.

    Having approached them I ask these questions (D II 284,11-12)
    Te ahaṃ upasaṇkamitvā ime pañhe pucchāmi.

    Having dressed, taking a bowl I entered the village (Cf. D III 6,5-8)
    Ahaṃ nivāsetvā pattaṃ ādāya gāmaṃ pāvisiṃ.

    Gentlemen! do not say thus (D I 122,26)
    Mā bhavanto evaṃ avacuttha.

    The honourable Jotipāla went forth (D II 249,19-21)
    Bhavaṃ Jotipālo pabbaji.

    (As he is) going he sees (Cf. D III 126,18 & D III 257,13)
    Gacchaṃ (or gacchanto) passati.

    I do not take counsel with God (D II 237,10-12)
    N’ahaṃ (or just na) brahmuṇā mantemi.

    He entered the house (Cf. D II 85,3-4)
    Agāraṃ (or gehaṃ) pāvisi.

    He gives a drink (D III 258,18)
    Pāṇaṃ deti

    I do not get food (Cf. D III 255,30 - 256,1)
    Ahaṃ bhojanaṃ (or annaṃ) na labhāmi

    He sees the garment (D II 110,27-29)
    Vatthaṃ passati.

    He is (hoti) satisfied with the resting place (D III 225,12)
    So senāsanena santuṭṭho hoti

    Living beings experience unhappiness (D I 53,31-33)
    Sattā (or bhūtā) dukkhaṃ paṭisaṃvedenti

    The lay disciples come to the place (D II 84,16 & D II 87,2 & D II 198,29)
    Upāsakā yena ṭhānaṃ (or padeso) ten’upasaṅkamanti. (or upāsakā padesaṃ/ṭhānaṃ āgacchanti).

    7.6 - Answers to Warder Lesson 9

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 9

    Translate from Pali

    kāyā hāyanti (D II 221,13)
    🚹①⨂(kāya) ▶️🤟⨂(hāyati)
    bodies | decrease
    The bodies decrease.

    ayaṃ kho sā brāhmaṇa paññā (D I 124,33-34)
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 🚺①⨀(sa) 🚺①⨀(pañña)
    this | indeed | that | wisdom
    This is that wisdom indeed.

    esā taṇhā pahīyati (D II 310,10-11)
    🚺①⨀(eta) 🚺①⨀(taṇha) ▶️🤟⨀(pahīyati)
    this | craving | is given up
    This craving is given up.

    bhojanaṃ dīyati (D II 354,16)
    🚻①⨀(bhojana) ▶️🤟⨀(dīyati)
    meal | is offered
    Meal is offered.

    saccaṃ Nigrodha bhāsitā te esā vācā (interrogative) (D III 53,28)
    🚻①⨀(sacca) 🚹⓪⨀(nigrodha) 🚻①⨂(bhāsita) 🤘③⨀(tvaṃ) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚺①⨀(vāca)
    is it true | o Nigrodha | spoken | by you | this | speech
    Is it true, o Nigrodha, this speech was spoken by you?

    saccaṃ bhante bhāsitā me esā vācā (affirmative reply to the preceding sentence) (D III 54,1)
    🚻①⨀(sacca) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚻①⨂(bhāsita) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚺①⨀(eta) 🚺①⨀(vāca)
    it is true | Bhante | spoken | by me | this | speech
    It is true, Bhante, this speech was spoken by me.

    idaṃ vuccati cittan ti vā viññāṇan ti vā (D I 21,21-22)
    🚻①⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚻①⨀(citta) 🔼(ti vā) 🚻①⨀(viññāṇa) 🔼(ti)
    this | is called | mind | quote | consciousness | quote
    This is called “mind” or “consciousness.”

    tā devatā maṃ etad avocuṃ (D II 51,24)
    🚺①⨂(ta) 🚺①⨂(devatā) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) ⏮🤟⨂(avoca)
    those | deities | me | this | said
    Those deities said this to me.

    atthi kho bho Maṇikā nāma vijjā (D I 214,7)
    ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨂(maṇika) 🔼(nāma) 🚺①⨀(vijjā)
    there exists | indeed | sir | Maṇika | named | knowledge
    There exists indeed, sir, a knowledge called Maṇika.

    saññā ca vedanā ca niruddhā honti (D III 266,16-17)
    🚺①⨂(sañña) 🔼(ca) 🚺①⨂(vedanā) 🔼(ca) 🚺①⨀(niruddha) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti)
    perceptions | and | feelings | and | ceased | are
    Perceptions and feelings are ceased.

    Sujātā nāma bhante upāsikā kālakatā (D II 92,2-3)
    🚺①⨀(sujāta) 🔼(nāma) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚺①⨀(upāsikā) 🚺①⨀(kālakata)
    Sujāta | named | Bhante | female disciple | dead
    Bhante, the female disciple named Sujāta is dead.

    evaṃ pi kho Sunakkhatto mayā  vuccamāno apakkami (D III 6,1-2)
    🔼(evaṃ pi kho) 🚹①⨀(sunakkhatta) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(vuccamāna) ⏮🤟⨀(apakkami)
    thus | even | indeed | Sunakkhatta | by me | spoken | departed
    Indeed, even spoken thus by me, Sunakkhatta departed.

    samaṇo Gotamo imaṃ parisaṃ āgacchati (Cf. D I 179,8 and D III 38,17-18)
    🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🚺②⨀(ima) 🚺②⨀(parisā) ▶️🤟⨀(āgacchati)
    ascetic | Gotama | this | assembly | comes to
    The ascetic Gotama comes to this assembly.

    Translate into Pali

    Using the present passive in the present time sentences:

    These phenomena are abandoned (Cf. D I 195,32)
    Ime (or ete) dhammā pahīyanti.

    Goats are killed (D II 352,27)
    Ajā haññanti.

    The priest is seen (Cf. D III 81,28-29)
    Brāhmaṇo dissati.

    Ignorance is given up (D II 215,26)
    Avijjā pahīyati.

    He is called an ascetic (D I 167,23)
    Ayaṃ (or so) vuccati samaṇo.

    This is called misery (D II 307,21)
    Idaṃ vuccati dukkhaṃ.

    Taking a garland they went to the hall (Cf. D II 265,9)
    Mālaṃ ādāya yena sālā tena upasaṅkamiṃsu.

    7.7 - Answers to Warder Lesson 10

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 10

    Translate from Pali

    na ciraṃ tathāgatassa parinibbānaṃ bhavissati (D II 114,29-30)
    🔼(na) 🚹②⨀(cira) 🚹⑥⨀(tathāgata) 🚻①⨀(parinibbāna) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati)
    no | long | of tathāgata | final emancipation | will come
    The final emancipation of the Tathāgata will not be long.

    imassa jayo bhavissati (D I 10,5)
    🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(jaya) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati)
    of his | victory | there will be
    Victory will be of his.

    brāhmaṇā brahmuno puttā (D III 81,13)
    🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(brahma) 🚹①⨂(putta)
    brahmans | of Brahma | children
    Brahmans are children of Brahma.

    dukkhass’ antaṃ karissanti (D I 54,21)
    🚹②⨀(dukkhassanta) ⏭🤟⨂(karoti)
    end of suffering | will make
    There will make end of suffering.

    āropito te vādo (D I 8,15)
    🚹①⨀(āropita) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹①⨀(vāda)
    refuted | your | argument
    Your argument is refuted.

    ayaṃ imassa bhāsitassa attho (D I 137,28)
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚻⑥⨀(bhāsita) 🚹①⨀(attha)
    this | of this | of statement | meaning
    This is the meaning of this statement.

    mā me purato aṭṭhāsi (D II 139,4)
    🔼(mā) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(purato) ⏮🤟⨀(aṭṭhāsi)
    do not | of me | in front of | stood
    Do not stand in front of me.

    so maṃ pañhena, ahaṃ veyyākaraṇena sobhissāmi (D I 105,19-20)
    🔼(somaṃ) 🚻③⨀(pañha) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻③⨀(veyyākaraṇa) ⏭👆⨀(sobhati)
    he this | by question | I | by answer | embellish
    This person, by question, I, by answer embellish (clarify).

    tena kho pana samayena Ānando bhagavato piṭṭhito ṭhito hoti bhagavantaṃ vījamāno (D II 73,22-23)
    🚹③⨀(ta) 🔼(kho pana) | 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨀(ānanda) 🚹⑥⨀(bhagavant) 🚺⑤⨀(piṭṭhi) 🚹①⨀(ṭhita) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🚹①⨀(vījamāna)
    by that | indeed | now | by time | Ānanda | of Blessed one | from back | standing | is | Blessed One | fanning
    Now by that time, Ānanda is standing behind the Blessed One, fanning the Blessed One.

    kammaṃ kho pana me karontassa kāyo kilamissati (DIII255,9-10)
    🚻①⨀(kamma) 🔼(kho pana) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻⑥⨀(karonta) 🚹①⨀(kāya) ⏭🤟⨀(kilamati)
    work | indeed | but | of me | of performing | body | gets fatigued
    But while I was performing work, the body gets fatigued.

    tassa ratanāni bhavanti (D II 16,16)
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚻①⨂(ratana) ▶️🤟⨂(bhavati)
    of his | jewel | are
    The jewels are of his.

    Translate into Pali

    These people will have sons (D III 71,14-15)
    Imesaṃ manussānaṃ puttā bhavissanti.

    I am his slave (D I 60,14)
    Ahaṃ assa (or tassa) dāso amhi (or asmi).

    There will be danger (D I 69,4)
    Bhayaṃ bhavissati.

    He will teach the doctrine (D III 76,13)
    So dhammaṃ desessati (or desissati).

    I will be an ascetic (D III 95,24)
    Samaṇo bhavissāmi.

    The priest has a son (D II 231,11-12)
    Brāhmaṇassa putto hoti.

    They wrap the king’s body in a garment (instrumental) (D II 141,32-33)
    Rañño sarīraṃ vatthena veṭhenti.

    This is the pagoda of that fortunate one (D II 142, 19-20)
    Ayaṃ (or eso) tassa Bhagavato thūpo.

    We deserve a share of the relics of the fortunate one (D II 164, 34 - 165,1)
    Mayaṃ Bhagavato sarīrānaṃ bhāgaṃ arahāma.

    7.8 - Answers to Warder Lesson 11

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 11

    Translate from Pali

    na kho ahaṃ āvuso addasaṃ (D II 130,21)
    🔼(na kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(āvuso) ⏮👆⨀(addasa)
    no | indeed | I | friend | saw
    Indeed, friend, I did not see.

    ayaṃ tathāgatassa pacchimā vācā (D II 156,3)
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹⑥⨀(tathāgata) 🚹①⨂(pacchima) 🚹①⨂(vāca)
    these | of Tathāgata | final | words
    These are the final words of the Tathāgata.

    pāmujjaṃ bhavissati, sukho ca vihāro (D I 196,10-12)
    🚻①⨀(pāmujja) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🚹①⨀(sukha) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨀(vihāra)
    joy | there will be | comfortable | and | way of life
    There will be joy, and comfortable way of life.

    addasā kho bhagavā tā devatāyo (D II 87,11-12)
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚺①⨂(ta) 🚺①⨂(devatā)
    saw | indeed | Blessed One | those | deities
    The Blessed One indeed saw those deities.

    iminā kho evaṃ bho pariyāyena Jotipālassa māṇavassa Mahāgovindo ti samaññā udapādi (D II 232,23-25)
    🚹③⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹③⨀(pariyāya) 🚹④⨀(jotipāla) 🚹④⨀(māṇava) 🚹①⨀(mahāgovinda) 🔼(ti) 🚺①⨀(samaññā) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi)
    by this | indeed | thus | sir | by means | of Jotipāla | of young brahman | Mahāgovinda | quote | designation | arose
    Thus, by this means, sir, the name “Mahāgovinda” arose for Jotipāla the young brahman.

    sassato loko (D I 187,22)
    🚹①⨀(sassata) 🚹①⨀(loka)
    eternal | universe
    The universe is eternal.

    so gacchati dakkhiṇaṃ disaṃ (D I 222,27-28)
    🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati) 🚹②⨀(dakkhiṇa) 🚹②⨀(disa)
    it | goes | southern | direction
    It goes to the southern direction.

    kusalan ti pi na bhavissati, kuto pana kusalassa kārako (D III 71,27-28)
    🚻①⨀(kusala) 🔼(ti pi na) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) , 🔼(kuto pana) 🚹⑥⨀(kusala) 🚹①⨀(kāraka)
    good | quote | even | no | will be , let alone | but | of good | doer
    There will not be a “good”, let alone a doer of good.

    ahaṃ kho maggaṃ agamāsiṃ (D III 255,24)
    👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🚹②⨀(magga) ⏮👆⨀(agamāsi)
    I | indeed | road | travelled
    Indeed, I travelled (along the) road.

    kalyānaṃ vuccati brāhmaṇa (D I 110,34)
    🚻④⨂(kalya) ▶️🤟⨀(vuccati) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa)
    for proper | is said | O brahman
    O Brahman, properly said.

    atha kho rājā Mahāsudassano vāmena hatthena bhiṅkāraṃ gahetvā dakkhiṇena hatthena cakkaratanaṃ abbhukkiri (D II 172,19-22)
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(mahāsudassana) 🚹③⨀(vāma) 🚹③⨀(hattha) 🚹②⨀(bhiṅkāra) 🔼(gahetvā) 🚹③⨀(dakkhiṇa) 🚹③⨀(hattha) 🚻②⨀(cakkaratana) ⏮🤟⨀(abbhukkiri)
    after that | King | Mahāsudassana | with left | with hand | water jar | having taken | with right | with hand | jewelled wheel | sprinkled over
    After that King Mahāsudassana, having taken water jar with left hand, sprinkled over jewelled wheel with right hand.

    idaṃ kusalaṃ (D II 222,27)
    🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(kusala)
    this | wholesome
    This is wholesome.

    ayaṃ Jambudīpo iddho c’eva bhavissati phīto ca (D III 75,8-9)
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(jambudīpa) 🚹①⨀(iddha) 🔼(ceva) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🚹①⨀(phīta)
    this | India | as well as | will become | successful
    This India is wealthy as well as will become successful.

    micchā paṭipanno tvam asi, aham asmi sammā paṭipanno (D III 117,10-11)
    🔼(micchā) 🚹①⨀(paṭipanna) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) ▶️🤘⨀(atthi) , 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🔼(sammā) 🚹①⨀(paṭipanna)
    wrong | practicing | you | are , I | am | correct | practising
    You are practicing wrongly, I am practising correctly.

    so tato cuto idhūpapanno (D I 81,23)
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(cuta) 🔼(idhūpapanno)
    he | from there | passed away | reborn here
    He passed away from there, and was reborn here.

    addasā paribbājako bhagavantaṃ āgacchantaṃ (D I 179,5-6)
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🚹①⨀(paribbājaka) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(āgacchanta)
    saw | wandering ascetic | Blessed One | coming
    The wandering ascetic saw the Blessed One coming.

    saññā uppajjanti pi nirujjhanti pi (D I 180,3)
    🚹①⨂(sañña) ▶️🤟⨂(uppajjati) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨂(nirujjhati) 🔼(pi)
    perceptions | arise | too | cease | too
    Perceptions arise and cease.

    bhagavato ābādho uppajji (D II 127,34-35)
    🚹④⨀(bhagavant) 🚹①⨀(ābādha) ⏮🤟⨀(uppajji)
    for Blessed One | disease | arose
    Disease arose for Blessed One.

    saṃvaraṃ āpajjati (D I 85,26)
    🚹②⨀(saṃvara) ▶️🤟⨀(āpajjati)
    restraint | he becomes
    He becomes restrained.

    ahaṃ kho kammaṃ akāsiṃ. kammaṃ kho pana me karontassa kāyo kilanto, handāhaṃ nipajjāmi (D III 255,15-16)
    👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🚻②⨀(kamma) ⏮👆⨀(akāsi) . 🚻②⨀(kamma) 🔼(kho pana) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(karonta) 🚺①⨂(ka) 🚹①⨀(kilanta) , 🔼(handāhaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(nipajjati)
    I | indeed | work | did . work | indeed | but | of I | of doing | body | became tired , now I must | rest
    Indeed I did work. However, while I was doing work, the body became tired, now I must rest.

    imaṃ mayaṃ addasāma idha upapannaṃ (D I 18,17-18)
    🚻①⨀(ima) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) ⏮👆⨂(addasa) 🔼(idha) 🚻①⨀(upapanna)
    this | we | saw | here | appeared
    We saw this appearing here.

    Translate into Pali

    The universe is infinite (D I 188,1-2)
    Ananto (or anantavā) loko.

    This is not easy (use the neuter: impersonal statement) (D I 63,3-4)
    Na idaṃ sukaraṃ.

    I followed the road (D III 255,24)
    Ahaṃ maggaṃ agamāsiṃ (or paṭipajjiṃ).

    The king saw the boy (D II 16,3-4)
    Addasā rājā kumāraṃ.

    The city was prosperous (Cf. D II 146,29 and D I 211,7)
    Nagaraṃ phītaṃ ahosi.

    He (is) fixed, permanent, eternal (four words, order as here) (D I 18,35)
    So dhuvo nicco sassato.

    We saw the fortunate one (D III 39,32)
    Addasāma Bhagavantaṃ.

    The speech (is) agreeable (D III 173,13-14)
    Vācā kantā (or bhāsitaṃ kantaṃ).

    My life (was) given by him (he spared my life), his life (was) given by me (I spared his life) (Cf. D I 148,3)
    Tena ca me jīvitaṃ dinnaṃ, mayā ca tassa jīvitaṃ dinnaṃ.

    See! Ananda - They (are) past, ended, changed (D II 198,18-19)
    Passa, Ānanda, te atītā niruddhā vipariṇatā.

    He has much gold (Cf. D II 351,11 and D III 163,5-6)
    Tassa pahūtaṃ suvaṇṇaṃ hoti.

    7.9 - Answers to Warder Lesson 12

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 12

    Passage for reading

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 19.3-19.9 (D II 337,9-23):

    bhūtapubbaṃ aññataro saṅkhadhamo saṅkhaṃ ādāya paccantimaṃ janapadaṃ agamāsi. so yen’ aññataro gāmo ten’ upasaṃkami. upasaṃkamitvā saṅkhaṃ upaḷāsitvā saṅkhaṃ nikkhipitvā nisīdi. atha kho tesaṃ paccantajānaṃ manussānaṃ etad ahosi: kissa nu kho eso saddo evaṃ rajanīyo evaṃ kamanīyo evaṃ madanīyo ti. sannipatitvā taṃ saṅkhadhamaṃ etad avocuṃ: ambho kissa nu kho eso saddo evaṃ rajanīyo evaṃ kamanīyo evaṃ madanīyo ti. eso kho bho saṅkho nāma yass’ eso saddo evaṃ rajanīyo evaṃ kamanīyo evaṃ madanīyo ti.

    bhūtapubbaṃ aññataro saṅkhadhamo saṅkhaṃ ādāya paccantimaṃ janapadaṃ agamāsi.
    ⏏️(bhūtapubbaṃ) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(saṅkhadhama) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(ādāya) 🚹②⨀(paccantima) 🚹②⨀(janapada) ⏮🤟⨀(agamāsi)
    once upon a time | a certain | conchblower | conch shell | taking | frontier | country | travelled
    Once upon a time, a certain conchblower, taking a conch shell, travelled to a frontier country.

    so yen’ aññataro gāmo ten’ upasaṃkami.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(gāma) 🚹③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami)
    he | by there | a certain | village | by there | approached
    He approached a certain village.

    upasaṃkamitvā saṅkhaṃ upaḷāsitvā saṅkhaṃ nikkhipitvā nisīdi.
    🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(upaḷāsitvā) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(nikkhipitvā) ⏮🤟⨀(nisīdi)
    having approached | conch shell | having played | conch shell | having placed down | sat down
    Having approached, and played the conch shell, and placed down the conch shell, he sat down.

    atha kho tesaṃ paccantajānaṃ manussānaṃ etad ahosi: kissa nu kho eso saddo evaṃ rajanīyo evaṃ kamanīyo evaṃ madanīyo ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹④⨂(ta) 🚹④⨂(paccantaja) 🚹④⨂(manussa) 🔼(etadahosi) : 🚹⑥⨀(ka) 🔼(nu kho) 🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(sadda) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(rajanīya) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(kamanīya) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(madanīya) 🔼(ti)
    after that | for those | for frontier | for people | this thought occured : of what? | surely? | indeed | this | sound | thus | enticing | thus | beautiful | thus | intoxicating | quote
    After that the thought occured for those frontier people: “What is this sound that is so enticing, beautiful and intoxicating?”

    sannipatitvā taṃ saṅkhadhamaṃ etad avocuṃ: ambho kissa nu kho eso saddo evaṃ rajanīyo evaṃ kamanīyo evaṃ madanīyo ti.
    🔼(sannipatitvā) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(saṅkhadhama) ⏮🤟⨂(etadavoca) : 🔼(ambho) 🚹⑥⨀(ka) 🔼(nu kho) 🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(sadda) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(rajanīya) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(kamanīya) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(madanīya) 🔼(ti)
    having gathered together | that | conchblower | said this : hey! | of what? | surely? | indeed | this | sound | thus | enticing | thus | beautiful | thus | intoxicating | quote
    Having gathered together, they said this to that conchblower: “Hey! What is this sound that is so enticing, beautiful and intoxicating?”

    eso kho bho saṅkho nāma yass’ eso saddo evaṃ rajanīyo evaṃ kamanīyo evaṃ madanīyo ti.
    🚹①⨀(eta) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(nāma) 🚹④⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(sadda) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(rajanīya) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(kamanīya) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹①⨀(madanīya) 🔼(ti)
    this | indeed | sir | conch shell | named | for whatever | this | sound | thus | enticing | thus | beautiful | thus | intoxicating | quote
    “Sir, this is named a ‘conch shell’ for whatever this sound that is so enticing, beautiful and intoxicating.”

    Translate from Pali

    yen’ ajja samaṇo Gotamo dvārena nikkhamissati taṃ Gotama dvaraṃ nāma bhavissati (D II 89,7-8)
    🚹③⨀(ya) 🔼(ajja) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🚻③⨀(dvāra) ⏭🤟⨀(nikkhamati) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(gotamadvāra) 🔼(nāma) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati)
    by whichever | today | ascetic | Gotama | by gateway | will exit | that | Gotama Gate | named | will be
    By whichever gate the ascetic Gotama will exit today, that will be named the “Gotama Gate”.

    vatthāni pi ‘ssa na yathā aññesaṃ (D II 28,27-28)
    🚻①⨂(vattha) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🔼(na) 🔼(yathā) 🚹⑥⨂(añña)
    clothes | too | of this | no | like | of other
    (His) clothes too are not like of others.

    imassa ko attho (D III 285,7)
    🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(ka) 🚹①⨀(attha)
    of this | what | meaning
    What is the meaning of this?

    mayaṃ yaṃ icchissāma taṃ karissāma (D II 162,32)
    👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(ya) ⏭👆⨂(icchati) 🚻①⨀(ta) ⏭👆⨂(karoti)
    we | what | will desire | that| we will do
    “What we will desire, that we will do.”

    kissa nu kho me idaṃ kammassa phalaṃ, kissa kammassa vipāko (D II 185,29-30)
    🚹⑥⨀(ka) 🔼(nu kho) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻⑥⨀(kamma) 🚻①⨀(phala) , 🚹⑥⨀(ka) 🚻⑥⨀(kamma) 🚹①⨀(vipāka)
    of what? | surely? | indeed | of me | of action | fruit , of what | action | result
    Of what action of me is this fruit, of what action is this result?

    taṃ kiṃ maññanti bhonto devā (D II 216,7)
    🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(ka) ▶️🤟⨂(maññati) 🚹①⨂(bhavant) 🚹①⨂(deva)
    that | what | think | honourable | Lords
    What do the honourable Lords think about that?

    n’ atthi paro loko (D I 55,17)
    ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚹①⨀(para) 🚹①⨀(loka)
    is not | another | world
    (There) is not another world.

    ko ‘si tvaṃ āvuso (D II 356,17)
    🔼(kosi) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🔼(āvuso)
    who are you | you | friend
    Who are you, friend?

    kiṃ kusalaṃ kiṃ akusalaṃ (D III 61,14-15)
    🚻①⨀(ka) 🚻①⨀(kusala) 🚻①⨀(ka) 🚻①⨀(akusala)
    what | skillful | what | unskillful
    What is skillful, what is unskillful?

    ke tumhe (D III 84,16)
    🚹①⨀(ka) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ)
    where | you
    Where are you all?

    rājā samāno kiṃ labhati (D III 146,23)
    🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(samāna) 🚻②⨀(ka) ▶️🤟⨀(labhati)
    king | being | what | gets
    Being the king, what does he get?

    iminā me upasamena Udāyibhaddo kumāro samannāgato hotu (D I 50,25-26)
    🚹③⨀(ima) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹③⨀(upasama) 🚹①⨀(udāyibhadda) 🚹①⨀(kumāra) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) ⏹🤟⨀(hoti)
    with this | of me | with peace | Udāyibhadda | Prince | endowed | must be
    May my Prince Udāyibhadda be endowed with this peace!

    puccha mahārāja yad ākaṅkhasi (D I 51,6)
    ⏹🤘⨀(pucchati) 🚹⓪⨀(mahārāja) 🚻①⨀(ya) ▶️🤘⨀(ākaṅkhati)
    may you ask | Mahārāja | whatever | you desire
    O Mahārāja, may you ask whatever you desire.

    karoti te bhagavā okāsaṃ (D II 150,19-20)
    ▶️🤟⨀(karoti) 🤘④⨀(tvaṃ)) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(okāsa)
    he makes | for you | Blessed One | opportunity
    The Blessed One makes opportunity for you.

    yaṃ kho ‘ssa na kkhamati taṃ pajahati (D III 43,27-28)
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🚹④⨀(ima) ▶️🤟⨀(nakkhamati) 🚻①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(pajahati)
    whatever | indeed | for him | not suitable | that | gives up
    Whatever is not suitable for him, that he gives up.

    Translate into Pali

    He gave to me (D III 258,11)
    Adāsi me.

    Prince Udāyibhadda (is) dear to me (D I 50,29)
    Piyo me Udāyibhaddo kumāro.

    The fortunate one, taking a bowl, entered the village for alms (Cf. D I 178,7-8)
    Bhagavā pattaṃ ādāya gāmaṃ piṇḍāya pāvisi.

    He teaches the doctrine for “extinction” (D III 55,1-2)
    So nibbānāya (or parinibbānāya) dhammaṃ deseti.

    He eats what he likes (D III 43,28-30)
    Yaṃ (assa) khamati taṃ khādati (or paribhuñjati).

    Then (atha) the gate by which the fortunate one left was named Gotama Gate (D II 89,10-11)
    Atha kho Bhagavā yena dvārena nikkhami, taṃ Gotama-dvāraṃ nāma ahosi.

    What do you think, then, great king? (D I 60,6)
    Taṃ kiṃ maññasi mahārāja?

    We have come here to see the honourable Gotama (D I 89,22-23)
    Mayaṃ bhavantaṃ Gotamaṃ dassanāya idha upasaṅkantā.

    Did you hear a noise, sir? I didn’t hear a noise, sir! (D II 130,22-23)
    Kiṃ bhante saddaṃ assosī ti? Na ahaṃ āvuso saddaṃ assosin-ti.

    We do not see his soul leaving (D II 333,9)
    N’ (ev’) assa mayaṃ jīvaṃ nikkhamantaṃ passāma

    7.10 - Answers to Warder Lesson 13

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 13

    Passage for reading

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 19.10-19.18 (D II 337,23 - 338,9):

    te taṃ saṅkhaṃ uttānaṃ nipātesuṃ: vadehi bho saṅkha, vadehi bho saṅkhā ti. n’eva so saṅkho saddaṃ akāsi. te taṃ saṅkhaṃ passena nipātesuṃ … uddhaṃ ṭhapesuṃ … daṇḍena ākoṭesuṃ … sandhuniṃsu: vadehi bho saṅkha, vadehi bho saṅkhā ti. n’eva so saṅkho saddaṃ akāsi. atha kho tassa saṅkhadhamassa etad ahosi: yāva bālā. ime paccantajā manussā. kathaṃ hi nāma ayoniso saṅkhasaddaṃ gavesissantī ti. tesam pekkhamānānaṃ saṅkhaṃ gahetvā tikkhattuṃ saṅkhaṃ upaḷāsitvā saṅkhaṃ ādāya pakkāmi.

    te taṃ saṅkhaṃ uttānaṃ nipātesuṃ:
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🚹②⨀(uttāna) ⏮🤟⨂(nipātesi)
    they | that | conch shell | lying on it’s back | placed down
    They placed down that conch shell lying on it’s back.

    vadehi bho saṅkha, vadehi bho saṅkhā ti.
    ⏹🤘⨀(vadeti) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹⓪⨀(saṅkha) ⏹🤘⨀(vadeti) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹⓪⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(ti)
    make sound | sir | conch | make sound | sir | conch | quote
    “Make sound, Sir Conch! Make sound, Sir Conch!”

    n’eva so saṅkho saddaṃ akāsi.
    🔼(neva) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(saṅkha) 🚹②⨀(sadda) ⏮🤟⨀(akāsi)
    not even | that | conch | sound | made
    That conch did not even make any sound.

    te taṃ saṅkhaṃ passena nipātesuṃ … uddhaṃ ṭhapesuṃ … daṇḍena ākoṭesuṃ … sandhuniṃsu:
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🚻③⨀(passa) ⏮🤟⨂(nipātesi) … 🚹②⨀(uddha) ⏮🤟⨂(ṭhapesi) … 🚹③⨀(daṇḍa) ⏮🤟⨂(ākoṭesi) … ⏮🤟⨂(sandhuni)
    they | that | conch shell | side | placed down … upright | placed … with stick | tapped … shook together
    they lied down the conch on its side … placed upright … tapped with stick … shook [it].

    vadehi bho saṅkha, vadehi bho saṅkhā ti.
    ⏹🤘⨀(vadeti) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹⓪⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(ti)
    make sound | sir | conch | make sound | sir | conch | quote
    “Make sound, Sir Conch! Make sound, Sir Conch!”

    n’eva so saṅkho saddaṃ akāsi.
    🔼(neva) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(saṅkha) 🚹②⨀(sadda) ⏮🤟⨀(akāsi)
    not even | that | conch | sound | made
    That conch did not even make any sound.

    atha kho tassa saṅkhadhamassa etad ahosi:
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹④⨀(ta) 🚹④⨀(saṅkhadhama) 🔼(etadahosi) :
    after that | for that | for conchblower | this thought occured
    after that this thought occured for the conch blower:

    yāva bālā ime paccantajā manussā.
    🔼(yāva) 🚹①⨂(bāla) 🚹①⨂(ima) 🔼(paccantajā) 🚹①⨂(manussa)
    how | foolish | these | from the frontier | people
    “How foolish are these people from the frontier!”

    kathaṃ hi nāma ayoniso saṅkhasaddaṃ gavesissantī ti.
    🔼(kathaṃ hi nāma) 🔼(ayoniso) 🚹②⨀(saṅkhasadda) ⏭🤟⨂(gavesati)
    how | truly | certainly | unwisely | sound of a conch shell | will search for
    “Truly how unwisely they will search for the sound of a conch shell!”

    tesam pekkhamānānaṃ saṅkhaṃ gahetvā tikkhattuṃ saṅkhaṃ upaḷāsitvā saṅkhaṃ ādāya pakkāmi.
    🚹⑥⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨂(pekkhamāna) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(gahetvā) 🔼(tikkhattuṃ) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(upaḷāsitvā) 🚹②⨀(saṅkha) 🔼(ādāya) ⏮🤟⨀(pakkāmi)
    of that | of observing | conch shell | having taken | three times | conch shell | having made the sound,
    While observing that, having taken the conch shell, having made a sound three times, he left, holding the conch shell.

    Translate from Pali

    brāhmaṇo mante vācesi (D II 236,19-21)
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨂(manta) ⏮🤟⨀(vācesi)
    brahman | sacred hymns | recited
    The brahman recited the sacred hymns.

    so taṃ cittaṃ bhāveti (D III 259,10-11)
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(bhāveti)
    he | that | mind | cultivates
    He cultivates the mind.

    na taṃ (2nd. person) deva paccatthikānaṃ demi (D I 50,9)
    🔼(na) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🚹④⨂(paccatthika) ▶️👆⨀(deti)
    no | you | o Lord | for hostile | must give
    i am not giving you up to the enemy, Your Highness

    ayaṃ dukkhasamudayo (D I 84,1)
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(dukkhasamudaya)
    this | arising of suffering
    This is the arising of suffering.

    rājā kumārassa (dative) pāsāde kārāpesi (D II 21,6-7)
    🚹①⨀(rāja) | 🚹④⨀(kumāra) 🚹②⨂(pāsāda) ▶️🤘⨀(kārāpeti)
    king | for boy | palace | caused to make
    The king caused palaces to be built for son.

    so iminā ca ariyena sīlakkhandhena samannāgato iminā ariyena indriyasaṃvarena samannāgato … vivittaṃ senāsanaṃ bhajati: araññaṃ rukkhamūlaṃ, pabbataṃ, … abbhokāsaṃ palālapuñjaṃ (D I 71,12-17)
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(ima) 🔼(ca) 🚹③⨀(ariya) 🚹③⨀(sīlakkhandha) 🚹①⨀(samannāgata) 🚹③⨀(ima) 🚹③⨀(ariya) 🚹③⨀(indriyasaṃvara) … 🚺②⨀(vivittā) 🚻②⨀(senāsana) ▶️🤟⨀(bhajati) : 🚻②⨀(arañña) 🚻②⨀(rukkhamūla) 🚻②⨀(pabbata) … 🚹②⨀(abbhokāsa) 🚹②⨀(palālapuñja)
    he | by this | and | by noble | by virtuous conduct | endowed with | by noble | by sense restraint | endowed with … seclusion | housing | retires to : forest | base of a tree | mountain … open air | heap of straw
    And he, endowed by this noble virtuous conduct, endowed by noble sense restraint … he retires to a secluded dwelling: forest, tree root, mountain …. open air, heap of straw.

    idha tathāgatena anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ (D II 140,25-26)
    🔼(idha) 🚹③⨀(tathāgata) 🚻①⨀(anuttara) 🚻①⨀(dhammacakka) 🚻①⨀(pavattita)
    here | by the Tathāgata | highest | Dhamma teaching | set out
    Here has been set out the highest dhamma teaching by the Tathāgata.

    idaṃ paṇītaṃ (D II 223,2)
    🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(paṇīta)
    this | excellent
    This is excellent.

    ye mālaṃ āropessanti, tesaṃ taṃ bhavissati sukhāya (D II 161,28-30)
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🚺②⨀(mālā) ⏭🤟⨂(āropeti) , 🚹④⨂(ta) 🚻①⨀(ta) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🚹④⨀(sukha)
    whoever | garland | place on top of , for them | that | will be | for happiness
    Whoever will place a garland on top, that will be for their happiness.

    tvaṃ pana samma Jīvaka kiṃ tuṇhī (D I 49,11-12)
    🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🔼(pana) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(jīvaka) 🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(tuṇhī)
    you | but | friend | Jīvaka | what? | silence
    But why are you silent, friend Jivaka?

    kacci maṃ samma Jīvaka na paccatthikānaṃ desi (D I 50,4-5)
    🔼(kacci) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(jīvaka) 🔼(na) 🚹④⨂(paccatthika) ▶️🤘⨀(deti)
    I hope | me | friend | Jīvaka | for hostile | you give to
    i hope you are not giving me to the enemy, friend Jivaka?

    Translate into Pali

    This is the cessation-of-unhappiness. (D I 84,2)
    ayaṃ dukkhanirodho

    (It is) now the time-for-extinction of the fortunate one. (D II 112,27)
    parinibbānakālo dāni bhagavato

    Cunda the son-of-a-smith, having had delicious dishes prepared, had the time announced to the fortunate one: “(it is) time, sir, the meal (is) ready” (D II 127,3-6)
    cundo kammāraputto paṇītaṃ khādaniyaṃ patiyādāpetvā Bhagavato kālaṃ ārocāpesi: ‘Kālo bhante niññhitaṃ bhattan-ti

    The lion, king-of-the-beasts, went out. (D III 23,26-31)
    sīho migarājā pakkami

    There are (atthi: the singular verb may be used for the plural also in this sense) other profound, delightful, doctrines which the “thus-gone” makes known. (D I 12,19-22)
    atthi aññe dhammā gambhīrā paṇītā, ye Tathāgato pavedeti

    He develops that thought. (D III 259,10-11)
    so taṃ cittaṃ bhāveti

    The king, having had the priests invited, said this: “let the priests see the boy”. (D II 16,4-6)
    rājā brāhmaṇe āmantāpetvā etad avoca: ‘‘passantu brāhmaṇā kumāran‘‘-ti

    The king, having made the boy sit down, instructs (him). (D II 20,19 - 21,1)
    rājā kumāraṃ nisīdāpetvā anusāsati

    The priest had a new house built to the east (instrumental or accusative) of the city. (D II 239,18-19)
    Brāhmaṇo puratthimena (or puratthimaṃ) nagarassa navaṃ agāraṃ kārāpesi

    Recite the prayers! (plural) (D II 238,32)
    mante vācetha

    I set free the goats. (D I 147,37 - 148,3)
    ahaṃ aje muñcāpemi

    7.11 - Answers to Warder Lesson 14

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 14

    Reading Passage

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 29.3-29.9 (D II 349,25 - 350,7)

    bhūtapubbaṃ aññataro janapado vuṭṭhāsi. atha kho sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: āyāma samma. yena so janapado ten’ upasaṅkamissāma. app eva nām’ ettha kiñ ci dhanaṃ adhigaccheyyāmā ti. evaṃ sammā ti kho sahāyako sahāyakassa paccassosi. te yena so janapado yen’ aññataraṃ gāmapaṭṭaṃ ten’ upasaṃkamiṃsu. tatth’ addasaṃsu pahūtaṃ sāṇaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. disvā sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: idaṃ kho samma pahūtaṃ sāṇaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. tena hi samma tvañ1 ca sāṇabhāraṃ bandha, ahañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ bandhissāmi. ubho sāṇabhāraṃ ādāya gamissāmā ti. evaṃ sammā ti kho sahāyako sahāyakassa paṭissutvā sāṇabhāraṃ bandhi.

    bhūtapubbaṃ aññataro janapado vuṭṭhāsi.
    ⏏️(bhūtapubbaṃ) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(janapada) ⏮🤟⨀(vuṭṭhāsi)
    once upon a time / a certain country / arose.
    Once upon a time, a certain country arose.

    atha kho sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: āyāma samma.
    ⏏️(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹②⨀(sahāyaka) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi): ⏹👆⨂(āyāti) ⏏️(samma).
    then / friend / friend / discussed / let us go! / mate
    Then friend discussed with friend: “let’s go, mate”

    yena so janapado ten’ upasaṅkamissāma.
    🔼(yena) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(janapada) 🔼(tena) ⏭👆⨂(upasaṅkamati)
    by where | that | country | by there | will go
    “We should go to that country.”

    app eva nām’ ettha kiñ ci dhanaṃ adhigaccheyyāmā ti.
    🔼(appeva) 🔼(nām’ ettha) 🔼(kiñci) 🚻①⨀(dhana) ⏯👆⨂(adhigacchati) 🔼(ti)
    perhaps / well, only, still, indeed / certainly / in this place, here / anything / wealth / will acquire / quote
    “Perhaps here we will acquire wealth.”

    evaṃ sammā ti kho sahāyako sahāyakassa paccassosi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(sammā) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹④⨀(sahāyaka) ⏮🤟⨀(paccassosi)
    thus / mate / indeed / friend / for friend / agreed
    “Yeah mate”, friend agreed with friend

    te yena so janapado yen’ aññataraṃ gāmapaṭṭaṃ ten’ upasaṃkamiṃsu. 🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(yena) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(janapada) 🔼(yena) 🚻①⨀(aññatara) 🚻①⨀(gāmapaṭṭa) 🔼(tena) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami) they | by there | that | country | by there | a certain | site of a village | by there | approached They approached to a certain site of a village in that country.

    tatth’ addasaṃsu pahūtaṃ sāṇaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. 🔼(tattha) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(sāṇa) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita) in that place | they saw | considerable | hemp | discarded In that place they saw considerable hemp discarded.

    disvā sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: idaṃ kho samma pahūtaṃ sāṇaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹②⨀(sahāyaka) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi): 🔼(idaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🔼(samma) 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(sāṇa) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    having seen / friend / friend / discussed : here / indeed / mate / considerable / hemp / discarded
    Having seen, friend discussed with friend: “This is indeed, mate, considerable hemp discarded.”

    tena hi samma tvañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ bandha, ahañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ bandhissāmi. 🔼(tenahi) 🔼(samma) 🔼(tvañca) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) ⏹🤘⨀(bandhati) 🔼(ahañca) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) ⏭👆⨀(bandhati) therefore / mate / and you / load of hemp / you must bind / and I / load of hemp / I will bind “Therefore, mate, you must bind a load of hemp, and I will bind a load of hemp.”

    ubho sāṇabhāraṃ ādāya gamissāmā ti. ⨁①⨀(ubha) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) 🔼(ādāya) ⏭👆⨂(gamissati) 🔼(ti) both | load of hemp | having taken | will go | quote “Both having taken a load of hemp, we will go.”

    evaṃ sammā ti kho sahāyako sahāyakassa paṭissutvā sāṇabhāraṃ bandhi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(samma) 🔼(ti) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹④⨀(sahāyaka) 🔼(paṭissutvā) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) ⏮🤟⨀(bandhi)
    thus | mate | quote | indeed | for friend friend | having agreed with | load of hemp | bound
    “Yeah mate”, friend having agreed with friend, he bound the load of hemp.

    Translate from Pali

    puccheyyām’ ahaṃ bhante kañ cid eva desaṃ (D I 51,3-4)
    ⏯👆⨂(pucchati) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(kañcideva) 🚹②⨀(desa)
    I will ask | I | Bhante | something | point
    I will ask, Bhante, some point.

    devā tamhā kāyā cavanti (D I 20,19)
    🚹①⨂(deva) 🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🚹⑤⨀(kāya) ▶️🤟⨂(cavati)
    gods | from that | from group | falls away from
    Gods fall away from that group (of beings).

    upādānapaccayā bhavo (D II 56,5)
    🔼(upādānapaccayā) 🚹①⨀(bhava)
    due to clinging | existence
    Existence is due to clinging.

    yan nūma mayaṃ kusalaṃ kareyyāma (D III 73,21)
    🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(kusala) ⏯👆⨂(karoti)
    what if I were to | good | will do
    What if I were to do good.

    na hi bhagavā evaṃ vadeyya (D III 249,10)
    🔼(nahi) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🔼(evaṃ) ⏯🤟⨀(vadati)
    certainly not | Blessed One | thus | will say
    The Blessed One will certainly not say thus.

    na dān’ ime imamhā ābādhā vuṭṭhahissanti (D II 320,11-12)
    🔼(na) 🔼(dānime) 🚹⑤⨀(ima) 🚹⑤⨀(ābādha) ⏭🤟⨂(vuṭṭhahati)
    no | now these | from this | from disease | will come out of
    Now these (people) will not come out from this disease.

    te kālena kālaṃ upasaṃkamitvā paripuccheyyāsi ( = “should”: exhortation) (D III 61,13-14)
    🚹②⨂(ta) (kālena kālaṃ) 🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) ⏯🤘⨀(paripucchati)
    them | from time to time | having approached | you should ask
    Having approached them from time to time, you should ask (for advice).

    tassa evam assa: ahaṃ kho pubbe dāso ahosiṃ. so ‘mhi etarahi tamhā dāsavyā mutto (D I 72,26-28)
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🔼(evamassa) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🚹②⨂(pubba) 🚹①⨀(dāsa) ⏮👆⨀(ahosi) . 🔼(somhi) 🔼(etarahi) 🚹⑤⨀(ta) 🔼(dāsavyā) 🚹①⨀(mutta)
    of that | he would think thus : I | indeed | before | slave | I was. now I am | at present | from that | released from
    The thought might occur to him: before I was a slave, now I am released from that slavery.

    yattha pan’ āvuso sabbaso vedayitaṃ n’ atthi, api nu kho tattha “asmī” ti siyā (D II 67,19-20)
    🔼(yattha) 🔼(panāvuso) 🔼(sabbaso) 🚻①⨀(vedayita) ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) , 🔼(apinu kho) 🔼(tattha) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🔼(ti) ⏯🤟⨀(siyā)
    whatever | and friend | completely | experience | there isn’t , what? | indeed | in that case | “there exist” | quote | there may be
    And friend, whatever isn’t completely experienced, perhaps in that case there may be “there exists”?

    khīṇā me āsavā (D III 283,21)
    🚹①⨂(khīṇa) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨂(āsava)
    exhausted | by me | effluent
    Effluents were exhausted by me.

    na maṃ ko ci āsanena pi nimantesi (D I 91,18-19)
    🔼(na) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(koci) 🚻③⨀(āsana) 🔼(pi) ⏮🤟⨀(nimantesi)
    not / me / anyone / by chair / too / invited
    No one invited me by chair (offered a seat).

    āyantu bhonto (D II 233,4)
    ⏹🤟⨂(āyāti) 🚹①⨂(bhavant)
    they may approach | Venerables
    Venerables, may you approach.

    idha samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā kusalaṃ dhammaṃ adhigaccheyya. kusalaṃ dhammaṃ adhigantvā na parassa āroceyya. kiṃ hi paro parassa karissati. seyyathā pi nāma purāṇaṁ bandhanaṃ chinditvā aññaṃ navaṃ bandhanaṃ kareyya. (D I 224, 9-13)
    🔼(idha) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚹②⨀(kusala) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) ⏯🤟⨀(adhigacchati) . 🚹②⨀(kusala) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🔼(adhigantvā) 🔼(na) 🚹④⨀(para) ⏯🤟⨀(āroceti) . 🚹⑦⨀(ka) 🔼(paro) 🚻④⨀(para) ⏭🤟⨀(karoti) . 🔼(seyyathā pi nāma) 🚻①⨀(purāṇa) 🚻①⨀(bandhana) 🔼(chinditvā) 🚻①⨀(añña) 🚻①⨀(nava) 🚻①⨀(bandhana) ⏯🤟⨀(karoti)
    here | ascetic | or | brahmin | or | good | thing | will find. good | thing | having found | no | for other | will inform another. in what? | more | for other | will do . imagine if | too | certainly | old | connection | having cut off | another | new | connection | should be made
    Here an ascetic or brahmin may find a good thing. Having found a good thing, he will not inform another. What more will it do for another? Imagine having cut off an old connection, another new connection will be made.

    Translate into Pali

    I got up from my seat and left (D I 53,10-14)
    (Ahaṃ) uṭṭhāy’āsanā pakkāmiṃ

    If the philosopher Gotama should come to this assembly we will ask (optative) him this question (D III 40,1-2)
    Sace samaṇo Gotamo imaṃ parisaṃ āgaccheyya, imaṃ taṃ (him) pañhaṃ puccheyyāma

    What should we do? (D III 73,22)
    Kiṃ kareyyāma

    I should do meritorious actions (D I 60,16-17)
    Ahaṃ puññāni kareyyaṃ

    Sensation is caused by (“from the condition of”) contact (D II 56,17)
    Phassapaccayā vedanā

    You should explain it as it pleases you (te; both verbs optative) (D I 60,4-5)
    Yathā te khameyya, (tathā) taṃ (it) vyākareyyāsi

    We would invite him to sit down (D I 60,35 - 61,2)
    Mayaṃ naṃ āsanena nimanteyyāma

    There will be an eclipse of the moon (D I 10,13)
    Candaggāho bhavissati

    There is nothing here (D II 331,1)
    N’atthi ettha kiñci

    The priests would banish the priest from the city (D I 98,9-12)
    Brāhmaṇā brāhmaṇaṃ nagarā pabbājeyyuṃ

    7.12 - Answers to Warder Lesson 15

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 15

    Reading Passage

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 29.9-29.14 (D II 349,25 - 350,7)

    te ubho sāṇabhāraṃ ādāya yen’ aññataraṃ gāmapadaṃ ten’ upasaṃkamiṃsu. tatth’ addasaṃsu pahūtaṃ sāṇasuttaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. disvā sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: yassa kho samma atthāya iccheyyāma sāṇaṃ, idaṃ pahūtaṃ sāṇasuttaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. tena hi samma tvañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍehi, ahañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍessāmi. ubho sāṇasuttabhāraṃ ādāya gamissāmā ti. ayaṃ kho me samma sāṇabhāro dūrābhato ca susannaddho ca. alam1 me; tvaṃ pajānāhī ti. atha kho so sahāyako sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍetvā sāṇasuttabhāraṃ ādiyi.

    te ubho sāṇabhāraṃ ādāya yen’ aññataraṃ gāmapadaṃ ten’ upasaṃkamiṃsu.
    🚹①⨂(ta) ⨁①⨀(ubha) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) 🚺⑦⨀(āda) 🔼(yena) 🚻①⨀(aññatara) 🚻①⨀(gāmapaṭṭa) 🔼(tena) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami)
    they | both | load of hemp | in taking | by where | a certain | site of a village | by where | approached
    They both taking a load of hemp approached (another) certain site of a village.

    tatth’ addasaṃsu pahūtaṃ sāṇasuttaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🔼(tattha) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(sāṇasutta) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    in that place | they saw | considerable | hemp thread | discarded
    In that place they saw considerable hemp thread discarded.

    disvā sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: yassa kho samma atthāya iccheyyāma sāṇaṃ, idaṃ pahūtaṃ sāṇasuttaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹②⨀(sahāyaka) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi): 🚹④⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🔼(samma) 🚹④⨀(attha) ⏯👆⨂(icchati) 🚹②⨀(sāṇa) , 🔼(idaṃ) 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(sāṇasutta) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    having seen | friend | friend | discussed : for whatever | indeed | friend | for purpose | we will desire | hemp , here | considerable | hemp thread | discarded
    Having seen, friend discussed to friend: “Mate, for whatever purpose we will wish for hemp, here is considerable hemp thread discarded.”

    tena hi samma tvañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍehi, ahañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍessāmi.
    🔼(tenahi) 🔼(samma) 🔼(tvañca) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) ⏹🤘⨀(chaḍḍeti) 🔼(ahañca) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) ⏭👆⨀(chaḍḍeti)
    therefore / mate / and you / load of hemp / you must dischard / and I / load of hemp / I will discard
    “Therefore, mate, you must discard (your) load of hemp, and I will discard (my) load of hemp.”

    ubho sāṇasuttabhāraṃ ādāya gamissāmā ti.
    ⨁①⨀(ubha) 🚹②⨀(sāṇasuttabhāra) 🔼(ādāya) ⏭👆⨂(gamissati) 🔼(ti)
    both | load of hemp thread | having taken | will go | quote
    “Both having taken a load of hemp thread, we will go.”

    ayaṃ kho me samma sāṇabhāro dūrābhato ca susannaddho ca.
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(samma) 🚹①⨀(sāṇabhāra) 🚹①⨀(dūrābhata) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨀(susannaddha) 🔼(ca)
    this | indeed | by me | mate | load of hemp | carried far | and | well tied up
    “Mate, this load of hemp has been well tied up and carried far by me.”

    alam me; tvaṃ pajānāhī ti.
    🔼(alaṃ) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) ; 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) ⏹🤘⨀(pajānāti) 🔼(quote)
    that’s enough | for me ; you | must understand | quote
    “That’s enough for me, you must understand.”

    atha kho so sahāyako sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍetvā sāṇasuttabhāraṃ ādiyi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) 🔼(chaḍḍetvā) 🚹②⨀(sāṇasuttabhāra) ⏮🤟⨀(ādiyi)
    after that | that | friend | load of hemp | having discarded | load of hemp thread | took
    After that, that friend. having discarded (his) load of hemp. took a load of hemp thread.

    Translate from Pali

    tena hi brāhmaṇa suṇāhi (D I 124,19)
    🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) ⏹🤘⨀(suṇāti)
    therefore | o Brahman | you must listen
    Therefore, o Brahman, you must listen!

    na tvaṃ imaṃ dhammavinayaṃ ājānāsi. ahaṃ imaṃ dhammavinayaṃ ājānāmi (D III 117,7-9)
    🔼(na) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹②⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(dhammavinaya) ▶️🤘⨀(ājānāti) . 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹②⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(dhammavinaya) ▶️👆⨀(ājānāti)
    no | you | this | teaching and training | understand . i | this | teaching and training | understand
    You do not understand this teaching and training. I understand this teaching and training.

    idha tathāgato jāto (D II 140,20)
    🔼(idha) 🚹①⨀(tathāgata) 🚹①⨀(jāta)
    here | tathāgata | born
    Here the Tathāgata was born.

    ko imaṃ dhammaṃ khippam eva ājānissati (D II 40,5-6)
    🚹①⨀(ka) 🚹②⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🚻①⨀(khippa) 🔼(eva) ⏭🤟⨀(ājānāti)
    who? | this | doctrine | quickly | just | will understand
    Who will understand this doctrine quickly?

    ekacco dānaṃ deti samaṇassa vā brāhmaṇassa vā annaṃ pānaṃ vatthaṃ yānaṃ mālāgandhavilepanaṃ seyyāvasathapadīpeyyaṃ (D III 259,3-5)
    🚹①⨀(ekacca) 🚻①⨀(dāna) ▶️🤟⨀(deti) 🚹④⨀(samaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚹④⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(anna) 🚻②⨀(pāna) 🚻②⨀(vattha) 🚹②⨀(mālāgandhavilepana) 🚻②⨀(seyyāvasathapadīpeyya)
    some/certain | alms/gift | he gave | for ascetic | or | for brahmin | or | food | drink | cloth | footwear | garlands/perfumes/oils | bedding/housing/lighting
    A certain person gave some gifts for ascetics or brahmins: food, drink, clothing, footwear, garlands, perfumes, oils, bedding, housing, lighting.

    ko nu kho papa bho jānāti. madanīyā kāmā (D II 234,10-11)
    🔼(ko nu kho) 🚻①⨂(papa) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) ▶️🤟⨀(jānāti) . 🚹①⨂(madanīya) 🚹①⨂(kāma)
    who? | indeed | bar | sir | know. intoxicating | sensual pleasures
    Sir, who knows (this) bar? Sensual pleasures are intoxicating.

    jānāhi yadi vā taṃ bhavantaṃ Gotamaṃ tathā santaṃ yeva saddo abbhuggato, yadi vā no tathā (D I 88,22-24)
    ⏹🤘⨀(jānāti) 🔼(yadi) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(bhavant) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻①⨂(tatha) 🚹②⨀(santa) 🔼(yeva) 🚹①⨀(sadda) 🚹①⨀(abbhuggata) , 🔼(yadi) 🔼(vā) 🔼(no) 🚻①⨂(tatha)
    you must understand | whether | or | that | Venerable | Gotama | true | existing | only/just | reputation | arisen/spread , or whether | or | not | real/true
    You must understand whether that reputation that has spread regarding Venerable Gotama is truly correct, or whether it is not true.

    tassa evaṃ jānato evaṃ passato kāmāsavā pi cittaṃ vimuccati bhavāsavā pi cittaṃ vimuccati avijjāsavā pi cittaṃ vimuccati (D I 84,8- 10)
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚻⑥⨀(jānanta) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(passanta) 🚹⑤⨀(kāmāsava) 🔼(pi) 🚻①⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(vimuccati) 🚹⑤⨀(bhavāsava) 🔼(pi) 🚻①⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(vimuccati) 🚹⑤⨀(avijjāsava) 🔼(pi) 🚻①⨀(citta) ▶️🤟⨀(vimuccati)
    of that | thus | of knowing | thus | of seeing | from effluent of sensual pleasure | too | mind | released from | from effluent of being | too | mind | released from | from effluent of ignorance | too | mind | released from
    When knowing and seeing thus, the mind is released from the effluents of sensual pleasures, being and ignorance.

    yaṃ kiñ ci samudayadhammaṃ, sabban taṃ nirodhadhammaṃ (D II 41,20-21) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kiñci) | 🚻①⨀(samudayadhamma) , 🚻①⨀(sabbanta) 🚻①⨀(nirodhadhamma)
    whatever | something | subject to arising, entire | subject to ceasing
    Whatever arises, will cease completely.

    n’ atthi jātassa amaraṇaṃ (D II 246,16)
    ▶️🤟⨀(natthi) 🚹⑥⨀(jāta) 🚻①⨀(amaraṇa)
    is not | of born | immortality
    One who has been born is not immortal.

    Translate into Pali

    What I know, you know what you know, I know (D I 88,8-10)
    Yaṃ ahaṃ jānāmi, taṃ tvaṃ jānāsi; yaṃ tvaṃ jānāsi, taṃ ahaṃ jānāmi.

    I learn the saying of the fortunate one (D I 184,30-31)
    Ahaṃ Bhagavato bhāsitaṃ (or vacanaṃ) ājānāmi.

    He will grasp what I explain (fut.) quickly (D II 150,16-17)
    Yaṃ ahaṃ vyākarissāmi, taṃ khippam eva ājānissati.

    After some time he hears the excellent doctrine (D II 214,11-12)
    So aparena samayena ariyaṃ dhammaṃ sunāti.

    The fortunate one, taking robe-and-bowl, entered Rājagaha for alms (D III 180,9-10)
     Bhagavā pattacīvaraṃ ādāya Rājagahaṃ piṇḍāya pāvisi.

    Stop! Ananda, don’t grieve (D II 144,10)
    Alaṃ Ānanda, mā paridevesi.

    He understands that (use direct speech) these beings (are) endowed with bad-conduct-of-the-body (D I 82,25-29)
    So pajānāti: ‘ime sattā kāyaduccaritena samannāgatā’.

    Not-memorizing that speech, I left (D I 53,13-14)
    Taṃ vācam (or bhāsitam or vacanam) anuggaṇhanto pakkāmiṃ.

    Why (is) this unexplained by the philosopher Gotama? (Cf. D I 188,32)
    Kasmā idaṃ samanena Gotamena avyākataṃ?

    You (plur.) have gone forth from house to homelessness (D III 84,14-15)
    Tumhe agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajitā.

    7.13 - Answers to Warder Lesson 16

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 16

    Passage 1

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 29.15-29.36 (D II 350,19 - 351,21)

    te yen’ aññataraṃ gāmapadaṃ ten’ upasaṃkamiṃsu. tatth’ addasaṃsu pahūtaṃ khomaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. disvā. pe. pahūtaṃ khomasuttaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. disvā. pe. (a whole range of commodities of increasing value is enumerated) pe. pahūtaṃ suvaṇṇaṃ chaḍḍiṭaṃ. disvā sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: yassa kho samma atthāya iccheyyāma sāṅaṃ vā sāṇasuttaṃ vā … sīsaṃ vā sajjhuṃ vā, idaṃ pahūtaṃ suvaṇṇaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. tena hi samma tvañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍehi, ahañ ca sajjhubhāraṃ chaḍḍessāmi. ubho suvaṇṇabhāraṃ ādāya gamissāmā ti. ayaṃ kho me samma sāṇabhāro durābhato ca susannaddho ca. alam me; tvaṃ pajānāhi ti

    te yen’ aññataraṃ gāmapadaṃ ten’ upasaṃkamiṃsu.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(yena) 🚻①⨀(aññatara) 🚻①⨀(gāmapaṭṭa) 🔼(tena) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami)
    they | by where | a certain | site of a village | by where | approached
    They approached (another) certain site of a village.

    tatth’ addasaṃsu pahūtaṃ khomaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🔼(tattha) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(khoma) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    in that place | they saw | considerable | linen | discarded
    In that place they saw considerable linen discarded.

    disvā. pe. pahūtaṃ khomasuttaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🔼(disvā) … 🔼(pe) … 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(khomasutta) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    having seen … ditto … considerable | flax thread | discarded
    Having seen, … ditto …. considerable flax thread discarded.

    disvā. pe. (a whole range of commodities of increasing value is enumerated) pe. pahūtaṃ suvaṇṇaṃ chaḍḍiṭaṃ.
    🔼(disvā) … 🔼(pe) … 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(suvaṇṇa) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    having seen … ditto … considerable | gold | discarded
    Having seen, … ditto …. considerable gold discarded.

    disvā sahāyako sahāyakaṃ āmantesi: yassa kho samma atthāya iccheyyāma sāṅaṃ vā sāṇasuttaṃ vā …
    🔼(disvā) 🚹①⨀(sahāyaka) 🚹②⨀(sahāyaka) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi): 🚹④⨀(ya) 🔼(kho) 🔼(samma) 🚹④⨀(attha) ⏯👆⨂(icchati) 🚹②⨀(sāṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(sāṇasutta) 🔼(vā) …
    having seen | friend | friend | discussed : for whatever | indeed | friend | for purpose | we will desire | hemp | or | hemp thread | or …
    Having seen, friend discussed to friend: “Mate, for whatever purpose we will wish for hemp, or hemp thread, or …”

    sīsaṃ vā sajjhuṃ vā, idaṃ pahūtaṃ suvaṇṇaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🚻②⨀(sīsa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(sajjhu) 🔼(vā) , 🔼(idaṃ) 🚻①⨀(pahūta) 🚻①⨀(suvaṇṇa) 🚻①⨀(chaḍḍita)
    ear of corn | or | silver | or , here | considerable | gold | discarded
    “… or ear of corn, or silver, here is considerable gold discarded.

    tena hi samma tvañ ca sāṇabhāraṃ chaḍḍehi, ahañ ca sajjhubhāraṃ chaḍḍessāmi.
    🔼(tenahi) 🔼(samma) 🔼(tvañca) 🚹②⨀(sāṇabhāra) ⏹🤘⨀(chaḍḍeti) 🔼(ahañca) 🚹②⨀(sajjhubhāra) ⏭👆⨀(chaḍḍeti)
    therefore / mate / and you / load of hemp / you must dischard / and I / load of silver / I will discard
    “Therefore, mate, you must discard (your) load of hemp, and I will discard (my) load of silver.”

    ubho suvaṇṇabhāraṃ ādāya gamissāmā ti.
    ⨁①⨀(ubha) 🚹②⨀(suvaṇṇabhāra) 🔼(ādāya) ⏭👆⨂(gamissati) 🔼(ti)
    both | load of gold | having taken | will go | quote
    “Both having taken a load of gold, we will go.”

    ayaṃ kho me samma sāṇabhāro durābhato ca susannaddho ca.
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(samma) 🚹①⨀(sāṇabhāra) 🚹①⨀(dūrābhata) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨀(susannaddha) 🔼(ca)
    this | indeed | by me | mate | load of hemp | carried far | and | well tied up
    “Mate, this load of hemp has been well tied up and carried far by me.”

    alam me; tvaṃ pajānāhi ti
    🔼(alaṃ) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) ; 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) ⏹🤘⨀(pajānāti) 🔼(quote)
    that’s enough | for me ; you | must understand | quote
    “That’s enough for me, you must understand.”

    Passage 2

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 25.3-25.13 (D II 347,9 - 348,1)

    bhūtapubbaṃ aññataro sūkaraposako puriso sakamhā gāmā aññaṃ gāmaṃ agamāsi. tatth’ addasā pahūtaṃ sukkhagūthaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ. disvān’ assa etad ahosi: ayaṃ me bahuko sukkhagūtho chaḍḍito, mamañ ca sūkarabhattaṃ. yan nūnāhaṃ ito sukkhagūthaṃ hareyyan ti. so uttarāsaṅgaṃ pattharitvā pahūtaṃ sukkhagūthaṃ āharitvā bhaṇḍikaṃ bandhitvā sīse ubbāhetvā agamāsi. tassa antarā magge mahā akālamegho pāvassi. so uggharantaṃ paggharantaṃ yāva agganakhā gūthena makkhito gūthabhāraṃ ādāya agamāsi. tam enaṃ manussā disvā evam āhaṃsu: kacci no tvaṃ bhaṇe ummatto, kacci veceto, kathaṃ hi nāma uggharantaṃ paggharantaṃ yāva, agganakhā gūthena makkhito gūthabhāraṃ harissasī ti. tumhe kho ettha bhaṇe ummattā tumhe vecetā tathā hi pana me sūkarabhattan ti.

    bhūtapubbaṃ aññataro sūkaraposako puriso sakamhā gāmā aññaṃ gāmaṃ agamāsi.
    🚻①⨀(bhūtapubba) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(sūkaraposaka) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚹⑤⨀(saka) 🚹①⨂(gāma) 🚹②⨀(añña) 🚹②⨀(gāma) ⏮🤟⨀(agamāsi)
    once upon a time | a certain | pig farmer | person | from one’s own | from one’s own | village | another | village | travelled
    Once upon a time a certain pig farmer travelled from own village to another village.

    tatth’ addasā pahūtaṃ sukkhagūthaṃ chaḍḍitaṃ.
    🔼(tattha) ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🚹②⨀(pahūta) 🚹②⨀(sukkhagūtha) 🚹②⨀(chaḍḍita)
    in that place | he saw | a lot of | dry dung | discarded
    In that place he saw a lot of dry dung discarded.

    disvān’ assa etad ahosi: ayaṃ me bahuko sukkhagūtho chaḍḍito, mamañ ca sūkarabhattaṃ.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹④⨀(ta)🔼(etadahosi) : 🚹①⨀(ima) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(bahuka) 🚹①⨀(sukkhagūtha) 🚹①⨀(chaḍḍita) , 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(ca) 🚻①⨀(sūkarabhatta)
    having seen | for him | this thought occured : this | for me | a lot of | dry dung | discarded . for me | and | pig feed
    Having seen this thought occurred for him: “There is plenty of dry dung discarded for me: feed for my pigs.”

    yan nūnāhaṃ ito sukkhagūthaṃ hareyyan ti.
    🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🔼(ito) 🚹②⨀(sukkhagūtha) 🔵⏯👆⨀(harati) 🔼(ti)
    what if I were to | from here | dry dung | take | quote
    “What if I were to take the dry dung from here.”

    so uttarāsaṅgaṃ pattharitvā pahūtaṃ sukkhagūthaṃ āharitvā bhaṇḍikaṃ bandhitvā sīse ubbāhetvā agamāsi.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(uttarāsaṅga) 🔼(pattharitvā) 🚹②⨀(pahūta) 🚹②⨀(sukkhagūtha) 🔼(āharitvā) 🚺②⨀(bhaṇḍikā) 🔼(bandhitvā) 🚻⑦⨀(sīsa) 🔼(ubbāhetvā) ⏮🤟⨀(agamāsi)
    he | upper robe | having spread out | a lot of | dry dung | havng brought | bundle | having tied up | on head | having lifted up
    He left, having spread out upper robe, having fetched dry dung, having tied up bundle, having lifted up on head.

    tassa antarā magge mahā akālamegho pāvassi.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(antara) 🚹②⨂(magga) 🚹①⨂(maha) 🚹①⨀(akālamegha) ⏮🤟⨀(pāvassi)
    of that | along the way | road | great | unseasonal downpour | shed rain
    Regarding that, along the road, a huge unseasonal cloud rained heavily.

    so uggharantaṃ paggharantaṃ yāva agganakhā gūthena makkhito gūthabhāraṃ ādāya agamāsi.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(uggharanta) 🚻②⨀(paggharanta) 🔼(yāva) 🚹⑤⨀(agganakha) 🚹③⨀(gūtha) 🚹①⨀(makkhita) 🚹②⨀(gūthabhāra) 🔼(ādāya) ⏮🤟⨀(agamāsi)
    he | oozing | dripping | so much so | from tip of nail | with dung | smeared with | load of dung | holding | travelled
    Holding load of dung, he travelled, smeared with so much dung oozing and dripping from tip of nails.

    tam enaṃ manussā disvā evam āhaṃsu: kacci no tvaṃ bhaṇe ummatto, kacci veceto, kathaṃ hi nāma uggharantaṃ paggharantaṃ yāva, agganakhā gūthena makkhito gūthabhāraṃ harissasī ti.
    🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨂(manussa) 🔼(disvā) 🔼(evamāhaṃsu) : 🔼(kacci no) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🔼(bhaṇe) 🚹①⨀(ummatta) 🔼(kacci) 🔼(veceto) 🔼(kathaṃ) 🔼(hi) 🔼(nāma) 🚹②⨀(uggharanta) 🚻②⨀(paggharanta) 🔼(yāva) 🚹⑤⨀(agganakha) 🚹③⨀(gūtha) 🚹①⨀(makkhita) 🚹②⨀(gūthabhāra) ⏭🤘⨀(harati) 🔼(ti)
    that | this | people | having seen | they said this : I wonder | no | I say, look here | mad , I wonder | daft , what’s the reason | certainly | truly | oozing | dripping | so much so | from tip of nail | with dung | smeared with | load of dung | you will take | quote
    People having seen that person said this: “I say, I wonder if you are not mad, I wonder if you are daft, what’s the reason you will take away the load of dung, surely you are smeared with dung oozing and dripping from tip of the nails.”

    tumhe kho ettha bhaṇe ummattā tumhe vecetā tathā hi pana me sūkarabhattan ti.
    🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🔼(ettha) 🚹①⨂(ummatta) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🔼(vecetā) 🚺⑤⨂(tatha) 🔼(pana) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(sūkarabhatta) 🔼(ti)
    you | indeed | in this case | mad | actually | but | for me | pig feed | quote
    “I say, in this case you all are mad, you all are daft, but actually it is feed for my pigs.”

    Translate from Pali

    Bhagavā Rājagahe viharati (D I 47,1-2)
    🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹⑦⨀(rājagaha) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati)
    Blessed One | in Rājagaha | dwells
    Bhagava dwells in Rājagaha.

    ime candimasuriyā parasmiṃ loke na imasmiṃ D II 319,23-24)
    🚹①⨂(ima) 🚹①⨂(candimasuriya) 🚹⑦⨀(para) 🚹⑦⨀(loka) 🔼(na) 🚹⑦⨀(ima)
    these | sun and moon | in other | plane of existence | not | in this
    The sun and moon (as deities) are in another plane of existence, not in this.

    kismiṃ vo viggaho, kismiṃ vivādo (D I 237,7-8)
    🚹⑦⨀(ka) 🤘③⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹①⨀(viggaha) 🚹⑦⨀(ka) 🚹①⨀(vivāda)
    on what | with youse | quarrel , on what | dispute
    What is the quarrel amongst you, what is the dispute?

    evaṃ vutte aññataro rājāmacco rājānaṃ etad avoca (D I 47,14-15)
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(vutta) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(rājāmacca) 🚹②⨀(rāja) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(etadavoca)
    thus | of spoken | a certain | royal minister | king | said this
    when thus was spoken, a certain royal minister said this to the king.

    na dāni tena ciraṃ jīvitabbaṃ bhavissati (future passive participle) (D II 138,16)
    🔼(na) 🔼(dāni) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(cira) 🚹②⨀(jīvitabba) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati)
    not | now | by there | long | life expectancy | will be
    Now he will not have a long life expectancy by there.

    so bhotā raññā vippaṭisāro na karaṇīyo (D I 138,16)
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(bhavant)) 🚹③⨀(rāja) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(karaṇīya)
    that | by honourable | by king | no | should be done
    That should not be done by the honourable king.

    na kho pan’ etaṃ Poṭṭhapāda evaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ (future passive participle) (D I 196,6-7)
    🔼(na kho pana) 🚹②⨀(eta) 🚹⓪⨀(poṭṭhapāda) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚻①⨀(daṭṭhabba)
    not | indeed | but | this | o Poṭṭhapāda | thus | should be seen
    However, Poṭṭhapāda, this should not be seen thus.

    kiñ cid eva karaṇīyaṃ uppajji (D II 340,14)
    🔼(kiñcideva) 🚻①⨀(karaṇīya) ⏮🤟⨀(uppajji)
    someone | budiness | arose
    Some business came up.

    idaṃ sevitabbaṃ, idaṃ na sevitabbaṃ (future passive participle) (D II 223,1-2)
    🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(sevitabba) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(sevitabba)
    this | should be undertaken | this | not | should be undertaken
    This should be undertaken, this should not be undertaken.

    Translate into Pali

    Soṇadaṇḍasutta DN 4 PTS 1.111–1.126 DN 4 8.2-8.5, 8.9-8.12 (D I 117,28 - 118,11):

    If (ce) now (va kho pana) I (put first) were to ask (optative) the philosopher Gotama a question, if (ce) in that connection the philosopher Gotama were to ask me thus: “Priest, this question, now (ca), should not be asked (future passive participle) thus, but (nāma) thus, priest, this question should be asked”, this assembly would despise me for that (tena - place at beginning of clause): “The priest Soṇadaṇḍa is a fool (put first), unintelligent, he could (sak(k), aorist) not ask (pucchituṃ - infinitive of pucch, Lesson 19; place at end of clause) the philosopher Gotama a question consequently (precedes ‘question’).”
    Ahaṃ ce va kho pana samaṇaṃ Gotamaṃ pañhaṃ puccheyyaṃ, tatra ce maṃ samaṇo Gotamo evaṃ vadeyya: “Na c’esa brāhmaṇa pañho evaṃ pucchitabbo, evaṃ nām’esa brāhmaṇa pañho pucchitabbo” ti, tena maṃ ayaṃ parisā paribhaveyya: “Bālo Soṇadaṇḍo brāhmaṇo avyatto, nāsakkhi samaṇaṃ Gotamaṃ yoniso pañhaṃ pucchitun” ti.

    If now (as before) the philosopher Gotama were to ask me (put first) a question, and I were not to satisfy (optative) (his: omit) mind (accusative) with (my) explanation of his question, if in that connection the philosopher Gotama were to say to me (accusative) thus: “Priest, this question, now, should not be explained thus, but thus, priest, this question should be explained,” this assembly would despise me for that: “The priest Soṇadaṇḍa is a fool, unintelligent, he couldn’t satisfy (ārādhetuṃ - infinitive) (his) mind with (his) explanation of the philosopher Gotama’s question.”
    Maṃ ce va kho pana samaṇo Gotamo pañhaṃ puccheyya, tassa cāham pañhassa veyyākaraṇena cittaṃ na ārādheyyaṃ. Tatra ce maṃ Samaṇo Gotamo evaṃ vadeyya: “Na c’esa brāhmaṇa pañho evaṃ vyākātabbo, evaṃ nām’esa brāhmaṇa pañhvyākātabbo” ti, tena maṃ ayaṃ parisā paribhaveyya: “Bālo Soṇadaṇḍo brāhmaṇo avyatto, nāsakkhi samaṇassa Gotamassa pañhassa veyyākaraṇena cittaṃ ārādhetun” ti.

    7.14 - Answers to Warder Lesson 17

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 17

    Passage for reading

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 23.3-23.10 (D II 342,20 - 343,7):

    bhutapubbaṃ mahā sakaṭasattho sakaṭasahassaṃ puratthimā janapadā pacchimaṃ janapadam agamāsi. so yena yena gacchati khippam eva pariyādiyati tiṇakaṭṭhodakaṃ haritakavaṇṇaṃ. tasmiṃ kho pana satthe dve satthavāhā ahesuṃ ; eko pañcannaṃ sakaṭasatānaṃ, eko pañcannaṃ sakaṭasatānaṃ. atha kho tesaṃ satthavāhānaṃ etad ahosi : ayaṃ kho mahā sakatasattho sakatasahassam. te mayaṃ yena yena gacchāma khippam eva pariyādiyati tiṇakaṭṭhodakaṃ haritakavaṇṇaṃ. yan nūna mayaṃ imaṃ satthaṃ dvidhā vibhajeyyāma ekato pañca sakatasatāni.

    bhūtapubbaṃ mahā sakaṭasattho sakaṭasahassaṃ puratthimā janapadā pacchimaṃ janapadam agamāsi.
    🔼(bhūtapubbaṃ) 🚹①⨂(maha) 🚹①⨀(sakaṭasattha) 🚻①⨀(sakaṭasahassa) 🚹⑤⨀(puratthima) 🚹⑤⨀(janapada) 🚹②⨀(pacchima) 🚹②⨀(janapada) ⏮🤟⨀(agamāsi)
    once upon a time / great / caravan / one thousand cars / from eastern / from country / to western / to country / left for
    Once upon a time, a great caravan with a thousand carts went to the western country from eastern country.

    so yena yena gacchati khippam eva pariyādiyati tiṇakaṭṭhodakaṃ haritakavaṇṇaṃ.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🔼(yena yena) ▶️🤟⨀(gacchati) 🔼(khippaṃ) 🔼(eva) ▶️🤟⨀(pariyādiyati) 🚻②⨀(tiṇakaṭṭhodaka) 🔼(haritaka) 🚹②⨀(vaṇṇa)
    he / wherever / go / quickly / only / uses up / grass, wood and water / green colour
    Wherever it goes, it really uses up fresh grass, firewood and water quickly.

    tasmiṃ kho pana satthe dve satthavāhā ahesuṃ ;
    🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🔼(kho) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha) ⚧①⨂(dvi) 🚹①⨂(satthavāha) ⏮🤟⨂(ahosi)
    in that / indeed / however / caravans / two / caravan merchants / were
    In that situation however there were two caravan merchants in the caravans;

    eko pañcannaṃ sakaṭasatānaṃ, eko pañcannaṃ sakaṭasatānaṃ.
    🚹①⨀(eka) ⚧⑥⨂(pañca) 🚻⑥⨂(sakaṭasata) , 🚹①⨀(eka) ⚧⑥⨂(pañca) 🚻⑥⨂(sakaṭasata)
    one | 100 | carts , one | 100 | carts
    one of 500 carts, another of 500 carts.

    atha kho tesaṃ satthavāhānaṃ etad ahosi :
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹④⨂(ta) 🚹④⨂(satthavāha) 🚻①⨀(eta) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    after that / for those / for caravan merchants / this / was
    After that this thought occurred for the caravan merchants:

    ayaṃ kho mahā sakaṭasattho sakatasahassam.
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨂(maha) 🚹①⨀(sakaṭasattha) 🚻①⨀(sakaṭasahassa)
    this / 💡/ great / caravan / 1000 carts
    This is indeed a great caravan with a thousand carts.

    te mayaṃ yena yena gacchāma khippam eva pariyādiyati tiṇakaṭṭhodakaṃ haritakavaṇṇaṃ.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(yena yena) ▶️👆⨂(gacchati) 🔼(khippaṃ) 🔼(eva) ▶️🤟⨀(pariyādiyati) 🚻②⨀(tiṇakaṭṭhodaka) 🔼(haritaka) 🚹②⨀(vaṇṇa)
    that / we / wherever / go / quickly / only / uses up / grass, wood and water / green colour
    Wherever we go they use up fresh grass, firewood and water quickly.

    yan nūna mayaṃ imaṃ satthaṃ dvidhā vibhajeyyāma ekato pañca sakatasatāni.
    🔼(nūna) 🚹②⨀(sattha) 🔼(dvidhā) ⏯👆⨂(vibhajati) 🚹⑤⨀(eka) 🚻②⨂(sakaṭasata)
    indeed/could it be / we / this / caravan / in two pieces / should distribute / from one / 5 / one hundred carts
    Perhaps we can divide this caravan from one into two pieces of 500 carts.

    Translate from Pali

    tena hi brāhmaṇa suṇāhi, bhāsissāmi (D I 124,19)
    🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) ⏹🤘⨀(suṇāti) ⏭👆⨀(bhāsati)
    therefore / O Brahman / may you listen / I will speak
    Therefore, O Brahman, please listen for I will speak.

    dīghaṃ assasāmi (D II 291,7)
    🔼(dīghaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(assasati)
    deeply / I breath
    I breath deeply.

    mā ekena dve agamittha (D II 45,32)
    🔼(mā) 🚹③⨀(eka) ⚧②⨂(dvi) ⏮🤘⨂(agami)
    do not / by one / two / you all went
    Don’t go together (two must not go by one direction/way)

    disvā va mayaṃ taṃ bhagavantaṃ Gotamaṃ gamissāma (D I 151,4-5)
    🔼(disvā va) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant gotama) ⏭👆⨂(gamissati) having seen / only / we / that / Blessed Gotama / will go
    Only after having seen, we will go to that Gotama the Blessed One.

    devā sabhāyaṃ sannisinnā honti (D II 225,10-11)
    🚹①⨂(deva) 🚺⑦⨀(sabhā) 🚹①⨂(sannisinna) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti)
    gods / at assembly hall / seated together / are
    Gods are seated together at assembly hall.

    santān’ eva nu kho saddāni nāssosi, udāhu asantāni (D I 152,25-28)
    🚻①⨂(santa) 🔼(eva nu kho) 🚻①⨂(sadda) ⏮🤟⨀(nāssosi) 🔼(udāhu) 🚻①⨂(asanta)
    existing / really / ? / indeed / sound / he did not hear / 2nd part / non-existing
    Was the sound he did not hear existing, or was (the sound) non-existent?

    aham pana agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajissāmi (D III 64,11-13)
    👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(pana) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚻②⨀(anagāriya) ⏭👆⨀(pabbajati)
    I / but / from household life / to homeless state / will renounce
    However, I will renounce from household life to a homeless state.

    katame pañca (D II 85,14)
    🚹①⨂(katama) ⚧①⨂(pañca)
    what/which / five
    Which Five?

    kāmesu micchā na caritabbā (D III 62,18)
    🚹⑦⨂(kāma) 🔼(micchā na) 🚹①⨂(caritabba)
    to sensual pleasure / wrongly / no / should be practised
    (I) should not be wrongly living a life of sensual pleasure.

    yaṃ sukho bhavaṃ taṃ sukhā mayam, yaṃ dukkho bhavaṃ taṃ dukkhā mayaṃ (D II 233,7-9)
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(sukha) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚺②⨀(ta) 🚺②⨂(sukha) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) …
    whatever / pleasant / existence / that / pleasant / us …
    Whatever is pleasant your honourable, that is pleasant for us, whatever is unpleasant your honourable, that is unpleasant for us.

    Translate into Pali

    Soṇadaṇḍasutta DN 4 PTS 1.111–1.126 13.2, 16.4-16.5, 18.5-20.4, 21.5, 21.12 (D I 120,10 -124,10):

    Priests declare (one) endowed with these five characteristics a priest. (D I 120,10-11)
    “pañcahi, (bho gotama), aṅgehi samannāgataṁ brāhmaṇā brāhmaṇaṁ paññapenti;

    Of these five characteristics let us except class, for what will class effect (kar) ? (D I 120,32-34)
    Imesañhi, (bho gotama), pañcannaṁ aṅgānaṁ jātiṁ ṭhapayāma
    Kiñhi jāti karissati?

    " Don’t you bother, let the priest Soṇadaṇḍa discuss with me." When it had been spoken thus the priest Soṇadaṇḍa said this to the fortunate one : “ Let the honourable Gotama not trouble, let the honourable Gotama be silent, I by myself (eva) will make a reply to them according to the doctrine." Then (add kho for emphasis) the priest Soṇadaṇḍa said this to those priests : “ Sirs ! Do not speak thus : ‘ His honour Soṇadaṇḍa surely disparages class, disparages prayers, certainly his honour Soṇadaṇḍa- is going over to the argument of the philosopher Gotama himself (eva),’ I do not, sir, disparage either class or prayers." (D I 122,19 - 123,2)
    tiṭṭhatha tumhe, soṇadaṇḍo brāhmaṇo mayā saddhiṁ paṭimantetū”ti.
    Evaṁ vutte, soṇadaṇḍo brāhmaṇo bhagavantaṁ etadavoca:
    “tiṭṭhatu bhavaṁ gotamo, tuṇhī bhavaṁ gotamo hotu, ahameva tesaṁ sahadhammena paṭivacanaṁ karissāmī”ti.
    Atha kho soṇadaṇḍo brāhmaṇo te brāhmaṇe etadavoca:
    “mā bhavanto evaṁ avacuttha, mā bhavanto evaṁ avacuttha:
    ‘apavadateva bhavaṁ soṇadaṇḍo vaṇṇaṁ, apavadati mante, apavadati jātiṁ, ekaṁsena bhavaṁ soṇadaṇḍo samaṇasseva gotamassa vādaṁ anupakkhandatī’ti.
    Nāhaṁ, bho, apavadāmi vaṇṇaṁ vā mante vā jātiṁ vā”ti.

    At that very (kho puna) time a young priest called Aṅgaka, a nephew of the priest Sonadanḍa, was sitting (past participle and hoti) in that assembly. (D I 123,3-5)
    Tena kho pana samayena soṇadaṇḍassa brāhmaṇassa bhāgineyyo aṅgako nāma māṇavako tassaṁ parisāyaṁ nisinno hoti.

    Do you see (3rd person), sirs, this young priest Aṅgaka, our nephew ? (make interrogative merely by inversion of agent and verb). Yes (evam), sir. (D I 123,6-8)
    (Atha kho soṇadaṇḍo brāhmaṇo te brāhmaṇe etadavoca:)
    “passanti no bhonto imaṁ aṅgakaṁ māṇavakaṁ amhākaṁ bhāgineyyan”ti?
    “Evaṁ, bho”.

    Where (there is) virtue, there (there is) wisdom, where wisdom, virtue. (D I 124,2-3)
    Yattha sīlaṁ tattha paññā, yattha paññā tattha sīlaṁ.

    It is reported (passive) that (—omit " that ” and put the subject spoken of in the accusative — “specification of state “) in the world the supreme is of-virtue-and-wisdom. (D I 124,9-10)
    Sīlapaññāṇañca pana lokasmiṁ aggamakkhāyatī”ti.

    7.15 - Answers to Warder Lesson 18

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 18

    Passage 1

    DN 23 27.3-27.17 (D II 348,19 - 349,7):

    bhūtapubbaṃ dve akkhadhuttā akkhehi dibbiṃsu. eko akkhadhutto āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilati. addasā kho dutiyo akkhadhutto taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilantaṃ disvā akkhadhuttaṃ etad avoca: tvaṃ kho samma ekantikena jināsi, dehi samma akkhe, pajohissāmi ti. evaṃ sammā ti kho so akkhadhutto tassa akkhadhuttassa akkhe pādāsi. atha kho so akkhadhutto akkhe visena paribhāvetvā taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ etad avoca: ehi kho samma akkhehi dibbissāmā ti. evaṃ sammā ti kho so akkhadhutto tassa akkhadhuttassa paccassosi. dutiyam pi kho te akkhadhuttā akkhehi dibbiṃsu, dutyam pi kho so akkhadhutto āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilati. addasā kho dutiyo akkhadhutto taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ dutiyam pi āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilantaṃ. disvā taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ etad avoca:

    littaṃ paramena tejasā
    gilam akkhaṃ puriso na bujjhati
    gila re gila pāpadhuttaka
    pacchā te kaṭukaṃ bhavissatī ti.

    bhūtapubbaṃ dve akkhadhuttā akkhehi dibbiṃsu.
    🔼(bhūtapubbaṃ) ⚧①⨂(dvi) 🚹①⨂(akkhadhutta) 🚹③⨂(akkha) ⏮🤟⨂(dibbi)
    once upon a time / two / gamblers / with dice / played/gambled
    Once upon a time two gamblers played with dice.

    eko akkhadhutto āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilati.
    🚹①⨀(eka) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨀(āgatāgata) 🚹②⨀(kali) ▶️🤟⨀(gilati)
    one / gambler / come whenever / bad luck / swallows
    One gambler swallows (the dice) whenever bad luck comes.

    addasā kho dutiyo akkhadhutto taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilantaṃ
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(dutiya) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨀(āgatāgata) 🚹②⨀(kali) 🚹②⨀(gilanta)
    saw / indeed / 2nd / gambler / that / gambler / come whenever / bad luck / swallowing
    The second gambler saw that first gambler swallowing (the dice) whenever bad luck comes.

    disvā akkhadhuttaṃ etad avoca: tvaṃ kho samma ekantikena jināsi, dehi samma akkhe, pajohissāmi ti.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹②⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🔼(kho) 🔼(samma) 🚹③⨀(ekantika) ▶️🤘⨀(jināti) , 🚹③⨂(da) 🔼(samma) 🚹②⨂(akkha) , ⏭👆⨀(pajohati) 🔼(ti)
    having seen /gambler / this / said : you / indeed / friend / conclusively / wins , by offering / friend / throw dice / quote
    Having seen, the gambler said this: “Friend, you will conclusively win by giving the dice (to me), I will throw.”

    evaṃ sammā ti kho so akkhadhutto tassa akkhadhuttassa akkhe pādāsi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(samma) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨂(akkha) ⏮🤟⨀(pādāsi)
    yes / friend / quote / that / gambler / of that / of gambler / dice / presented
    “Yes, friend” that gambler of the gambler presented the dice.

    atha kho so akkhadhutto akkhe visena paribhāvetvā taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ etad avoca: ehi kho samma akkhehi dibbissāmā ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) ②⨂(akkha) 🚻③⨀(visa) 🔼(paribhāvetvā) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🚹③⨂(ima) 🔼(kho) 🔼(samma) 🚹③⨂(akkha) ⏭👆⨂(dibbati) 🔼(ti)
    after that / that / gambler / dice / with poison / having treated / that / gambler / this / said : with this / indeed / friend / with dice / (I) will play
    After that, that gambler having treated the dice with poison, that gambler said this: I will play with this dice, friend.

    evaṃ sammā ti kho so akkhadhutto tassa akkhadhuttassa paccassosi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(samma) 🔼(ti) 🚹①⨀(ta) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(akkhadhutta) ⏮🤟⨀(paccassosi)
    yes / friend / quote / that / gambler / of that / of gambler / agreed
    “Yes, friend” that gambler of the gambler agreed.

    dutiyam pi kho te akkhadhuttā akkhehi dibbiṃsu, dutiyam pi kho so akkhadhutto āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilati.
    🚻①⨀(dutiya) 🔼(pi kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(akkhadhutta) ⏮🤟⨂(dibbi) , 🚻①⨀(dutiya) 🔼(pi kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨀(āgatāgata) 🚹②⨀(kali) ▶️🤟⨀(gilati)
    secondly / too / indeed / those / gamblers / with dice / secondly too / indeed / that / gambler / come whenever / bad luck / swallows
    For the second time, those gamblers played with dice. And for the second time, that gambler swallows (the dice) when bad luck comes.

    addasā kho dutiyo akkhadhutto taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ dutiyam pi āgatāgataṃ kaliṃ gilantaṃ.
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(dutiya) ①⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚹②⨀(āgatāgata) 🚻①⨀(dutiya) 🔼(pi) ②⨀(āgatāgata) 🚹②⨀(kali) 🚹②⨀(gilanta)
    saw / indeed / 2nd / gambler / that / gambler / secondly / too / come whenever / bad luck / swallowing
    The second gambler saw that first gambler swallowing (the dice) whenever bad luck comes for the second time.

    disvā taṃ akkhadhuttaṃ etad avoca:
    🔼(disvā) 🚹②⨀(akkhadhutta) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) :
    having seen /gambler / this / said :
    Having seen, the gambler said this:

    littaṃ paramena tejasā
    🚻①⨀(litta) 🚹③⨀(parama) 🚹③⨀(tejas)
    smeared / by the best / by poison
    “Smeared by the strongest poison

    gilam akkhaṃ puriso na bujjhati
    🚹①⨀(gilanta) 🚹②⨀(akkha) 🚹①⨀(purisa) ▶️🤟⨀(bujjhati)
    swallowing / the dice / person / no / aware
    The person swallowing the dice is not aware

    gila re gila pāpadhuttaka
    ⏹🤘⨀(gilati) 🔼(re) ⏹🤘⨀(gilati) 🚹⓪⨀(pāpadhuttaka)
    swallow! / damn you / swallow! / you bad cheat
    Swallow! Damn you, swallow! You bad cheat!

    pacchā te kaṭukaṃ bhavissatī ti.
    🔼(pacchā) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚻①⨀(kaṭuka) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🔼(ti)
    afterwards / there / bitterness / will be / quote
    Afterwards, there will be bitterness.”

    Passage 2

    DN 26 2.1-7.16 (D III 59,1 - 63,16):

    bhūtapubbaṃ rājā Daḷhanemi nāma ahosi cakkavatti dhammiko dhammarājā … atha kho rājā Daḷhanemi vassasahassānaṃ accayena aññataraṃ purisaṃ āmantesi. yadā tvaṃ ambho purisa passeyyāsi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutaṃ, atha me āroceyyāsī ti. evaṃ devā ti kho so puriso rañño Daḷhanemissa paccassosi. addasā kho so puriso vassasahassānaṃ accayena dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutaṃ. disvā yena rājā Daḷhanemi ten’ upasaṃkami, upasaṃkamitvā rājānaṃ Daḷhanemiṃ etad avoca. yagghe deva jāneyyāsi dibbaṃ te cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutan ti. atha kho rājā Daḷhanemi jeṭṭhaputtaṃ kumāraṃ āmantāpetvā etad avoca. dibbaṃ kira me tāta kumāra cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutaṃ. sutaṃ kho pana m’etaṃ, yassa rañño cakkavattissa dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ osakkati ṭhānā cavati, na dāni tena rañña ciraṃ jīvitabbaṃ hotī ti. bhuttā kho pana me mānusakā kāmā, samayo dibbe kāme pariyesituṃ. ehi tvaṃ tāta kumāra imaṃ paṭhaviṃ paṭipajja. ahaṃ pana kesamassuṃ, ohāretvā, kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā, agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajissāmi ti. atha kho rājā Daḷhanemi jeṭṭhaputtaṃ kumāraṃ sādhukaṃ rajje samanusāsitvā, kesamassuṃ ohāretvā kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā, agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbaji. sattāhapabbajite kho pana rājisimhi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ antaradhāyi. atha kho aññataro puriso yena rājā khattiyo ten’upasaṃkami, upasaṃkamitvā rājānaṃ khattiyaṃ etad avoca: yagghe deva jāneyyāsi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ antarahitan ti.

    atha kho rājā khattiyo dibbe cakkaratane antarahite anattamano ahosi. so yena rājisi ten’upasaṃkami, upasaṃkamitvā rājisiṃ etad avoca: yagghe deva jāneyyāsi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ antarahitan ti. evaṃ vutte rājisi rājānaṃ khattiyaṃ etad avoca: mā kho tvaṃ tāta dibbe cakkaratane antarahite anattamano ahosi. na hi te tāta dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ pettikaṃ dāyajjaṃ. iṅgha tvaṃ tāta ariye cakkavattivatte vattāhi. ṭhānaṃ kho pan’etaṃ vijjati yan te dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ pātubhavissaJ ti. katamaṃ pan’etaṃ deva ariyaṃ cakkavattivattan ti. tena hi tvaṃ tāta dhammaṃ yeva nissāya dhammaṃ mānento dhammaṃ pūjento dhammikaṃ rakkhāvaraṇaguttiṃ saṃvidahassu khattiyesu anuyuttesu brāhmaṇagahapatikesu negamajānapadesu samaṇabrāhmaṇesu migapakkhīsu. mā ca te tāta vijite adhammakāro pavattittha. ye ca te tāta vijite adhanā assu, tesañ ca dhanaṃ anuppadeyyāsi. ye ca te tāta vijite samaṇabrahmaṇā madappamādā paṭiviratā, te kālena kālaṃ upasaṃkamitvā paripuccheyyāsi: kiṃ bhante kusalaṃ kiṃ akusalaṃ, kiṃ me kayiramānaṃ dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya assa, kiṃ vā pana me kayiramānaṃ dīgharattaṃ hitāya sukhāya assa ti. tesaṃ sutvā yaṃ akusalaṃ taṃ abhinivajjeyyāsi, yaṃ kusalaṃ taṃ samādāya vatteyyāsi. idaṃ kho tāta taṃ ariyaṃ cakkavattivattan ti. evaṃ devā ti kho rājā khattiyo rājisissa paṭissutvā ariye cakkavattivatte vatti. tassa ariye cakkavattivatte vattamānassa dibbaṃ cakkarantanaṃ pāturahosi. disvā rañño khattiyassa etad ahosi: sutaṃ kho pana m’etaṃ: yassa rañño khattiyassa dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ pātubhavati, so hoti cakkavattī ti. assaṃ nu kho ahaṃ rājā cakkavattī ti.

    atha kho taṃ cakkaratanaṃ puratthimaṃ disaṃ pavatti, anvad eva rājā cakkavatto saddhiṃ caturaṅginiyā senāya. yasmiṃ kho pana padese cakkaratanaṃ patiṭṭhāsi, tattha rājā cakkavatti vāsaṃ upagacchi saddhiṃ caturaṅginiyā senāya. ye kho pana puratthimāya disāya paṭirājāno, te rājānaṃ cakkavattiṃ upasaṃkamitvā evam āhaṃsu: ehi kho mahārāja, svāgataṃ te mahārāja, sakan te mahārāja, anusāsa mahārājā ti. rājā cakkavatti evam āha: pāno na hantabbo. adinnaṃ n’ādātabbaṃ. kāmesu micchā na caritabbā. musā na bhāsitabbā. majjaṃ na pātabbaṃ. yathābhuttañ ca bhuñjathā ti. ye kho pana puratthimāya disāya paṭirājāno, te rañño cakkavattissa anuyuttā ahesuṃ… dakkhiṇam disaṃ pavatti. pe. pacchimaṃ. pe. uttaraṃ. pe. ye kho pana uttarāya disāya paṭirājāno, te rañño cakkavattissa anuyuttā ahesuṃ.

    bhūtapubbaṃ rājā Daḷhanemi nāma ahosi cakkavatti dhammiko dhammarājā …
    🔼(bhūtapubbaṃ) 🚹①⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🔼(nāma) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī) 🚹①⨀(dhammika) 🚹①⨀(dhammarāja)
    once upon a time / king / Daḷhanemi / named / was / wheel turning monarch / just / righteous
    Once upon a time there was a king named Daḷhanemi who was a just and righteous wheel turning monarch …

    atha kho rājā Daḷhanemi vassasahassānaṃ accayena aññataraṃ purisaṃ āmantesi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🚻④⨂(vassasahassa) 🚹③⨀(accaya) 🚹②⨀(aññatara) 🚹②⨀(purisa) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi)
    after that / King Daḷhanemi / for a thousand years / after the passing of / a certain / person / addressed
    After the passing of a thousand years, King Daḷhanemi addressed a certain man.

    yadā tvaṃ ambho purisa passeyyāsi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutaṃ, atha me āroceyyāsī ti.
    🔼(yadā) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🔼(ambho) 🚹⓪⨀(purisa) ⏯🤘⨀(passati) 🚹②⨀(dibba) 🚻②⨀(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨀(osakkita) 🚻⑤⨀(ṭhāna) 🚹②⨀(cuta) 🔼(atha) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) ⏯🤘⨀(āroceti)
    whenever / you / hey / person / should see / celestial / jewelled wheel / slipped down / from place / fallen / me / should inform
    “Hey my man, whenever you should see a comet (celestial jewelled wheel) slipped down and falling from it’s place, you should inform me.”

    evaṃ devā ti kho so puriso rañño Daḷhanemissa paccassosi.
    🔼(evaṃ devā ti kho) 🚹①⨀(ta purisa) 🚹④⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) ⏮🤟⨀(paccassosi)
    yes / Lord / quote / indeed / that / man / for king Daḷhanemi / replied to
    “Yes, Lord”, the man replied to king Daḷhanemi.

    addasā kho so puriso vassasahassānaṃ accayena dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutaṃ.
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(ta purisa) 🚻④⨂(vassasahassa) 🚹③⨀(accaya) 🚹②⨀(dibba) 🚻②⨀(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨀(osakkita) 🚻⑤⨀(ṭhāna) 🚹②⨀(cuta)
    saw / indeed / that / man / for a thousand years / after the passing of / celestial / jewelled wheel / slipped down / from place / fallen
    After the passing of a thousand years, that man saw a comet slipped down and falling from it’s place.

    disvā yena rājā Daḷhanemi ten’ upasaṃkami, upasaṃkamitvā rājānaṃ Daḷhanemiṃ etad avoca.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🚹③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami) 🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) 🚹②⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca)
    having seen / by where / king Daḷhanemi / by there / approached / having approached / to king Daḷhanemi / this / said
    Having seen, (the person) approached King Daḷhanemi, and having approached, said this.

    yagghe deva jāneyyāsi dibbaṃ te cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutan ti.
    🔼(yagghe) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) ⏯🤘⨀(jānāti) 🚹②⨀(dibba) 🤘④⨀(tvaṃ) 🚻②⨀(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨀(osakkita) 🚻⑤⨀(ṭhāna) 🚹②⨀(cuta)
    see now! / Lord / should know / celestial / there / jewelled wheel / slipped down / from place / fallen
    “See now, Lord, you should know the comet has slipped down and falling from it’s place for you.”

    atha kho rājā Daḷhanemi jeṭṭhaputtaṃ kumāraṃ āmantāpetvā etad avoca.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🚹②⨀(jeṭṭhaputta) 🚹②⨀(kumāra) 🔼(āmantāpetvā) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca)
    after that / King Daḷhanemi / first born / prince / having sent for / this / said
    After that, King Daḷhanemi, having sent for his first born son, the prince, said.

    dibbaṃ kira me tāta kumāra cakkaratanaṃ osakkitaṃ ṭhānā cutaṃ.
    🚹②⨀(dibba) 🔼(kira) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚻②⨀(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨀(osakkita) 🚻⑤⨀(ṭhāna) 🚹②⨀(cuta)
    celestial / really / of my / son / jewelled wheel / slipped down / from place / fallen
    “My son, the comet has slipped down and falling from it’s place.”

    sutaṃ kho pana m’etaṃ, yassa rañño cakkavattissa dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ osakkati ṭhānā cavati, na dāni tena rañña ciraṃ jīvitabbaṃ hotī ti.
    🚻①⨀(suta) 🔼(kho pana) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🚹④⨀(ya) 🚹④⨀(rāja) 🚹④⨀(cakkavattī)🚹②⨀(dibba) 🚻②⨀(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨀(osakkita) 🚻⑤⨀(ṭhāna) ▶️🤟⨀(cavati) 🔼(na) 🔼(dāni) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹⑤⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨀(cira) 🚹②⨀(jīvitabba) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(ti)
    heard / however / by me / this , for whoever / for king / for wheel turning monarch / celestial / jewelled wheel / slipped down / from place / fall / no / now / by there / from king / long time / should be lived by / is / quote
    But I have heard this, for whichever wheel turning monarch the comet slips down and fall from it’s place, then for that king there is now not long to live.

    bhuttā kho pana me mānusakā kāmā, samayo dibbe kāme pariyesituṃ.
    🚹①⨂(bhutta) 🔼(kho pana) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨂(mānusaka) 🚹①⨂(kāma) 🚹①⨀(samaya) 🚹②⨂(dibba) 🚹②⨂(kāma) 🔼(pariyesituṃ)
    enjoyed / however / by me / human / pleasures / time / heavenly / pleasures / to seek
    But earthly pleasures have been enjoyed by me, it’s time to seek heavenly pleasures.

    ehi tvaṃ tāta kumāra imaṃ paṭhaviṃ paṭipajja.
    🚹③⨂(ima) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚹⓪⨀(kumāra) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚺②⨀(paṭhavī) ⏹🤘⨀(paṭipajjati)
    from this / you / son / prince / this / world / follow a path
    From now, my son the prince, may you follow a path in this world

    ahaṃ pana kesamassuṃ, ohāretvā, kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā, agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajissāmi ti.
    👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(pana) 🚻②⨀(kesamassu) 🔼(ohāretvā) 🚻②⨂(kāsāya) 🚻②⨂(vattha) 🔼(acchādetvā) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚺②⨀(anagāriyā) ⏭👆⨀(pabbajati)
    I / however / hair and beard / haviong shaved off , ochre / robe / having put on , from household life / to homeless state / I will renounce
    I, however, having shaved off hair and beard, having put on ochre robe, will renounce from household life to homeless state.

    atha kho rājā Daḷhanemi jeṭṭhaputtaṃ kumāraṃ sādhukaṃ rajje samanusāsitvā, kesamassuṃ ohāretvā kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā, agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbaji.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🚹②⨀(jeṭṭhaputta) 🚹②⨀(kumāra) 🔼(sādhukaṃ) 🚻⑦⨀(rajja) 🔼(samanusāsitvā) 🚻②⨀(kesamassu) 🔼(ohāretvā) 🚻②⨂(kāsāya) 🚻②⨂(vattha) 🔼(acchādetvā) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚺②⨀(anagāriyā) ⏮🤟⨀(pabbaji)
    after that / King Daḷhanemi / first born / prince / carefully / on kingship / having thoroughly instructed / hair and beard / having shaved off , ochre / robe / having put on , from household life / to homeless state / renounced
    After that King Daḷhanemi, having thoroughly and carefully instructed his eldest prince, having shaved off hair and beard, having put on ochre robe, renounced from household life to homeless state.

    sattāhapabbajite kho pana rājisimhi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ antaradhāyi.
    🚹⑦⨀(sattāhapabbajita) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹⑦⨀(rājisi) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) ⏮🤟⨀(antaradhāyi)
    on renounced for a week / indeed / however / on kingly sage / celestial / jewelled wheel / disappeared
    However, after the kingly sage had renounced for a week, the comet disappeared.

    atha kho aññataro puriso yena rājā khattiyo ten’upasaṃkami, upasaṃkamitvā rājānaṃ khattiyaṃ etad avoca: yagghe deva jāneyyāsi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ antarahitan ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(rāja khattiyo) 🚹③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami) , 🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) 🚹②⨀(rāja Daḷhanemi) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🔼(yagghe) ⏯🤘⨀(jānāti) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) 🚻①⨀(antarahita)
    after that / a certain / person / by where / king / noble / by there / approached , having approached / king / noble / this /said : come on! / you should know / celestial / jewelled wheel / disappeared
    After that a certain person approached the noble king, and having approached the noble king, said this: “See now, Lord, you should know the comet has disappeared.”

    atha kho rājā khattiyo dibbe cakkaratane antarahite anattamano ahosi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(rāja khattiya) 🚹②⨂(dibba) 🚻②⨂(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨂(antarahita) 🚹①⨀(anattamana) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    After that / king / noble / celestial / jewelled wheel / disappeared / displeased / was
    After that the noble king was distressed that the comet has disappeared.

    so yena rājisi ten’upasaṃkami, upasaṃkamitvā rājisiṃ etad avoca: yagghe deva jāneyyāsi dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ antarahitan ti.
    🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(rājisi) 🚹③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṃkami) 🚹②⨀(rājisi) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🔼(yagghe) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) ⏯🤘⨀(jānāti) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) 🚻①⨀(antarahita) 🔼(ti)
    He / by where / kingly sage / by there / having approached / kingly sage / this / said : see now / Lord / you should know / quote
    Having approached the kingly sage, he said this to the kingly sage: “See now, o Lord, you should know the comet has disappeared.”

    evaṃ vutte rājisi rājānaṃ khattiyaṃ etad avoca: mā kho tvaṃ tāta dibbe cakkaratane antarahite anattamano ahosi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹②⨂(vutta) 🚹①⨀(rājisi) 🚹②⨀(rāja khattiya) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🔼(mā kho) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚹②⨂(dibba) 🚻②⨂(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨂(antarahita) 🚹①⨀(anattamana) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    Thus / spoken to / kingly sage / king / noble / this / said : don’t / indeed / son / celestial / jewelled wheel / disappeared / distressed / was
    Thus spoken to, the kingly sage said to the noble king: “My son, don’t be distressed the comet has disappeared.”

    na hi te tāta dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ pettikaṃ dāyajjaṃ.
    🔼(na hi) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) 🚹②⨀(pettika) 🚻②⨀(dāyajja)
    certainly not / to you / son / celestial / jewelled wheel / paternal / inherits
    “My son, the comet is certainly not a paternal inheritance for you.”

    iṅgha tvaṃ tāta ariye cakkavattivatte vattāhi.
    🔼(iṅgha) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚹②⨂(ariya) 🚻②⨂(cakkavattivatta) ⏹🤘⨀(vattati)
    here / you / son / noble / duty / wield
    “Here, my son, you must continue exercising your noble duties”

    ṭhānaṃ kho pan’etaṃ vijjati yan te dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ pātubhavissatī ti.
    🔼(ṭhānaṃ kho pan’etaṃ) ▶️🤟⨀(vijjati) 🔼(yan) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) ⏭🤟⨀(pātubhavati) 🔼(ti)
    it is possible / indeed / and this / is found / celestial / jewelled wheel / will appear
    “And thus it is possible that the comet will appear to you.”

    katamaṃ pan’etaṃ deva ariyaṃ cakkavattivattan ti.
    🚻①⨀(katama) 🔼(pan’etaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🚻①⨀(ariya) 🚻①⨀(cakkavattivatta) 🔼(ti)
    what / and this / Lord / noble / duty / quote
    “And what of this noble duty?”

    tena hi tvaṃ tāta dhammaṃ yeva nissāya dhammaṃ mānento dhammaṃ pūjento dhammikaṃ rakkhāvaraṇaguttiṃ saṃvidahassu khattiyesu anuyuttesu brāhmaṇagahapatikesu negamajānapadesu samaṇabrāhmaṇesu migapakkhīsu.
    🔼(tenahi) 🤘①⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🔼(yeva) 🔼(nissāya) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🚹①⨀(mānenta) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🚹①⨀(pūjenta) 🚻①⨀(dhammika) 🚺②⨀(rakkhāvaraṇagutti) 🔵⏹🤘⨀(saṃvidahati) 🚹⑦⨂(khattiya) 🚹⑦⨂(anuyutta) 🚹⑦⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🚹⑦⨂(negamajānapada) 🚹⑦⨂(samaṇabrāhmaṇa) 🚹⑦⨂(migapakkhī)
    well then / you / son / law / only / supporting / law / honouring / law / worshipping / justly / protection / organise / ruling caste / vassal / brahmins and householders / town and country people / ascetics and brahmans / beasts and birds
    “Well then, my son, only by you supporting, honouring and worshipping the law, and you must organise the safety and security of vassal warriors, brahmins and householders, town and country people, religious practitioners, beasts and birds.”

    mā ca te tāta vijite adhammakāro pavattittha.
    🔼(mā ca) 🤘②⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚻⑦⨀(vijita) 🚹①⨀(adhammakāra) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(pavatti)
    dont / and / to you / son / in kingdom / injustice / gave rise to
    “And, my son, don’t give rise to injustice in the kingdom.”

    ye ca te tāta vijite adhanā assu, tesañ ca dhanaṃ anuppadeyyāsi.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚻⑦⨀(vijita) 🚹①⨂(adhana) ⏯🤟⨂(assa) 🔼(tesañca) 🚻②⨀(dhana) anuppadeyyāsi
    whoever / and / that / son / in kingdom / poor, destitute / should be / and of them / money / give
    “And whoever, my son, that may be poor and destitute in the kingdom, to them you should give money.”

    ye ca te tāta vijite samaṇabrāhmaṇā madappamādā paṭiviratā, te kālena kālaṃ upasaṃkamitvā paripuccheyyāsi: kiṃ bhante kusalaṃ kiṃ akusalaṃ, kiṃ me kayiramānaṃ dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya assa, kiṃ vā pana me kayiramānaṃ dīgharattaṃ hitāya sukhāya assa ti.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚻⑦⨀(vijita) 🚹①⨂(samaṇabrāhmaṇa) 🚹①⨂(madappamāda) 🚹①⨂(paṭivirata) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(kālena kālaṃ) 🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) ⏯🤘⨀(paripucchati) : 🚻①⨀(ka) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚻①⨀(kusala) 🚻①⨀(ka) 🚻①⨀(akusala) 🚻①⨀(ka) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(kayiramāna) 🚻①⨀(dīgharatta) 🚺⑥⨀(ahita) 🚺⑥⨀(dukkha) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(kayiramāna) 🚻①⨀(dīgharatta) 🚺⑥⨀(hita) 🚺⑥⨀(sukha) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🔼(ti)
    whoever / and / that / son / religious practitioners / intoxication and heedlessness / abstained from / they / from time to time / having approached / you should ask about : what / venerable sir / skilful / what / unskilful / what / by me / being done / for a long time / of harm / of unpleasant / of this, what / or however / by me / being done / for a long time / of beneficial / of pleasant / of this / quote
    And, my son, having approached, from time to time, whichever religious practioners that have abstained from intoxication and heedlessness, you should ask them about: “What, Venerable Sir, is skilful? What is unskilful? What have been done by me for a long time that is harmful and unpleasant? Or moreover what have been done by me for a long time that is beneficial and pleasant?”

    tesaṃ sutvā yaṃ akusalaṃ taṃ abhinivajjeyyāsi, yaṃ kusalaṃ taṃ samādāya vatteyyāsi.
    🚹⑥⨂(ta) 🔼(sutvā) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚻①⨀(akusala) 🚻①⨀(ta) ⏯🤘⨀(abhinivajjeti) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🚻①⨀(kusala) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(samādāya) ⏯🤘⨀(vattati) 🚹⑥⨀(ima)
    of that / having heard / whatever / unskilful / that / will be removed / whatever / skilful / that / will be taken up / will be practiced/continued
    “Having heard that (response), you should remove anything unskilful and continue or take up anything skilful.”

    idaṃ kho tāta taṃ ariyaṃ cakkavattivattan ti.
    🔼(idaṃ kho) 🚹⓪⨀(tāta) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(ariya) 🚻①⨀(cakkavattivatta) 🔼(ti)
    here / indeed / my son / that / noble / duty
    “Here, my son, that is the noble duty.”

    evaṃ devā ti kho rājā khattiyo rājisissa paṭissutvā ariye cakkavattivatte vatti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(khattiya) 🚹⑥⨀(rājisi) 🔼(paṭissutvā) 🚹②⨂(ariya) 🚻②⨂(cakkavattivatta) ⏮🤟⨀(vatti)
    yes, that is right / Lord / quote / indeed / king / of kingly sage / having agreed / noble / duty / took place
    “Yes, that is indeed right, my Lord”, the noble king, having agreed with the kingly sage, undertook the noble duty.

    tassa ariye cakkavattivatte vattamānassa dibbaṃ cakkarantanaṃ pāturahosi.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) ②⨂(ariya) 🚻②⨂(cakkavattivatta) 🚹⑥⨀(vattamāna) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) ⏮🤟⨀(pāturahosi)
    while / noble / duty / taking place / celestial / jewelled wheel / manifested
    While (the noble king) was performing the noble duty, the comet manifested.

    disvā rañño khattiyassa etad ahosi: sutaṃ kho pana m’etaṃ: yassa rañño khattiyassa dibbaṃ cakkaratanaṃ pātubhavati, so hoti cakkavattī ti.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹④⨀(rāja) 🚹④⨀(khattiya) 🚻①⨀(eta) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi) : 🚹②⨀(suta) 🔼(kho pana) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) : 🚹④⨀(ya) 🚹④⨀(rāja) 🚹④⨀(khattiya) 🚻①⨀(dibba) 🚻 ①⨀(cakkaratana) ▶️🤟⨀(pātubhavati) 🚹①⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī)
    having seen / for king / for noble / this / was: for whichever / for king / for noble / celestial / jewelled wheel / manifests , he / becomes / wheel turning monarch
    Having seen, the thought occured for the noble king: “And so thus have I heard: ‘For whichever noble king the comet manifests, he becomes the wheel turning monarch.’”

    assaṃ nu kho ahaṃ rājā cakkavattī ti.
    🚺⑦⨀(ima) 🔼(nu kho) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī) 🔼(ti)
    at this / ? / indeed / I / king / wheel turning monarch
    “At this point, am I indeed the wheel turning monarch?”

    atha kho taṃ cakkaratanaṃ puratthimaṃ disaṃ pavatti, anvad eva rājā cakkavattī saddhiṃ caturaṅginiyā senāya.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) 🚺②⨀(puratthima) 🚺②⨀(disā) 🚺①⨀(pavatti) 🔼(anvadeva) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī) 🔼(saddhiṃ) 🚺③⨀(caturaṅgī) 🚺③⨀(sena)
    after that / that / jewelled wheel / Eastern / direction / manifests / following behind / king / wheel turning monarch / together with / an army of four divisions, elephants, chariots and infantry / by army
    After that, the comet manifests in the Eastern direction, following behind the wheel turning monarch together with an an army of four divisions, elephants, chariots and infantry.

    yasmiṃ kho pana padese cakkaratanaṃ patiṭṭhāsi, tattha rājā cakkavatti vāsaṃ upagacchi saddhiṃ caturaṅginiyā senāya.
    🚹⑦⨀(ya) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹⑦⨀(padesa) 🚻①⨀(cakkaratana) ⏮🤟⨀(patiṭṭhāsi) 🔼(tattha) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī) 🚹②⨀(vāsa) ⏮🤟⨀(upagacchi) 🔼(saddhiṃ) 🚺③⨀(caturaṅgī) 🚺③⨀(sena)
    at whatever / and next / at place / jewelled wheel / planted itself / in that place / king / wheel turning monach / residence / went towards / together with / an army of four divisions, elephants, chariots and infantry / by army
    And next, at whatever place the comet planted itself, in that place the wheel turning king went towards and took residence, together with an army of four divisions, elephants, chariots and infantry.

    ye kho pana puratthimāya disāya paṭirājāno, te rājānaṃ cakkavattiṃ upasaṃkamitvā evam āhaṃsu: ehi kho mahārāja, svāgataṃ te mahārāja, sakan te mahārāja, anusāsa mahārājā ti.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(kho pana) 🚺⑤⨀(puratthima) 🚺⑤⨀(disā) 🚹①⨂(paṭirāja) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨀(cakkavattī) 🔼(upasaṃkamitvā) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔄🤟⨂(āha) : ⏹🤘⨀(eti) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(mahārāja) 🚻①⨀(svāgata) 🤘④⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(mahārāja) 🚻①⨀(saka) 🤘④⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(mahārāja) ⏹🤘⨀(anusāsati) 🚹⓪⨀(mahārāja) 🔼(ti)
    whichever / and next / Eastern / direction / other kings / wheel turning monarch / having approached / they said : may you come / indeed / o great king / welcome / for you / o great king / my own / for you / o great king / may you advise / o great king / quote
    And next, whichever other kings, having approached the wheel turning monarch from the Eastern direction, they said this: May you come, O Mahārāja, welcome to you, my own for you, may you advise (us).”

    rājā cakkavatti evam āha: pāṇo na hantabbo.
    🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔄🤟⨀(āha) 🚹①⨀(pāṇa) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(hantabba)
    king / wheel turning / he said / living beings / should be killed
    The wheel turning monarch said: “Living beings should not be killed.”

    adinnaṃ n’ādātabbaṃ.
    🚻①⨀(adinna) 🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(ādātabba)
    something which is not given / no / should be taken
    “Something which is not given, should not be taken.”

    kāmesu micchā na caritabbā.
    🚹⑦⨂(kāma) 🔼(micchā) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨂(caritabba)
    In sensual pleasures / wrongly / no / could be lived
    “You should not be living in sensual pleasures.”

    musā na bhāsitabbā.
    🔼(musā) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨂(bhāsitabba)
    falsehood / no / should be spoken
    “Falsehoods should not be spoken.”

    majjaṃ na pātabbaṃ.
    🚻①⨀(majja) 🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(pātabba)
    intoxicants / no / should be drunk
    “Intoxicants should not be drunk.”

    yathābhuttañ ca bhuñjathā ti.
    🔼(yathābhuttaṃ ca) ⏹🤘⨂(bhuñjati)
    eating the amount currently eaten / and / you must eat
    “And you must eat in moderation.”

    ye kho pana puratthimāya disāya paṭirājāno, te rañño cakkavattissa anuyuttā ahesuṃ… dakkhiṇaṃ disaṃ pavatti.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(kho pana) 🚺⑤⨀(puratthima) 🚺⑤⨀(disā) 🚹①⨂(paṭirāja) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑥⨀(cakkavattī) 🚹①⨂(anuyutta) ⏮🤟⨂(ahosi) … 🚺②⨀(dakkhiṇa) 🚺②⨀(disā) ⏮🤟⨀(pavatti)
    whoever / and next / from Eastern / from direction / other kings / they / for king / for wheel turning / vassals / became / to south / to direction / moved
    And next, whichever other kings from Eastern direction became vassals of the wheel turning monarch … (the comet) moved to Southern direction.

    pe. pacchimaṃ. pe. uttaraṃ. pe.
    🔼(pe) 🚺②⨀(pacchima) 🔼(pe) 🚺②⨀(uttara) 🔼(pe)
    etc. / Western / etc. / Northern / etc.
    Etc. for Western and Northern directions …

    ye kho pana uttarāya disāya paṭirājāno, te rañño cakkavattissa anuyuttā ahesuṃ.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(kho pana) 🚺⑤⨀(uttara) 🚺⑤⨀(disā) 🚹①⨂(paṭirāja) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑥⨀(cakkavattī) 🚹①⨂(anuyutta) ⏮🤟⨂(ahosi)
    whoever / and next / from Northern / from direction / other kings / they / for king / for wheel turning / vassals / became
    And next, whichever other kings from Northern direction became vassals of the wheel turning monarch.

    Translate from Pali

    1. brāhmaṇo va seṭṭho vaṇṇo (D III 81,10-11)
      🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(va) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa)
      the brahmin / like / supreme / caste
      Only the brahmin caste is supreme.

    2. purisena purisaṃ karitvā khattiyā va seṭṭhā hīnā brāhmaṇā (D I 98,8-9)
      🚹③⨀(purisa) 🚹②⨀(purisa) 🔼(karitvā) 🚹①⨂(khattiya) 🔼(va) 🚹①⨂(seṭṭha) 🚹①⨂(hīna) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa)
      with person / person / having done / warriors / only / supreme / inferior / brahmins
      Having compared person with person, only the warriors are supreme and the brahmins are inferior.

    3. na c’ etarahi vijjati añño samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā bhagavatā bhiyyo ‘bhiññataro (D III 99,8-9)
      🔼(na ca etarahi) ▶️🤟⨀(vijjati) 🚹①⨀(añña) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚹⑤⨀(bhagavant) 🔼(bhiyyo abhiññataro)
      not / but / presently / is present/exists / another / ascetic / or / brahmin / from the Blessed One / greater than / more learned
      But presently there does not exist another ascetic or brahmin more learned than the Blessed One

    4. tiṇhena satthena sīsam chindati (D I 56,32)
      🚹③⨀(tiṇha) 🚹③⨀(sattha) 🚻①⨀(sīsa) ▶️🤟⨀(chindati)
      by sharp / by sword / head / (he) cuts
      He cuts off the head with a sharp sword.

    5. na odanakummāsaṃ bhuñjeyyaṃ (D III 9,21-22)
      🔼(na) 🚹②⨀(odanakummāsa) 🔵⏯👆⨀(bhuñjati)
      no / rice and barley bread / consumes
      I should not consume rice and barley bread

    6. aggo ‘ham asmi lokassa, jeṭṭho ‘ham asmi lokassa, seṭṭho ‘ham asmi lokassa (D II 15,10-12)
      🚹①⨀(agga) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🚹⑥⨀(loka) 🚹①⨀(jeṭṭha) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🚹⑥⨀(loka) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) ▶️👆⨀(atthi) 🚹⑥⨀(loka)
      supreme / I / am / of this world / oldest / am / of this world / foremost / am / of this world
      I am the supreme of this world, the oldest of this world, the foremost of this world.

    7. na mayaṃ ito bhiyyo pajānāma (D III 52,30-31)
      🔼(na) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(ito bhiyyo) ▶️👆⨂(pajānāti)
      not / we / from this / greater than / know
      We do not know more than this.

    8. idaṃ hīnaṃ, idaṃ paṇitaṃ (D II 223,2)
      🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(hīna) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(paṇīta)
      this / inferior / this superior
      This is inferior, this is superior.

    9. sañña nu kho bhante paṭhamaṃ uppajjati pacchā ñāṇaṃ, udāhu paṭhamaṃ ñāṇaṃ uppajjati pacchā saññā, udāhu sañña ca ñāṇaṃ ca apubbaṃ acarimaṃ uppajjanti. (D I 185,21-24)
      🔼(sañña nu kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚻①⨀(paṭhama) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚹①⨂(paccha) 🚻①⨀(ñāṇa) 🔼(udāhu) 🚻①⨀(paṭhama) ①⨀(ñāṇa) ▶️🤟⨀(uppajjati) 🚻①⨀(apubba) 🚻①⨀(acarima) ▶️🤟⨂(uppajjati)
      perceiving / ? / indeed / Sir / first / arises / afterwards / understanding / or / first / understanding / arises / afterwards / perceiving / or / perceiving / and / understanding / and / not before / not later / arise
      Does perception arise before understanding, or understanding arise before perception, or do they arise simultaneously?

    Translate into Pali

    MN 57 1.1-3.4 (M I 387,8-21 + 27-28 + 388,2-9):

    Once, the fortunate one was dwelling (use present tense, which in contexts like this expresses a continuing state in the past) among the Koḷiyas. Then (atha kho) Puṇṇa, a Koḷiyan (Koḷiyaputto) , a bovine, and a naked ascetic Seniya, a canine, approached (aorist : past event at a point of time) this way towards the fortunate one. Having approached, Punna(the) Koliyan (who was) a bovine, having saluted the fortunate one, sat down to one side ekam-antam : used as an indeclinable-compound). The naked ascetic Seniya, however, (the) canine, exchanged greetings with the fortunate one ; having made agreeable polite conversation (word order : agreeable conversa- tion polite), squatting (gerund) like a dog, he sat down to one side, Punna the Koliyan bovine, seated to one side (put this clause first) said this to the fortunate one: " Sir, this naked ascetic Seniya (is) a canine, a doer-of-hard-tasks. He eats (what is) thrown-on-the-ground. He (use genitive and past participle) has long (digharattam) conformed (to) that dog-vow. What (will be) his future state ? " " Enough, Punna, don’t bother with this. Don’t ask me this," [Punna asks a second and a third time : the convention being that, however reluctant, one must satisfy an inquirer who persists in asking up to three times. In the Pali of this story the question is repeated with abbreviation (pe) in place of the second statement. The fortunate one reluctantly answers.] “. . . Nevertheless I will explain to you (te). In this connection, Punna, someone develops the dog-vow perfectly (paripuṇṇam : accusative used as adverb) . . . Having developed the dog-vow perfectly, having developed the-virtue-of-a-dog perfectly, having developed the-mind-of-a-dog perfectly, having developed the-style-of-a- dog perfectly, after death he is reborn in the condition (acc.) of dogs. But if (sace) he has the opinion (diiṭṭhi, fem. : Lesson 20) : ‘By this virtue or vow I shall be a god,’ that (fem.) is his wrong-opinion.” (Wrong-opinion produces as future state either purgatory or birth as an animal.)

    Once, the fortunate one was dwelling (use present tense, which in contexts like this expresses a continuing state in the past) among the Koḷiyas.
    ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā koliyesu viharati haliddavasanaṁ nāma koliyānaṁ nigamo.

    Then (atha kho) Puṇṇa, a Koḷiyan (Koḷiyaputto) , a bovine, and a naked ascetic Seniya, a canine, approached (aorist : past event at a point of time) this way towards the fortunate one.
    Atha kho puṇṇo ca koliyaputto govatiko acelo ca seniyo kukkuravatiko yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkamiṁsu;

    Having approached, Punna(the) Koliyan (who was) a bovine, having saluted the fortunate one, sat down to one side (ekam-antam : used as an indeclinable-compound).
    upasaṅkamitvā puṇṇo koliyaputto govatiko bhagavantaṁ abhivādetvā ekamantaṁ nisīdi.

    The naked ascetic Seniya, however, (the) canine, exchanged greetings with the fortunate one ; having made agreeable polite conversation (word order : agreeable conversation polite), squatting (gerund) like a dog, he sat down to one side, Punna the Koliyan bovine, seated to one side (put this clause first) said this to the fortunate one: " Sir, this naked ascetic Seniya (is) a canine, a doer-of-hard-tasks.
    Ekamantaṁ nisinno kho puṇṇo koliyaputto govatiko bhagavantaṁ etadavoca: “ayaṁ, bhante, acelo seniyo kukkuravatiko dukkarakārako chamānikkhittaṁ bhojanaṁ bhuñjati.

    He eats (what is) thrown-on-the-ground.

    He (use genitive and past participle) has long (digharattam) conformed (to) that dog-vow.
    Tassa taṁ kukkuravataṁ dīgharattaṁ samattaṁ samādinnaṁ.

    What (will be) his future state ? "
    Tassa kā gati, ko abhisamparāyo”ti?

    " Enough, Punna, don’t bother with this. Don’t ask me this,"
    “Alaṁ, puṇṇa, tiṭṭhatetaṁ; mā maṁ etaṁ pucchī”ti.

    [Punna asks a second and a third time : the convention being that, however reluctant, one must satisfy an inquirer who persists in asking up to three times. In the Pali of this story the question is repeated with abbreviation (pe) in place of the second statement. The fortunate one reluctantly answers.]
    Dutiyampi kho puṇṇo koliyaputto govatiko …pe… tatiyampi kho puṇṇo koliyaputto govatiko bhagavantaṁ etadavoca: “ayaṁ, bhante, acelo seniyo kukkuravatiko dukkarakārako chamānikkhittaṁ bhojanaṁ bhuñjati. Tassa taṁ kukkuravataṁ dīgharattaṁ samattaṁ samādinnaṁ. Tassa kā gati, ko abhisamparāyo”ti?

    “. . . Nevertheless I will explain to you (te).
    “Addhā kho te ahaṁ, puṇṇa, na labhāmi. Alaṁ, puṇṇa, tiṭṭhatetaṁ; mā maṁ etaṁ pucchīti; api ca tyāhaṁ byākarissāmi.

    In this connection, Punna, someone develops the dog-vow perfectly (paripuṇṇam : accusative used as adverb) . . . Having developed the dog-vow perfectly, having developed the-virtue-of-a-dog perfectly, having developed the-mind-of-a-dog perfectly, having developed the-style-of-a- dog perfectly, after death he is reborn in the condition (acc.) of dogs.
    Idha, puṇṇa, ekacco kukkuravataṁ bhāveti paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ, kukkurasīlaṁ bhāveti paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ, kukkuracittaṁ bhāveti paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ, kukkurākappaṁ bhāveti paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ. So kukkuravataṁ bhāvetvā paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ, kukkurasīlaṁ bhāvetvā paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ, kukkuracittaṁ bhāvetvā paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ, kukkurākappaṁ bhāvetvā paripuṇṇaṁ abbokiṇṇaṁ kāyassa bhedā paraṁ maraṇā kukkurānaṁ sahabyataṁ upapajjati.

    But if (sace) he has the opinion (diiṭṭhi, fem. : Lesson 20) : ‘By this virtue or vow I shall be a god,’ that (fem.) is his wrong-opinion.”
    Sace kho panassa evaṁdiṭṭhi hoti: ‘imināhaṁ sīlena vā vatena vā tapena vā brahmacariyena vā devo vā bhavissāmi devaññataro vā’ti, sāssa hoti micchādiṭṭhi.

    (Wrong-opinion produces as future state either purgatory or birth as an animal.) Micchādiṭṭhissa kho ahaṁ, puṇṇa, dvinnaṁ gatīnaṁ aññataraṁ gatiṁ vadāmi—nirayaṁ vā tiracchānayoniṁ vā.
    Iti kho, puṇṇa, sampajjamānaṁ kukkuravataṁ kukkurānaṁ sahabyataṁ upaneti, vipajjamānaṁ nirayan”ti.

    7.16 - Answers to Warder Lesson 19

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 19

    Passage 1

    Pāyāsisutta DN 23 PTS 2.316–2.358 23.11-23.67 (D II 343,8 - 346,18):

    te taṃ satthaṃ dvidhā vibhajiṃsu ekato pañca sakatasatāni ekato pañca sakaṭasatāni. eko tāva satthavāho bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca āropetvā satthaṃ payāpesi. dvīhatīhapāyāto kho pana so sattho addasā purisaṃ kalaṃ lohitakkhiṃ apanaddhakalāpaṃ kumudamālaṃ allavatthaṃ allakesaṃ kaddamamakkhitehi cakkehi gadrabharathena patipathaṃ āgacchantaṃ. disvā etad avoca : kuto bho āgacchasī ti. amukamhā janapadā ti. kuhiṃ gamissasī ti. amukaṃ nāma janapadan ti. kacci bho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo ti. evam kho bho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhāñ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇani katthāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti.

    atha kho so satthavāho satthike āmantesi : ayaṃ bho puriso evam āha : purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca katthañ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi satthaṃ pāyāpethā ti. evam bho ti kho te satthikā tassa satthavāhassa paṭissutvā, chaḍḍetvā purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni lahubhārehi sakaṭehi satthaṃ pāyāpesuṃ. te paṭhame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, dutiye pi satthavāse … tatiye pi satthavāse … catutthe pi satthavāse … pañcame pi satthavāse … chaṭṭhe pi satthavāse … sattame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, sabbe va anayavyasanaṃ āpajjiṃsu. ye ca tasmiṃ satthe ahesuṃ manussā vā pasū vā sabbe so yakkho amanusso bhakkhesi, aṭṭhikān’ eva sesesi.

    yadā aññāsi dutiyo satthavāho : bahunikkhanto kho dāni so sattho ti, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca āropetvā satthaṃ pāyāpesi. dvīhatīhapāyāto kho pan’ eso sattho addasā purisaṃ kālaṃ lohitakkhiṃ apanaddhakalāpaṃ kumudamālaṃ allavatthaṃ allakesaṃ kaddamamamkkhitehi cakkehi gadrabharathena patipathaṃ āgacchantaṃ. disvā etad avoca : kuto bho āgacchasī ti. amukamhā janapadā ri. kuhiṃ gamissasī ti. amukaṃ nāma janapadan ti. kacci kho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo ti. evam bho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purānāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhani udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti.

    atha kho so satthavāho satthike āmantesi : ayaṃ bho puriso evam āha : purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni bahuṃ tiṇāñ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti. ayaṃ kho bho puriso n’ ev’ amhākaṃ mitto na pi ñātisālohito, kathaṃ mayaṃ imassa saddhāya gamissāma. na kho chaḍḍetabbāni purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, yathākatena bhaṇḍena satthaṃ pāyāpetha, na vo purāṇaṃ chaḍḍessāmā ti. evaṃ bho ti kho te satthikā tassa satthavāhassa paṭissutvā yathākatena bhaṇḍena satthaṃ pāyāpesuṃ. te paṭhame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, dutiye pi satthavāse … tatiye pi satthavāse … catutthe pi satthavāse … pañcame pi satthavāse … chaṭṭhe pi satthavāse … sattame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, tañ ca satthaṃ addasaṃsu anayavyasanaṃ apannaṃ. ye va tasmiṃ satthe ahesuṃ manussā vā pasū vā, tesañ ca atthikān’ eva addasaṃsu tena yakkhena amanussena bhakkhitānaṃ.

    atha kho so satthavāho satthike āmantesi : ayaṃ kho bho so sattho anayavyasanaṃ āpanno yathā taṃ tena bālena satthavāhena pariṇāyakena. tena hi bho yān’ asmākaṃ satthe appasārāni paṇiyāni, tāni chaḍḍetvā, yāni imasmiṃ satthe mahāsārāni paṇiyāni tāni ādiyathā ti. evaṃ bho ti kho te satthikā tassa satthavāhassa paṭissutvā yāni sakasmiṃ satthe appasārāni paṇiyāni tāni chaḍḍetvā, yāni tasmiṃ satthe mahāsārāni paṇiyāni tāni ādiyitvā, sotthinā taṃ kantāraṃ nitthariṃsu yathā taṃ paṇḍitena satthavāhena pariṇāyakena.

    te taṃ satthaṃ dvidhā vibhajiṃsu ekato pañca sakatasatāni ekato pañca sakaṭasatāni.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(sattha) 🔼(dvidhā) ⏮🤟⨂(vibhaji) 🚹⑤⨀(eka) ⚧①⨂(pañca) 🚻②⨂(sakaṭasata)
    they | that | caravan | in two pieces | divided | from a single | five / one hundred carts
    They divided that caravan into two pieces each with 500 carts.

    eko tāva satthavāho bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca āropetvā satthaṃ payāpesi.
    🚹①⨀(eka) 🔼(tāva) 🚹①⨀(satthavāha) 🚹②⨀(bahu) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(ca) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(ca) 🔼(āropetvā) 🚹②⨀(sattha) ▶️🤘⨀(payāpeti)
    one | first | caravan leader | a lot of | straw | and | water | and | having loaded up | caravan | began the journey
    First, one caravan leader, having loaded up the caravan with lots of straw and water, began the journey.

    dvīhatīhapayāto kho pana so sattho addasā purisaṃ kalaṃ lohitakkhiṃ apanaddhakalāpaṃ kumudamālaṃ allavatthaṃ allakesaṃ kaddamamakkhitehi cakkehi gadrabharathena patipathaṃ āgacchantaṃ. 🚹①⨀(dvīhatīhapayāta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(sattha) ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🚹②⨀(purisa) 🚹②⨀(kala) 🚺②⨀(lohitakkhi) 🚹②⨀(apanaddhakalāpa) 🚹②⨀(allakesa) 🚺②⨀(kumudamālā) 🚹②⨀(allavattha) 🚹③⨂(kaddamamakkhita) 🚻⑤⨂(cakka) 🚹③⨀(gadrabharatha) 🚹②⨀(patipatha) 🚹②⨀(āgacchanta) travelled for 2 or 3 days | and next | that | caravan | saw | person | black | with red eyes | with quiver tied behind; (or “with the hair-knot untied”) | white water lily garland | with wet clothes | with wet hair | with mud splattered | with wheels | donkey coach | opposite road | approaching And next, after travelling for 2 or 3 days, that caravan encountered a dark person with red eyes, quiver tied behind, wet clothes and hair, in a donkey coach with mud splattered wheels approaching from the other direction of the road.

    disvā etad avoca : kuto bho āgacchasī ti.
    🔼(disvā) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) 🔼(kuto) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) ▶️🤘⨀(āgacchati) 🔼(ti)
    having seen | this | said : from where | sir | come along | quote
    Having seen, this was said: “Sir, where have you come from?”

    amukamhā janapadā ti.
    🚹⑤⨀(amuka) 🚹①⨂(janapada) 🔼(ti)
    from such and such | country | quote
    “From such and such country.”

    kuhiṃ gamissasī ti. 🔼(kuhiṃ) ⏭🤘⨀(gamissati) 🔼(ti) where? | you will go | quote “Where will you go?”

    amukaṃ nāma janapadan ti.
    🚻①⨀(amuka) 🔼(nāma) 🚹②⨀(janapada) 🔼(ti)
    such and such | named | country | quote
    “To such and such named country.”

    kacci bho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo ti.
    🔼(kacci) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(purato) 🚹②⨂(kantāra) 🚹①⨀(mahāmegha) 🔼(abhippavaṭṭa) 🔼(ti)
    I suspect | sir | in front of | desert | a great downpour | rained upon | quote
    “I suspect, sir, a great downpour rained in the desert in front of us.”

    evam kho bho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhāñ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇani katthāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti.
    🔼(evam) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(purato) 🚹②⨂(kantāra) 🚹①⨀(mahāmegha) 🔼(abhippavaṭṭa) , 🚻①⨂(āsittodaka) 🚻①⨂(vaṭuma) 🚹②⨀(bahu) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(ca) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(ca) , ⏹🤘⨂(chaḍḍeti) 🔼(bho) 🚻②⨂(purāṇa) 🚻②⨂(tiṇa kattha udaka) 🚹③⨂(lahubhāra) 🚻③⨂(sakaṭa) 🚻①⨀(sīgha sīgha) ⏹🤘⨂(gacchati) 🔼(mā) 🚻②⨂(yogga) ▶️🤟⨀(kilameti)
    thus | sir | in front of | desert | a great downpour | rained upon , waterlogged | path | a lot of | straw | and | water | and , you must throw away | sir | stale | grass | wood | water | with a light load | with cart | quickly | move | do not | vehicle | exhaust
    “That’s right, sir, a great downpour rained in desert in front of you, the path is waterlogged, there are lots of straw and water, sir, you must throw away stale grass, wood and water, with a lightly loaded cart you must move quickly, don’t wear down the vehicle.”

    atha kho so satthavāho satthike āmantesi : ayaṃ bho puriso evam āha : purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca katthañ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi satthaṃ pāyāpethā ti.
    🔼(atha bho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(satthavāha) 🚹②⨂(satthika) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹②⨀(purisa) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔄🤟⨀(āha) … 🔼(bho) 🚻②⨂(purāṇa) 🚻②⨂(tiṇa kattha udaka) , 🚹③⨂(lahubhāra) 🚻③⨂(sakaṭa) 🚹②⨀(sattha) 🔵⏯🤟⨀(payāpeti) 🔼(ti)
    after that | that | caravan leader | wagon driver | discussed : this | sir | person | thus | said : (as above) | sir | you must throw away | stale | grass | wood | water | with a light load | with cart | caravan | cause to set out | quote
    After that, that caravan leader discussed with the wagon driver: “This person said thus: ‘a great downpour rained in desert in front of us, the path is waterlogged, there are lots of straw and water, sir, you must throw away stale grass, wood and water, with a lightly loaded cart you must move quickly, don’t wear down the vehicle.’ Sir, you must throw away stale grass, wood and water, with a lightly loaded cart, you will cause the caravan to set out”

    evam bho ti kho te satthikā tassa satthavāhassa paṭissutvā, chaḍḍetvā purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni lahubhārehi sakaṭehi satthaṃ pāyāpesuṃ.
    🔼(evam) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(satthika) 🚹④⨀(satthavāha) 🔼(paṭissutvā) , 🔼(chaḍḍetvā) 🚻②⨂(purāṇa) 🚻②⨂(tiṇa kattha udaka) 🚹③⨂(lahubhāra) 🚻③⨂(sakaṭa) 🚹②⨀(sattha) ⏮🤟⨀(pāyāpesi)
    thus | sir | quote | indeed | they | wagon driver | (for) caravan leader | having agreed with , having thrown away stale | grass | wood | water | with a light load | with cart | caravan | caused to set out
    “Yes, sir.” The wagon driver, having agreed with the caravan leader, they threw away stale grass, wood and water, and with a lightly loaded cart, (the wagon driver) caused the caravan to set out.

    te paṭhame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, dutiye pi satthavāse … tatiye pi satthavāse … catutthe pi satthavāse … pañcame pi satthavāse … chaṭṭhe pi satthavāse … sattame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, sabbe va anayavyasanaṃ āpajjiṃsu.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨂(paṭhama) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(kaṭṭha) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(vā) , 🚹②⨂(dutiya) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(tatiya) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(catuttha) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(pañcama) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(chaṭṭha) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹①⨀(sattama) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) 🔼(na) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(kaṭṭha) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(vā) , 🚹①⨂(sabba) 🔼(va) 🚻①⨀(anaya vyasana) ⏮🤟⨂(āpajji)
    they | first | also | at caravan campsite | no | saw | grass | or | wood | or | water , second campsite … third … fourth … fifth … sixth … seventh … | all | as | calamity and misfortune | suffered
    They did not see grass, wood, or water at the first caravan campsite, or second, or third, or fourth, of fifth, or sixth, or seventh … as all suffered calamity and misfortune.

    ye ca tasmiṃ satthe ahesuṃ manussā vā pasū vā sabbe so yakkho amanusso bhakkhesi, aṭṭhikān’ eva sesesi.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(ca) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha) ⏮🤟⨂(ahosi) 🚹①⨂(manussa) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨂(pasu) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨂(sabba) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(yakkha) 🚹①⨀(amanussa) ⏮🤟⨀(aññāsi) (bhakkheti) 🚻④⨂(aṭṭhika) 🔼(eva) ⏮🤟⨀(seseti)
    whoever | and | at that | caravan | was | human beings | or | livestock | or | all | that | supernatural | demon | you feed on , of bones | only | leaves over
    And whoever were in that caravan, human beings or livestock, that supernatural demon fed on all, leaving only bones.

    yadā aññāsi dutiyo satthavāho : bahunikkhanto kho dāni so sattho ti, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca āropetvā satthaṃ pāyāpesi.
    🔼(yadā) ⏮🤟⨀(aññāsi) 🚹①⨀(dutiya) 🚹①⨀(satthavāha) 🚹①⨀(bahunikkhanta) 🔼(kho) 🔼(dāni) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(sattha) 🔼(ti) 🚹②⨀(bahu) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(ca) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(ca) 🔼(āropetvā) 🚹②⨀(sattha) ⏮🤟⨀(pāyāpesi)
    when | knew | second | caravan leader : on the road for a long time | indeed | now | that | caravan | quote | a lot of | straw | and | water | having loaded
    When the second caravan leader thought: “That caravan has been on the road for a long time now,” having loaded a lot of straw and water, (he) caused the caravan to set out.

    dvīhatīhapāyāto kho pan’ eso sattho addasā purisaṃ kālaṃ lohitakkhiṃ apanaddhakalāpaṃ kumudamālaṃ allavatthaṃ allakesaṃ kaddamamamkkhitehi cakkehi gadrabharathena patipathaṃ āgacchantaṃ.
    🚹①⨀(dvīhatīhapayāta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(sattha) ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🚹②⨀(purisa) 🚹②⨀(kala) 🚺②⨀(lohitakkhi) 🚹②⨀(apanaddhakalāpa) 🚺②⨀(kumudamālā) 🚹②⨀(allavattha) 🚹②⨀(allakesa) 🚹③⨂(kaddamamakkhita) 🚻⑤⨂(cakka) 🚹③⨀(gadrabharatha) 🚹②⨀(patipatha) 🚹②⨀(āgacchanta)
    travelled for 2 or 3 days | and next | this | caravan | saw | person | black | with red eyes | white water lily garland | with wet clothes | with wet hair | with quiver tied behind | with mud splattered | with wheels | donkey coach | opposite road | approaching
    And next, after travelling for 2 or 3 days, this caravan encountered a dark person with red eyes, wet clothes and hair, quiver tied behind, in a donkey coach with mud splattered wheels approaching from the other direction of the road.

    disvā etad avoca : kuto bho āgacchasī ti.
    🔼(disvā) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) 🔼(kuto) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) ▶️🤘⨀(āgacchati) 🔼(ti)
    having seen | this | said : from where | sir | come along | quote
    Having seen, this was said: “Sir, where have you come from?”

    amukamhā janapadā ti.
    🚹⑤⨀(amuka) 🚹①⨂(janapada) 🔼(ti)
    from such and such | country | quote
    “From such and such country.”

    kuhiṃ gamissasī ti.
    🔼(kuhiṃ) ⏭🤘⨀(gamissati) 🔼(ti)
    where? | you will go | quote
    “Where will you go?”

    amukaṃ nāma janapadan ti.
    🚻①⨀(amuka) 🔼(nāma) 🚹②⨀(janapada) 🔼(ti)
    such and such | named | country | quote
    “To such and such named country.”

    kacci kho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo ti.
    🔼(kacci kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(purato) 🚹②⨂(kantāra) 🚹①⨀(mahāmegha) 🔼(abhippavaṭṭa) 🔼(ti)
    I suspect | indeed | in front of | desert | a great downpour | rained upon | quote
    “I suspect a great downpour rained in desert in front of us.”

    evam bho purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni, bahuṃ tiṇañ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purānāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhani udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti.
    🔼(evam) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(purato) 🚹②⨂(kantāra) 🚹①⨀(mahāmegha) 🔼(abhippavaṭṭa) , 🚻①⨂(āsittodaka) 🚻①⨂(vaṭuma) 🚹②⨀(bahu) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(ca) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(ca) , ⏹🤘⨂(chaḍḍeti) 🔼(bho) 🚻②⨂(purāṇa) 🚻②⨂(tiṇa kattha udaka) 🚹③⨂(lahubhāra) 🚻③⨂(sakaṭa) 🚻①⨀(sīgha sīgha) ⏹🤘⨂(gacchati) 🔼(mā) 🚻②⨂(yogga) ▶️🤟⨀(kilameti)
    thus | sir | in front of | desert | a great downpour | rained upon , waterlogged | path | a lot of | straw | and | water | and , you must throw away | sir | stale | grass | wood | water | with a light load | with cart | quickly | move | do not | vehicle | exhaust
    “That’s right, sir, a great downpour rained in desert in front of us, the path is waterlogged, there are lots of straw and water, sir, you must throw away stale grass, wood and water, with a lightly loaded cart you must move quickly, don’t wear down the vehicle.”

    atha kho so satthavāho satthike āmantesi : ayaṃ bho puriso evam āha : purato kantāre mahāmegho abhippavaṭṭo, āsittodakāni vaṭumāni bahuṃ tiṇāñ ca kaṭṭhañ ca udakañ ca, chaḍḍetha bho purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, lahubhārehi sakaṭehi sīghaṃ sīghaṃ gacchatha, mā yoggāni kilamethā ti.
    🔼(atha bho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(satthavāha) 🚹②⨂(satthika) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(bho) 🚹②⨀(purisa) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔄🤟⨀(āha) … 🔼(bho) 🚻②⨂(purāṇa) 🚻②⨂(tiṇa kattha udaka) , 🚹③⨂(lahubhāra) 🚻③⨂(sakaṭa) 🚹②⨀(sattha) 🔵⏯🤟⨀(payāpeti) 🔼(ti)
    after that | that | caravan leader | wagon driver | discussed : this | sir | person | thus | said : (as for first caravan above)
    After that, that caravan leader discussed with the wagon driver: “This person said thus: ‘a great downpour rained in desert in front of us, the path is waterlogged, there are lots of straw and water, sir, you must throw away stale grass, wood and water, with a lightly loaded cart you must move quickly, don’t wear down the vehicle.’”

    ayaṃ kho bho puriso n’ ev’ amhākaṃ mitto na pi ñātisālohito, kathaṃ mayaṃ imassa saddhāya gamissāma.
    🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(na eva) 👆⑥⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(mitta) 🔼(na pi) 🚹①⨀(ñātisālohita) , 🔼(kathaṃ) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚺③⨀(saddhā) ⏭👆⨂(gamissati)
    this | indeed | sir | person | not | even | of us | friend | not | also | family and blood relative , how? | we | of this | with trust | will go
    “Indeed, sir, this person is not even a friend of us, and also not family or blood relative, how can we go with trust?”

    na kho chaḍḍetabbāni purāṇāni tiṇāni kaṭṭhāni udakāni, yathākatena bhaṇḍena satthaṃ pāyāpetha, na vo purāṇaṃ chaḍḍessāmā ti.
    🔼(na kho) 🚻①⨂(chaḍḍetabba) 🚻②⨂(purāṇa) 🚻②⨂(tiṇa kattha udaka) 🚹③⨂(lahubhāra) 🔼(yathā) 🚹③⨀(kata) 🚻③⨀(bhaṇḍa) 🚹②⨀(sattha) 🔵⏯🤟⨀(payāpeti) 🔼(na vo) 🚹②⨀(purāṇa) ⏭👆⨂(chaḍḍeti) 🔼(ti)
    no | indeed | should be abandoned | stale | grass | wood | water | as per complete | with goods | caravan | causes to set out | not | truly | old | will throw
    “Indeed, the stale grass, wood and water should not be abandoned, the caravan causes to set out with complete contents, we will surely not throw away the old”

    evaṃ bho ti kho te satthikā tassa satthavāhassa paṭissutvā yathākatena bhaṇḍena satthaṃ pāyāpesuṃ.
    🔼(evam) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(satthika) 🚹④⨀(satthavāha) 🔼(paṭissutvā) , 🔼(yathā) 🚹③⨀(kata) 🚻③⨀(bhaṇḍa) 🚹②⨀(sattha) ⏮🤟⨀(pāyāpesi)
    thus | sir | quote | indeed | they | wagon driver | (for) caravan leader | having agreed with , as per original | with contents | caravan | caused to set out
    “Yes, sir.” The wagon driver, having agreed with the caravan leader, caused to set out with complete contents.

    te paṭhame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, dutiye pi satthavāse … tatiye pi satthavāse … catutthe pi satthavāse … pañcame pi satthavāse … chaṭṭhe pi satthavāse … sattame pi satthavāse na addasaṃsu tiṇaṃ vā kaṭṭhaṃ vā udakaṃ vā, tañ ca satthaṃ addasaṃsu anayavyasanaṃ āpannaṃ.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨂(paṭhama) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) 🔼(na) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(kaṭṭha) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(vā) , 🚹②⨂(dutiya) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(tatiya) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(catuttha) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(pañcama) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹②⨂(chaṭṭha) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) … 🚹①⨀(sattama) 🔼(pi) 🚹⑦⨀(satthavāsa) 🔼(na) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻②⨀(tiṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(kaṭṭha) 🔼(vā) 🚻②⨀(udaka) 🔼(vā) , 🚻①⨀(ta) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(sattha) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🚻①⨀(anaya vyasana) 🚻①⨀(āpanna)
    they | first | also | at caravan campsite | no | saw | grass | or | wood | or | water , second campsite … third … fourth … fifth … sixth … seventh … that | and | caravan | saw | calamity and misfortune | fallen into
    They did not see grass, wood, or water at the first caravan campsite, or second, or third, or fourth, of fifth, or sixth, or seventh … and they saw that caravan that had fallen into calamity and misfortune.

    ye va tasmiṃ satthe ahesuṃ manussā vā pasū vā, tesañ ca atthikān’ eva addasaṃsu tena yakkhena amanussena bhakkhitānaṃ.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(va) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha) 🚹①⨂(manussa) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨂(pasu) 🔼(vā) 🚹④⨂(ta) 🔼(ca) 🚻④⨂(aṭṭhika) 🔼(eva) ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🔼(tena) 🚹①⨀(yakkha) 🚹①⨀(amanussa) 🚹⑥⨂(bhakkhita)
    whoever | like | at that | at caravan | human beings | or | livestock | or | for those | and | of bones | only | saw | there | supernatural | demon | fed upon
    And whoever were in that caravan, human beings or livestock, and for those they only saw bones that the supernatural demon has fed upon.

    atha kho so satthavāho satthike āmantesi : ayaṃ kho bho so sattho anayavyasanaṃ āpanno yathā taṃ tena bālena satthavāhena pariṇāyakena.
    🔼(atha bho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(satthavāha) 🚹②⨂(satthika) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(sattha) 🚻①⨀(anaya vyasana) 🚹①⨀(āpanna) 🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(bāla) 🚹③⨀(satthavāha) 🚹③⨀(pariṇāyaka)
    after that | that | caravan leader | wagon driver | discussed : that | indeed | sir | caravan | calamity and misfortune | had fallen into | in whatever way | that by that | foolish | caravan leader | by leader
    After that, that caravan leader discussed with the wagon driver: “That caravan indeed, sir, had fallen into calamity and misfortune in whatever way by that foolish caravan leader.”

    tena hi bho yān’ asmākaṃ satthe appasārāni paṇiyāni, tāni chaḍḍetvā, yāni imasmiṃ satthe mahāsārāni paṇiyāni tāni ādiyathā ti.
    🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚻①⨂(ya)) 👆④⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha) 🚻②⨂(appasāra) 🚻②⨂(paṇiya) , 🚻①⨂(ta) 🔼(chaḍḍetvā) 🚻①⨂(ya)) 👆④⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha)🚻②⨂(mahāsāra) 🚻②⨂(paṇiya) 🚻①⨂(ta) ▶️🤘⨂(ādiyati) 🔼(ti)
    therefore | sir | whichever | for us | in caravan | of little worth | article of trade , that | having discarded , whichever | for us | in caravan | of immense wealth | article of trade , that | you take
    “Therefore, sir, having discarded whichever articles of trade of little worth for us in (our) caravan, take whichever articles of immense value in (that) caravan.”

    evaṃ bho ti kho te satthikā tassa satthavāhassa paṭissutvā yāni sakasmiṃ satthe appasārāni paṇiyāni tāni chaḍḍetvā, yāni tasmiṃ satthe mahāsārāni paṇiyāni tāni ādiyitvā, sotthinā taṃ kantāraṃ nitthariṃsu yathā taṃ paṇḍitena satthavāhena pariṇāyakena.
    🔼(evam) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(satthika) 🚹④⨀(satthavāha) 🔼(paṭissutvā) , 🚻①⨂(ya) 🚹⑦⨀(saka) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha) 🚻②⨂(appasāra) 🚻②⨂(paṇiya) , ①⨂(ya)) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(sattha)🚻②⨂(mahāsāra) 🚻②⨂(paṇiya) 🚻①⨂(ta) 🔼(ādiyitvā) , 🔼(sotthinā) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(kantāra) ⏮🤟⨂(nitthari) 🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(paṇḍita) 🚹③⨀(satthavāha) 🚹③⨀(pariṇāyaka)
    thus | sir | quote | indeed | they | wagon driver | (for) caravan leader | having agreed with , whichever | at own | in caravan | of little worth | article of trade | that | having discarded , whichever | in that | in caravan | of immense wealth | article of trade , having taken , safely | that | desert | crossed over | according to | that | with wise | caravan leader | leader
    Yes, sir.” The wagon driver, having agreed with the caravan leader, having discarded whichever articles of trade of little worth in own caravan, having taken whichever articles of immense value in that caravan, safely crossed over the desert in accordance with the wise caravan leader.

    Passage 2

    Kūṭadantasutta DN 5 PTS 1.127–1.149 1.1-1.4, 3.1-3.5, 4.1-4.13, 5.1-6.5, 7.36-11.13 (D I 127,1 - 135,28):

    Evaṁ me sutaṁ. Ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā Magadhesu cārikaṁ caramāno mahatā bhikkhusaṅghena saddhiṁ yena Khāṇumataṁ nāma Magadhānaṁ brāhmaṇagāmo tad avasari. Tatra sudaṁ bhagavā Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ. Tena kho pana samayena Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo Khāṇumataṁ ajjhāvasati sattussadaṁ satiṇakaṭṭhodakaṁ sadhaññaṁ rājabhoggaṁ raññā Māgadhena Seniyena Bimbisārena dinnaṁ rājadāyaṁ brahmadeyyaṁ.

    Tena kho pana samayena Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo upari pāsāde divāseyyaṁ upagato hoti. Addasā kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo Khāṇumatake brāhmaṇagahapatike Khāṇumatā nikkhamitvā saṅghasaṅghīgaṇībhūte yena ambalaṭṭhikā ten’ upasaṅkamante. Disvā khattaṁ āmantesi: kiṁ nu kho bho khatte Khāṇumatakā brāhmaṇagahapatikā Khāṇumatā nikkhamitvā saṅghasaṅghīgaṇībhūtā yena Ambalaṭṭhikā ten’ upasaṅkamantī ti? Atthi kho bho samaṇo Gotamo Sakyaputto Sakyakulā pabbajito. Magadhesu cārikaṁ caramāno mahatā bhikkhusaṅghena saddhiṁ Khāṇumataṁ anuppatto Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ. Tam ete bhavantaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamantī ti. Atha kho Kūṭadantassa brāhmaṇassa etad ahosi: sutaṁ kho pana m’ etaṁ: samaṇo gotamo tividhayaññasampadaṁ jānātī ti. Na kho panāhaṁ jānāmi tividhaṁyaññasampadaṁ, icchāmi cāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajituṁ. Yan nūnāhaṁ samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ upasaṅkamitvā tividhayaññasampadaṁ puccheyyan ti.

    Atha kho kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo khattaṁ āmantesi: tena hi bho khatte yena Khāṇumatakā brāhmaṇagahapatikā ten’ upasaṅkama. upasaṅkamitvā Khāṇumatake brāhmaṇagahapatike evaṁ vadehi: Kūṭadanto bho brāhmaṇo evam āha : āgamentu kira bhavanto, Kūṭadanto pi brāhmaṇo samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti. Evaṁ bho ti kho so khattā Kūṭadantassa brāhmaṇassa paṭissutvā yena Khāṇumatakā brāhmaṇagahapatikā ten’ upasaṅkami, upasaṅkamitvā Khāṇumatake brāhmaṇagahapatike etad avoca: Kūṭadanto bho brāhmaṇo evam āha : āgamentu kira bhavanto, Kūṭadanto pi brāhmaṇo samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti. Tena kho pana samayena anekāni brāhmaṇasatāni Khāṇumate paṭivasanti: Kūṭadantassa brāhmaṇassa mahāyaññaṁ anubhavissāmā ti. Assosuṁ kho te brāhmaṇā: Kūṭadanto kira brāhmaṇo samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti. Atha kho te brāhmaṇā yena Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo ten’ upasaṅkamiṁsu, upasaṅkamitvā Kūṭadantaṁ brāhmaṇaṁ etad avocuṁ: saccaṁ kira bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti? Evaṁ kho me bho hoti: aham pi samaṇaṁ gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissāmī ti. Mā bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkami. Na arahati bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ. Sace bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissati, bhoto Kūṭadantassa yaso hāyissati, samaṇassa Gotamassa yaso abhivaḍḍhissati. Yam pi bhoto Kūṭadantassa yaso hāyissati, samaṇassa Gotamassa yaso abhivaḍḍhissati, iminā p’ aṅgena na arahati bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ. Samaṇo tv eva Gotamo arahati bhavantaṁ Kūṭadantaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamitun ti. Evaṁ vutte Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo te brāhmaṇe etad avoca: Tena hi, bho, mama pi suṇātha yathā mayam eva arahāma taṁ bhavantaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ, na tv eva arahati so bhavaṁ Gotamo amhākaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ. Samaṇo khalu bho Gotamo Khāṇumataṁ anuppatto Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ. Ye kho pana ke ci samaṇā vā brāhmaṇā vā amhākaṁ gāmakhettaṁ āgacchanti atithī no te honti. Atithī kho pan’ amhehi sakkātabbā garukātabbā mānetabbā pūjetabbā. Yam pi bho samaṇo Gotamo Khāṇumataṁ anuppatto Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ, atith’ amhākaṁ samaṇo Gotamo. Atithi kho pan’ amhehi sakkātabbo garukātabbo mānetabbo pūjetabbo. Iminā p’ aṅgena n’ ārahati so bhavaṁ Gotamo amhākaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ. Atha kho mayam eva arahāma taṁ bhavantaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamitun ti.

    Atha kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo mahatā brāhmaṇagaṇena saddhiṁ yena Ambalaṭṭhikā yena bhagavā ten’ upasaṅkami, upasaṅkamitvā bhagavatā saddhiṁ sammodi sammodanīyaṁ kathaṁ sāraṇīyaṁ vītisāretvā ekamantaṁ nisīdi. Ekamantaṁ nisinno kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo bhagavantaṁ etad avoca: “sutaṁ m’ etaṁ, bho Gotama: ‘samaṇo Gotamo tividhayaññasampadaṁ jānātī ti. Na kho panāhaṁ jānāmi tividhayaññasampadaṁ, icchāmi cāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajituṁ. Sādhu me bhavaṁ Gotamo tividhayaññasampadaṁ desetū ti. Tena hi brāhmaṇa suṇāhi sādhukaṁ manasikarohi bhāsissāmī ti. Evaṁ, bho ti kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo bhagavato paccassosi. Bhagavā etad avoca: bhūtapubbaṁ brāhmaṇa rājā Mahāvijito nāma ahosi aḍḍho mahaddhano mahābhogo pahūtajātarūparajato pahūtavittūpakaraṇo pahūtadhanadhañño paripuṇṇakosakoṭṭhāgāro. Atha kho brāhmaṇa rañño Mahāvijitassa rahogatassa paṭisallīnassa evaṁ cetaso parivitakko udapādi: adhigatā kho me vipulā mānusakā bhogā, mahantaṁ pathavimaṇḍalaṁ abhivijiya ajjhāvasāmi, yan nūnāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajeyyaṁ, yaṁ mama assa dīgharattaṁ hitāya sukhāyā’ti. Atha kho, brāhmaṇa, rājā Mahāvijito purohitaṁ brāhmaṇaṁ āmantetvā etad avoca: idha mayhaṁ brāhmaṇa rahogatassa paṭisallīnassa evaṁ cetaso parivitakko udapādi: adhigatā kho me vipulā mānusakā bhogā, mahantaṁ pathavimaṇḍalaṁ abhivijiya ajjhāvasāmi. Yan nūnāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajeyyaṁ, yaṁ mama assa dīgharattaṁ hitāya sukhāyā ti. Icchām’ ahaṁ brāhmaṇa mahāyaññaṁ yajituṁ. Anusāsatu maṁ bhavaṁ yaṁ mama assa dīgharattaṁ hitāya sukhāyā ti.

    Evaṁ vutte brāhmaṇa purohito brāhmaṇo rājānaṁ Mahāvijitaṁ etad avoca: bhoto kho rañño janapado sakaṇṭako sauppīḷo, gāmaghātā pi dissanti nigamaghātā pi dissanti nagaraghātā pi dissanti panthaduhanā pi dissanti. Bhavaṁ kho pana rājā evaṁ sakaṇṭake janapade sauppīḷe balimuddhareyya, akiccakārī assa tena bhavaṁ rājā. Siyā kho pana bhoto rañño evam assa: aham etaṁ dassukhīlaṁ vadhena vā bandhena vā jāniyā vā garahāya vā pabbājanāya vā samūhanissāmī ti, na kho panetassa dassukhīlassa evaṁ sammā samugghāto hoti. Ye te hatāvasesakā bhavissanti, te pacchā rañño janapadaṁ viheṭhessanti. Api ca kho idaṁ saṁvidhānaṁ āgamma evam etassa dassukhīlassa sammā samugghāto hoti. Tena hi bhavaṁ rājā ye bhoto rañño janapade ussahanti kasigorakkhe, tesaṁ bhavaṁ rājā bījabhattaṁ anuppadetu. Ye bhoto rañño janapade ussahanti vāṇijjāya tesaṁ bhavaṁ rājā pābhataṁ anuppadetu, ye bhoto rañño janapade ussahanti rājaporise tesaṁ bhavaṁ rājā bhattavetanaṁ pakappetu, te ca manussā sakammapasutā rañño janapadaṁ na viheṭhessanti; mahā ca rañño rāsiko bhavissati, khemaṭṭhitā janapadā akaṇṭakā anuppīḷā. Manussā mudā modamānā ure putte naccentā apārutagharā maññe viharissantī ti.

    Evaṁ me sutaṁ.
    🔼(evaṃ) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(suta)
    thus | by me | heard
    Thus was heard by me.

    Ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā Magadhesu cārikaṁ caramāno mahatā bhikkhusaṅghena saddhiṁ yena Khāṇumataṁ nāma Magadhānaṁ brāhmaṇagāmo tad avasari.
    🚹②⨀(eka) 🚹②⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹⑦⨂(magadha) 🚺②⨀(cārikā) 🚹①⨀(caramāna) 🚹③⨀(mahanta) 🚹③⨀(bhikkhusaṅgha) 🔼(saddhiṃ) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚻①⨀(khāṇumata) 🔼(nāma) 🚹①⨂(magadha) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇagāma) 🚻①⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(avasari)
    one | time | the Blessed One | at Magadha | walking journey | walking in | with a large | community of monastics | by where | Khāṇumata | named | Magadha | village | that | arrived
    At one occasion the Blessed One was doing a walking journey in Magadha together with a large retinue of bhikkhus and arrived where a Magadhan holy village named Khāṇumata was.

    Tatra sudaṁ bhagavā Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ.
    🔼(tatra) 🔼(sudaṃ) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚻⑦⨀(khāṇumata) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚺⑦⨀(ambalaṭṭhikā)
    in that place | surely | the Blessed One | at Khāṇumata | stays | Ambalaṭṭhikā
    At that place of course the Blessed One stays at Ambalaṭṭhikā (monastery) in Khāṇumata.

    Tena kho pana samayena Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo Khāṇumataṁ ajjhāvasati sattussadaṁ satiṇakaṭṭhodakaṁ sadhaññaṁ rājabhoggaṁ raññā Māgadhena Seniyena Bimbisārena dinnaṁ rājadāyaṁ brahmadeyyaṁ.
    🚹③⨀(ta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚻②⨀(khāṇumata) ▶️🤟⨀(ajjhāvasati) 🚹②⨀(sattussada) 🚹②⨀(satiṇakaṭṭhodaka) 🚹②⨀(sadhañña) 🚹②⨀(rājabhogga) 🚹③⨀(rāja) 🚹③⨀(māgadha) 🚹③⨀(seniya) 🚹③⨀(bimbisāra) 🚹②⨀(dinna) 🚹②⨀(rājadāya) 🚻②⨀(brahmadeyya)
    by there | and next | time | Kūṭadanta | holy man | Khāṇumata | is settled | full of life } full of grass, wood and water | full on grain, crops | crown property | by King | by of Magadha | by Seniya | by Bimbisāra | offering | royal endowment | grant
    At that time the holy man Kūṭadanta is settled at Kūṭadanta, which was a crown property full of life, grass, wood, water, grain, crops, and it was a royal endowment and grant of King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha.

    Tena kho pana samayena Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo upari pāsāde divāseyyaṁ upagato hoti.
    🚹③⨀(ta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(upari) 🚹②⨂(pāsāda) 🚺②⨀(divāseyyā) 🚹①⨀(upagata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    by there | and next | time | Kūṭadanta | holy man | on top of | mansion | midday rest | is
    At that time the holy man Kūṭadanta has entered into his midday rest in the top of his mansion.

    Addasā kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo Khāṇumatake brāhmaṇagahapatike Khāṇumatā nikkhamitvā saṁghāsaṁghīgaṇībhūte yena ambalaṭṭhikā ten’ upasaṅkamante.
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) | 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨂(khāṇumataka) 🚹②⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🚻⑤⨀(khāṇumata) 🔼(nikkhamitvā saṁghāsaṁghīgaṇībhūte) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🚺①⨂(ambalaṭṭhikā) 🚻③⨀(ta) 🔵▶️🤟⨂(upasaṅkamati)
    saw | 💡| Kūṭadanta | holy man | of Khāṇumata | Brahmans and householders | from brahman village in Magadha | having left | clustered in groups | by where | Ambalaṭṭhikā | by there | approach
    The holy man Kūṭadanta saw the Brahmans and householders of Khāṇumata, having left from Khāṇumata clustered in groups, approach Ambalaṭṭhikā.

    Disvā khattaṁ āmantesi: kiṁ nu kho bho khatte Khāṇumatakā brāhmaṇagahapatikā Khāṇumatā nikkhamitvā saṅghasaṅghīgaṇībhūtā yena Ambalaṭṭhikā ten’ upasaṅkamantī ti?
    🔼(disvā) 🚹②⨀(khatta) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(nu kho) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹②⨂(khatta) 🚹①⨂(khāṇumataka)) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🚻⑤⨀(khāṇumata) 🔼(nikkhamitvā saṁghāsaṁghīgaṇībhūte) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🚺①⨂(ambalaṭṭhikā) 🚻③⨀(ta) ▶️🤟⨂(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    having seen | steward | addressed: why | does? | sir steward | of Khāṇumata | Brahmans and householders | from Khāṇumata | having left clustered in groups | by where | Ambalaṭṭhikā | by there | approach
    Having seen, (he) addressed the steward: “Steward sir, why do the Brahmans and householders of Khāṇumata, having left from Khāṇumata clustered in groups, approach Ambalaṭṭhikā?”

    Atthi kho bho samaṇo Gotamo Sakyaputto Sakyakulā pabbajito.
    ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🚹①⨀(sakyaputta) 🚻⑤⨀(sakyakula) 🚹①⨀(pabbajita)
    there exists | sir | ascetic | Gotama | young Sakyan | of the Sakyan clan | renunciant
    “Sir, the young Saktan ascetic Gotama of the Sakyan clan, the renunciant, is there.”

    Magadhesu cārikaṁ caramāno mahatā bhikkhusaṅghena saddhiṁ Khāṇumataṁ anuppatto Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ.
    🚹⑦⨂(magadha) 🚺②⨀(cārikā) 🚹①⨀(caramāna) 🚹③⨀(mahanta) 🚹③⨀(bhikkhusaṅgha) 🔼(saddhiṃ) 🚻②⨀(khāṇumata) 🚹①⨀(anuppatta) 🚻②⨂(khāṇumata) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚺②⨂(ambalaṭṭhikā)
    at Magadha | walking journey | walking in | with a large | community of monastics | Khāṇumata | arrived | Khāṇumata | dwells in | Ambalaṭṭhikā
    He was doing a walking journey in Magadha together with a large retinue of bhikkhus, arrived at Khāṇumata and is dwelling in Ambalaṭṭhikā in Khāṇumata.

    Tam ete bhavantaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamantī ti.
    🚻①⨀(ta) 🚻①⨂(eta) 🚹②⨀(bhavant) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ▶️🤟⨂(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    that | this | Venerable | Gotama | for seeing | approached | quote
    They are approaching this Venerable Gotama for seeing.

    Atha kho Kūṭadantassa brāhmaṇassa etad ahosi: sutaṁ kho pana m’ etaṁ: samaṇo gotamo tividhayaññasampadaṁ jānātī ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹④⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹④⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚻①⨀(eta) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi) : 🚻①⨀(suta) 🔼(kho pana) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🔼(tividhayaññasampadaṁ) ▶️🤟⨀(jānāti) 🔼(ti)
    after that | for Kūṭadanta | for holy man | this | was : heard | indeed | this | ascetic | Gotama | successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways | understands | quote
    After that, the thought occurred for Kūṭadanta the holy man: “Indeed this was heard by me: ‘The ascetic Gotama understands how to perform the three way sacrifice.’”

    Na kho panāhaṁ jānāmi tividhaṁyaññasampadaṁ, icchāmi cāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajituṁ.
    🔼(na kho pana) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(jānāti) 🔼(tividhayaññasampadaṁ) ▶️👆⨀(icchati) 🔼(cāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(mahāyañña) 🔼(yajituṃ)
    no | indeed | I | understand | successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways | understands , I wish | and I | great sacrificial offering | to make a sacrificial offering
    “Indeed, I don’t understand how to perform the three way sacrifice, I wish to perform a great sacrifice.”

    Yan nūnāhaṁ samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ upasaṅkamitvā tividhayaññasampadaṁ puccheyyan ti.
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(nūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🔼(tividhayaññasampadaṁ) 🔵⏯👆⨀(pucchati) 🔼(ti)
    whatever | maybe I | ascetic | Gotama | having approached | successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways | I ask | quote
    “Maybe I, having approached the ascetic Gotama, ask how to successful execute the sacrifice in three ways.”

    Atha kho kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo khattaṁ āmantesi: tena hi bho khatte yena Khāṇumatakā brāhmaṇagahapatikā ten’ upasaṅkama.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(khatta) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹②⨂(khatta) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🚹⑤⨀(khāṇumataka) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🚻③⨀(ta) ⏹🤘⨀(upasaṅkamati)
    after that | Kūṭadanta | holy man | steward | discussed : therefore | sir | steward | by where | from Khāṇumataka | Brahmans and householders | by there | you must approach
    After that, Kūṭadanta discussed with the steward: “Therefore, steward sir, you must approach the Brahmans and householders from Khāṇumataka.”

    upasaṅkamitvā Khāṇumatake brāhmaṇagahapatike evaṁ vadehi: Kūṭadanto bho brāhmaṇo evam āha : āgamentu kira bhavanto, Kūṭadanto pi brāhmaṇo samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti.
    🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🚹②⨂(khāṇumataka) 🚹②⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🔼(evaṃ) ⏹🤘⨀(vadeti) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(evaṃ) 🔄🤟⨀(āha) : ⏹🤟⨂(āgameti) 🔼(kira) 🚹⓪⨂(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🔼(pi) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏭🤟⨀(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    having approached | Khāṇumataka | Brahmans and householders | thus you must say : Kūṭadanta | sir | holy man | thus | said : we must expect | truly | sirs | Kūṭadanta | also | holy man | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | he will approach | quote
    Having approached, you must say thus to the Brahmans and householders from Khāṇumataka: “Sir, the honourable Kūṭadanta the holy man said: ‘’Sirs, we must expect Kūṭadanta the holy man will also approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.’”

    Evaṁ bho ti kho so khattā Kūṭadantassa brāhmaṇassa paṭissutvā yena Khāṇumatakā brāhmaṇagahapatikā ten’ upasaṅkami, upasaṅkamitvā Khāṇumatake brāhmaṇagahapatike etad avoca: Kūṭadanto bho brāhmaṇo evam āha : āgamentu kira bhavanto, Kūṭadanto pi brāhmaṇo samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨂(khatta) 🚹④⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹④⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(paṭissutvā) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🚹⑤⨀(khāṇumataka) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🚻③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṅkami) , 🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🚹②⨂(khāṇumataka) 🚹②⨂(brāhmaṇagahapatikā) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : ⏹🤟⨂(āgameti) 🔼(kira) 🚹⓪⨂(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🔼(pi) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏭🤟⨀(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    thus | sir | quote | 💡| that | steward | Kūṭadanta | holy man | having agreed with | by where | from Khāṇumataka | Brahmans and householders | by there | approached , having approached | from Khāṇumataka | Brahmans and householders | this | was said : Kūṭadanta | sir | holy man | thus | said : we must expect | truly | sirs | Kūṭadanta | also | holy man | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | he will approach | quote
    “Yes, sir” 💡that steward having agreed with Kūṭadanta the holy man and approached the Brahmans and householders from Khāṇumataka. Having approached the Brahmans and householders from Khāṇumataka, this was said: “Sir, the honourable Kūṭadanta the holy man said: ‘’Sirs, we must expect Kūṭadanta the holy man to also approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.’”

    Tena kho pana samayena anekāni brāhmaṇasatāni Khāṇumate paṭivasanti: Kūṭadantassa brāhmaṇassa mahāyaññaṁ anubhavissāmā ti.
    🚻③⨀(ta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚻①⨂(aneka) 🚻①⨂(brāhmaṇasata) 🚻⑦⨀(khāṇumata)▶️🤟⨂(paṭivasati) : 🚹④⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹④⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚻②⨀(mahāyañña) ⏭👆⨂(anubhavati) 🔼(ti)
    by there | and now | time | countless | one hundred Brahmans | at Khāṇumata | live : for Kūṭadanta | holy man | great sacrificial offering | I will undergo
    By this time lots of hundreds of brahmans live in Khāṇumata: “I will undergo the great sacrificial offering for Kūṭadanta the holy man.”

    Assosuṁ kho te brāhmaṇā: Kūṭadanto kira brāhmaṇo samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti.
    ⏮🤟⨀(assosi) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) : 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🔼(kira) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏭🤟⨀(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    heard | 💡| those | brahmans : Kūṭadanta | indeed | holy man | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | he will approach | quote
    Those brahmans heard: “Kūṭadanta the holy man indeed will approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.’”

    Atha kho te brāhmaṇā yena Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo ten’ upasaṅkamiṁsu, upasaṅkamitvā Kūṭadantaṁ brāhmaṇaṁ etad avocuṁ: saccaṁ kira bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissatī ti?
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🚹 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚻③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṅkami) , 🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🚹②⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚻①⨀(eta) ⏮🤟⨂(avoca) 🚻①⨀(sacca) 🔼(kira) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚹⓪⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏭🤟⨀(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    after that | those | brahmans | by where | Kūṭadanta | by there | approached , having approached | Kūṭadanta | holy man | this | said : truly | indeed | venerable | Kūṭadanta | holy man | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | he will approach | quote
    After that, those brahmans approached Kūṭadanta the holy man, and having approached Kūṭadanta the holy man said this: “Is it true indeed that Venerable Kūṭadanta the holy man indeed will approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing?”

    Evaṁ kho me bho hoti: aham pi samaṇaṁ gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissāmī ti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) : 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(pi) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏭⏭👆⨀(upasaṅkamati) 🔼(ti)
    thus | indeed | sir | is : I | too | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | I will approach | quote
    “Yes, sir, of me it is true indeed: I too will approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.”

    Mā bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkami.
    🔼(mā) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚹⓪⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏮🤘⨀(upasaṅkami)
    dont | venerable | Kūṭadanta | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | you approached
    “Venerable Kūṭadanta, please don’t approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.”

    Na arahati bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ.
    🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨀(arahati) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚹⓪⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ)
    no | worthy | venerable | Kūṭadanta | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | to approach
    “Venerable Kūṭadanta, it is not worthy to approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.”

    Sace bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamissati, bhoto Kūṭadantassa yaso hāyissati, samaṇassa Gotamassa yaso abhivaḍḍhissati.
    🔼(sace) 🚹①⨀(bhavanta) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) ⏭🤟⨀(upasaṅkamati) , 🚹⑥⨀(bhavant) 🚹⑥⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(yasas) ⏭🤟⨀(hāyati) 🚹⑥⨀(samaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(gotama) 🚹②⨀(yasas) ⏭🤟⨀(abhivaḍḍhati)
    if | venerable | Kūṭadanta | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | will approach | of Venerable | of Kūṭadanta | reputation | decline , of ascetic | of Gotama | reputation | increase
    “If Venerable Kūṭadanta will approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing, the reputation of Venerable Kūṭadanta will decline, and the reputation of ascetic Gotama will increase.”

    Yam pi bhoto Kūṭadantassa yaso hāyissati, samaṇassa Gotamassa yaso abhivaḍḍhissati, iminā p’ aṅgena na arahati bhavaṁ Kūṭadanto samaṇaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ.
    🔼(yampi) 🚹⑥⨀(bhavant) 🚹⑥⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(yasas) ⏭🤟⨀(hāyati) 🚹⑥⨀(samaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(gotama) 🚹②⨀(yasas) ⏭🤟⨀(abhivaḍḍhati) , 🚹③⨀(ima) 🔼(pi) 🚻③⨀(aṅga) 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨀(arahati) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚹⓪⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹②⨀(samaṇa) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ)
    whatever indeed | of Venerable | of Kūṭadanta | reputation | decline , of ascetic | of Gotama | reputation | increase | by this | too | component | no | worthy | venerable | Kūṭadanta | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | to approach
    “Indeed, whatever amount of reputation of Venerable Kūṭadanta that will decline, the reputation of ascetic Gotama will increase by the same amount, Venerable Kūṭadanta, it is not worthy to approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.”

    Samaṇo tv eva Gotamo arahati bhavantaṁ Kūṭadantaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamitun ti.
    🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🔼(tveva) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🚹②⨀(bhavanta) 🚹②⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ) 🔼(ti)
    ascetic | however | Gotama | venerable | Kūṭadanta | for seeing | to approach
    “However, it is worthy for ascetic Gotama to approach Venerable Kūṭadanta for seeing.”

    Evaṁ vutte Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo te brāhmaṇe etad avoca: Tena hi, bho, mama pi suṇātha yathā mayam eva arahāma taṁ bhavantaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ, na tv eva arahati so bhavaṁ Gotamo amhākaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹②⨂(vutta) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹②⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(pi) ⏹🤘⨂(suṇāti) 🔼(yathā) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(eva) ▶️👆⨂(arahati) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(bhavanta) 🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ) , 🔼(na) 🔼(tveva) ▶️🤟⨀(arahati) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(bhavanta) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 👆②⨂(ahaṃ) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ) 🔼(ti)
    thus | said | Kūṭadanta | holy man | those | brahmans | this | said : in that is so | sir | of I | too | you please hear | since | we | evne/still/just | are worthy of | ascetic | Gotama | for seeing | to approach , no | however | worthy | venerable | Gotama | us | for seeing | to approach
    Kūṭadanta the holy man replied to what those brahmans said: “However, sir, please hear this of me, since it is worthy for us to approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing, however it is not worthy for venerable Gotama to approach us for seeing.”

    Samaṇo khalu bho Gotamo Khāṇumataṁ anuppatto Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ.
    🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🔼(khalu) 🚹①⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🚻②⨀(khāṇumata) 🚹①⨀(anuppatta) 🚻⑦⨀(khāṇumata) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚺②⨂(ambalaṭṭhikā)
    ascetic | certainly | venerable | Gotama | Khāṇumata | arrived at | Khāṇumata | dwells in | Ambalaṭṭhikā
    “Certainly, the venerable ascetic Gotama has arrived at Khāṇumata and dwells in Ambalaṭṭhikā at Khāṇumata.”

    Ye kho pana ke ci samaṇā vā brāhmaṇā vā amhākaṁ gāmakhettaṁ āgacchanti atithī no te honti.
    🚹①⨂(ya) 🔼(kho pana) 🚻①⨂(ka) 🔼(ci) 🚹①⨂(samaṇa) 🔼(vā) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(vā) 👆⑥⨂(ahaṃ) 🚻②⨀(gāmakhetta) ▶️🤟⨂(āgacchati) 🚹②⨂(atithi) 🔼(no) 🤘⑥⨀(tvaṃ) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti)
    whoever | and now | which | any | ascetic | or | brahman | or | of us | local district | arrive at | guest | no/?/indeed | become
    “And who or which ascetic or brahmand that arrive at our local district becomes a guest of ours.”

    Atithī kho pan’ amhehi sakkātabbā garukātabbā mānetabbā pūjetabbā.
    🚹①⨂(atithi) 🔼(kho pana) 👆③⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨂(sakkātabba) 🚹①⨂(garukātabba) 🚹①⨂(mānetabba) 🚹①⨂(pūjetabba)
    guests | and now | with us | should be honoured | should be respected | should be revered | should be worshipped
    “And guests with us should be honoured, respected, revered and worshipped.”

    Yam pi bho samaṇo Gotamo Khāṇumataṁ anuppatto Khāṇumate viharati Ambalaṭṭhikāyaṁ, atith’ amhākaṁ samaṇo Gotamo.
    🔼(yampi) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🚻②⨀(khāṇumata) 🚹①⨀(anuppatta) 🚻⑦⨀(khāṇumata) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚺②⨂(ambalaṭṭhikā) , 🚹①⨀(atithi) 👆⑥⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(gotama)
    whatever indeed | ascetic | certainly | venerable | Gotama | Khāṇumata | arrived at | Khāṇumata | dwells in | Ambalaṭṭhikā | guest | of us | ascetic | Gotama
    Indeed, the venerable ascetic Gotama has arrived at Khāṇumata and dwells in Ambalaṭṭhikā at Khāṇumata, the ascetic Gotama is a guest of ours.”

    Atithi kho pan’ amhehi sakkātabbo garukātabbo mānetabbo pūjetabbo.
    🚹①⨀(atithi) 🔼(kho pana) 👆③⨂(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(sakkātabba) 🚹①⨀(garukātabba) 🚹①⨀(mānetabba) 🚹①⨀(pūjetabba)
    guest | and now | of ours | honoured | respected | revered | worshipped
    “And a guest with us should be honoured, respected, revered and worshipped.”

    Iminā p’ aṅgena n’ ārahati so bhavaṁ Gotamo amhākaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamituṁ.
    🚻③⨀(ima) 🔼(pa) 🚻③⨀(aṅga) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(bhavant)🚹①⨀(gotama) 👆②⨂(ahaṃ) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ)
    by this | towards | by aspect | no | worthy | that | venerable | Gotama | us | for seeing | to approach
    “By this aspect, it is not worthy for that venerable Gotama to approach us for seeing.”

    Atha kho mayam eva arahāma taṁ bhavantaṁ Gotamaṁ dassanāya upasaṅkamitun ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(eva) ⏹👆⨂(arahati) 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(bhavant)🚹②⨀(gotama) 🚻④⨀(dassana) 🔼(upasaṅkamituṃ) 🔼(ti)
    however | we | indeed | are fit | that | venerable | Gotama | for seeing | to approach
    “However, we are fit to approach the ascetic Gotama for seeing.”

    Atha kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo mahatā brāhmaṇagaṇena saddhiṁ yena Ambalaṭṭhikā yena bhagavā ten’ upasaṅkami, upasaṅkamitvā bhagavatā saddhiṁ sammodi sammodanīyaṁ kathaṁ sāraṇīyaṁ vītisāretvā ekamantaṁ nisīdi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹③⨀(mahanta) 🚹③⨀(brāhmaṇagaṇa) 🔼(saddhiṃ) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🚺①⨂(ambalaṭṭhikā) 🚻③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṅkami) 🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🚹③⨀(bhagavant) 🔼(saddhiṃ)⏮🤟⨀(sammodi) 🚹②⨀(sammodanīya) 🚹②⨀(katha) 🚹②⨀(sāraṇīya) 🔼(vītisāretvā) 🔼(ekamantaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(nisīdi)
    after that | Kūṭadanta | holy man | with large | with group of Brahmans | together | by where | Ambalaṭṭhikā | by there | they approached | having approached | with Blessed One | together | greeted | pleasant conversation | talk | having conducted | to one side | sat on
    After that, Kūṭadanta together with a large group of Brahmans approached Ambalaṭṭhikā, and having approached greeted with the Blessed One, having conducted pleasant conversation and talk, sat to one side.

    Ekamantaṁ nisinno kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo bhagavantaṁ etad avoca: “sutaṁ m’ etaṁ, bho Gotama: ‘samaṇo Gotamo tividhayaññasampadaṁ jānātī ti.
    🔼(ekamantaṃ) 🚹①⨀(nisinna) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🚻①⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🚻①⨀(suta) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(eta) , 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹⓪⨀(gotama) ①⨀(samaṇa) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🔼(tividhayaññasampadaṁ) ▶️🤟⨀(jānāti) 🔼(ti)
    to one side | seated | 💡| Kūṭadanta | holy man | to Blessed One | this | spoke : heard | by me | this | venerable | Gotama | ascetic | Gotama | successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways | understands | quote
    Seated to one side, Kūṭadanta the holy man spoke this to the Blessed One: “This was heard by me, venerable Gotama: ‘The ascetic Gotama understands how to perform the three way sacrifice.’”

    Na kho panāhaṁ jānāmi tividhayaññasampadaṁ, icchāmi cāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajituṁ.
    🔼(na kho pana) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) ▶️👆⨀(jānāti) 🔼(tividhayaññasampadaṁ) , ▶️👆⨀(icchati) 🔼(ca) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹②⨀(mahāyañña) 🔼(yajituṃ)
    no | but | I | understand | successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways | expect | and | I | great sacrificial offering | make a sacrificial offering
    “But I do not understand how to perform the three way sacrifice, I expect to make a great sacrificial offering.”

    Sādhu me bhavaṁ Gotamo tividhayaññasampadaṁ desetū ti.
    🚹①⨀(sādhu) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(bhavanta) 🚹①⨀(gotama) 🔼(tividhayaññasampadaṁ) ⏹🤟⨀(deseti) 🔼(ti)
    excellent | by me | venerable | Gotama | successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways | may teach | quote
    “Excellent, may venerable Gotama please teach the successful execution of the sacrifice in three ways.”

    Tena hi brāhmaṇa suṇāhi sādhukaṁ manasikarohi bhāsissāmī ti.
    🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) ⏹🤘⨀(suṇāti) 🔼(sādhukaṃ) ⏹🤘⨀(manasikaroti) ⏭👆⨀(bhāsati) 🔼(ti)
    in that case | holy man | please listen | carefully | please pay attention | I will speak | quote
    “Well then, holy man, please listen carefully and pay attention for I will speak (about it).”

    Evaṁ, bho ti kho Kūṭadanto brāhmaṇo bhagavato paccassosi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🔼(ti) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(kūṭadanta) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑤⨀(bhagavant) ⏮🤟⨀(paccassosi)
    thus | sir | quote |💡| Kūṭadanta | holy man | from Blessed One | agreed with
    “Yes, sir,” Kūṭadanta the holy man agreed with the Blessed One.

    Bhagavā etad avoca: bhūtapubbaṁ brāhmaṇa rājā Mahāvijito nāma ahosi aḍḍho mahaddhano mahābhogo pahūtajātarūparajato pahūtavittūpakaraṇo pahūtadhanadhañño paripuṇṇakosakoṭṭhāgāro.
    🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🚻①⨀(bhūtapubba) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa)🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(mahāvijita) 🔼(nāma) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi) 🚹①⨀(aḍḍha) 🚹①⨀(mahaddhana) 🚹①⨀(mahābhoga) 🚹①⨀(pahūtajātarūparajata) 🚹①⨀(pahūtavittūpakaraṇa) 🚹①⨀(pahūtadhanadhañña) 🚹①⨀(paripuṇṇakosakoṭṭhāgāra)
    The Blessed One | this | said : once upon a time | holy man | king | Mahāvijita | named | was | powerful | wealthy | with many possessions | much much gold and silver | with massive resources | with much grain | with full treasures and storehouses
    The Blessed One said this: “Once upon a time, o holy man, there was a king called Mahāvijita who was powerful, wealthy, with many possessions, gold and silver, resources, grains, treasures and storehouses.”

    Atha kho brāhmaṇa rañño Mahāvijitassa rahogatassa paṭisallīnassa evaṁ cetaso parivitakko udapādi: adhigatā kho me vipulā mānusakā bhogā, mahantaṁ pathavimaṇḍalaṁ abhivijiya ajjhāvasāmi, yan nūnāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajeyyaṁ, yaṁ mama assa dīgharattaṁ hitāya sukhāyā’ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑥⨀(mahāvijita) 🚹⑥⨀(rahogata) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(cetas) 🚹①⨀(parivitakka) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi) : 🚹①⨂(adhigata) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨂(vipula) 🚹①⨂(bhoga) , 🚻①⨀(mahanta) 🚻①⨀(pathavimaṇḍala) 🔼(abhivijiya) ▶️👆⨀(ajjhāvasati) , 🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(nūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(mahāyañña) 🔵⏯👆⨀(yajati) , 🚻①⨀(ya) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚻 ①⨀(dīgharatta) 🚹⑥⨀(hita) 🚺⑥⨀(sukha) 🔼(ti)
    after that | holy man | king | Mahāvijita | went into seclusion | thus | with mind | train of thought | arose | achieved | 💡| by me | massive | property , vast | world | control | reigns over , whoever | perhaps I | great sacrificial offering | will make a sacrifice , whoever | of I | of this | long time | for benefit | for happiness
    After that, o holy man, when King Mahāvijita was alone, the thought arose in his mind: Achieved by me massive property, rule and control of vast part of the world, perhaps I will make a great sacrificial offering, for my benefit and happiness.”

    Atha kho, brāhmaṇa, rājā Mahāvijito purohitaṁ brāhmaṇaṁ āmantetvā etad avoca: idha mayhaṁ brāhmaṇa rahogatassa paṭisallīnassa evaṁ cetaso parivitakko udapādi: adhigatā kho me vipulā mānusakā bhogā, mahantaṁ pathavimaṇḍalaṁ abhivijiya ajjhāvasāmi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) , 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(mahāvijita) 🚹②⨀(purohita) 🚹②⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(āmantetvā) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🔼(idha) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(rahogata) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(cetas) 🚹①⨀(parivitakka) ⏮🤟⨀(udapādi) : 🚹①⨂(adhigata) 🔼(kho) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨂(vipula) 🚹①⨂(bhoga) , 🚻①⨀(mahanta) 🚻①⨀(pathavimaṇḍala) 🔼(abhivijiya) ▶️👆⨀(ajjhāvasati)
    after that | holy man , king | Mahāvijita | royal advisor | chief priest | having called | this | said : here in this world | I | holy man | went into seclusion | thus | with mind | train of thought | arose | achieved | 💡| by me | massive | property , vast | world | control | reigns over
    After that, o holy man, king Mahāvijita, having called his royal advisor and chief priest, said this: “Here in this world, alone, this thought arose of me: ‘Achieved by me massive property, rule and control of vast part of the world.’”

    Yan nūnāhaṁ mahāyaññaṁ yajeyyaṁ, yaṁ mama assa dīgharattaṁ hitāya sukhāyā ti.
    🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(nūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(mahāyañña) 🔵⏯👆⨀(yajati) , 🚻①⨀(ya) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚻 ①⨀(dīgharatta) 🚹⑥⨀(hita) 🚺⑥⨀(sukha) 🔼(ti)
    whoever | perhaps I | great sacrificial offering | will make a sacrifice , whoever | of I | of this | long time | for benefit | for happiness
    “Perhaps I will make a great sacrificial offering, for my benefit and happiness.”

    Icchām’ ahaṁ brāhmaṇa mahāyaññaṁ yajituṁ.
    🚻①⨀(iccha) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(mahāyañña) 🔼(yajituṃ)
    desire | I | holy man | great sacrificial offering | to make a sacrifice
    “I desire, o holy man, to make a great sacrificial offering.”

    Anusāsatu maṁ bhavaṁ yaṁ mama assa dīgharattaṁ hitāya sukhāyā ti.
    ⏹🤟⨀(anusāsati) 👆②⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚻①⨀(ya) 👆⑥⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🚻 ①⨀(dīgharatta) 🚹⑥⨀(hita) 🚺⑥⨀(sukha) 🔼(ti)
    please instruct | me | holy man | what | of I | of this | long time | for benefit | for happiness
    “Please instruct me, for my benefit and happiness.”

    Evaṁ vutte brāhmaṇa purohito brāhmaṇo rājānaṁ Mahāvijitaṁ etad avoca: bhoto kho rañño janapado sakaṇṭako sauppīḷo, gāmaghātā pi dissanti nigamaghātā pi dissanti nagaraghātā pi dissanti panthaduhanā pi dissanti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹②⨂(vutta) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹①⨀(purohita) 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨀(mahāvijita) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🚹⑥⨀(bhavant) 🔼(kho) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(janapada) 🚹①⨀(sakaṇṭaka) 🚹①⨀(sauppīḷa) , 🚹①⨂(gāmaghāta) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨂(dissati) 🚹①⨂(nigamaghāta) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨂(dissati) 🚹①⨂(nagaraghāta) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨂(dissati) 🚹①⨂(panthaduhana) 🔼(pi) ▶️🤟⨂(dissati)
    thus | spoken | holy man | royal advisor | chief priest | king | Mahāvijita | this | said : for master | 💡| king | country | troubled | oppressed , sacking of a village | too | is observed | plundering of a town | too | is observed | looting of a city | too | is observed | highway robbery | too | is observed
    Thus spoken, o holy man, the royal advisor and chief priest said this to king Mahāvijita: “The country of my master the king is troubled and oppressed - the sacking of villages, plundering of towns, looting of cities, highway robberies have been observed.”

    Bhavaṁ kho pana rājā evaṁ sakaṇṭake janapade sauppīḷe balimuddhareyya, akiccakārī assa tena bhavaṁ rājā.
    🚹①⨀(bhavant) 🔼(kho pana)🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨂(sakaṇṭaka) 🚹②⨂(janapada) 🚹②⨂(sauppīḷa) ⏯🤟⨀(balimuddharati) 🚹①⨀(akiccakārī) 🚹⑥⨀(ima) 🔼(tena) 🚹①⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨀(rāja)
    master | and now | king | troubled | country | oppressed | will impose taxes on , doing what ought not to be done | of this | on that account | master | king
    “And now, my master the king will impose taxes on the troubled and the oppressed in the country, on that account my master the King is doing what ought not to be done.”

    Siyā kho pana bhoto rañño evam assa: aham etaṁ dassukhīlaṁ vadhena vā bandhena vā jāniyā vā garahāya vā pabbājanāya vā samūhanissāmī ti, na kho panetassa dassukhīlassa evaṁ sammā samugghāto hoti.
    ⏯🤟⨀(siyā) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹④⨀(bhavant) 🚹④⨀(rāja) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚻⑥⨀(ima) : 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🚹②⨀(dassukhīla) 🚹③⨀(vadha) 🔼(vā) 🚹③⨀(bandha) 🔼(vā) 🚺③⨀(jāni) 🔼(vā) 🚺③⨀(garahā) 🔼(vā) 🚻④⨀(pabbājana) 🔼(vā) ⏭👆⨀(samūhanati) 🔼(ti) , 🔼(na) 🔼(kho pana) 🚻⑥⨀(eta) 🚹⑥⨀(dassukhīla) 🔼(evaṁ) 🔼(sammā) 🚹①⨀(samugghāta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    could be | and now | master | king | thus | of this : I | this | robber plague | by punishing | or | by imprisoning | or | by seizing | or | by criticising | or | for banishing | or | will eradicate | quote , no | and now | of this | of robber plague | thus | completely | eradication | is
    ‘And now, my master the king might think: “I will eradicate this robber plague by punishing, imprisoning, seizing, criticising for banishment.” However, thus is not the complete eradication of this robber plague.’

    Ye te hatāvasesakā bhavissanti, te pacchā rañño janapadaṁ viheṭhessanti.
    🚻①⨂(ya) 🚻①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(hatāvasesaka) ⏭🤟⨂(bhavissati) , 🚻①⨂(ta) 🔼(pacchā) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨀(janapada) ⏭🤟⨂(viheṭheti)
    whoever | those | surviving | will become , they | afterwards | of king | country | will disturb
    “Whoever those that will survive, they will disturb the country of the king afterwards.”

    Api ca kho idaṁ saṁvidhānaṁ āgamma evam etassa dassukhīlassa sammā samugghāto hoti.
    🔼(api ca) 🔼(kho) 🚻①⨀(ima) 🚻①⨀(saṃvidhāna) 🔼(āgamma) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚻⑥⨀(eta) 🚹⑥⨀(dassukhīla) 🔼(sammā) 🚹①⨀(samugghāta) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    but | 💡| this | planning | concerning | thus | of this | of robber plague | completely | eradication | is
    “Alternatively, here is a plan for the complete eradication of this robber plague.”

    Tena hi bhavaṁ rājā ye bhoto rañño janapade ussahanti kasigorakkhe, tesaṁ bhavaṁ rājā bījabhattaṁ anuppadetu.
    🔼(tena hi) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavanta) 🚹⓪⨀(rāja) 🚻①⨂(ya) 🚹⑥⨀(bhavant) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑦⨀(janapada) ▶️🤟⨂(ussahati) 🚹②⨂(kasigorakkha) , 🚻⑥⨂(ta) 🚹①⨀(bhavanta) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚻②⨀(bījabhatta) ⏹🤟⨀(anuppadeti)
    well then | master | king | whoever | of master | of king | in country | make an effort | cultivating crops and raising cattle , of they | grain and feed | please give out
    “Well then, my master the king, whoever makes an effort in cultivating crops and raising cattle in the country of the king, please give out grain and feed.”

    Ye bhoto rañño janapade ussahanti vāṇijjāya tesaṁ bhavaṁ rājā pābhataṁ anuppadetu, ye bhoto rañño janapade ussahanti rājaporise tesaṁ bhavaṁ rājā bhattavetanaṁ pakappetu, te ca manussā sakammapasutā rañño janapadaṁ na viheṭhessanti; mahā ca rañño rāsiko bhavissati, khemaṭṭhitā janapadā akaṇṭakā anuppīḷā.
    🚻①⨂(ya) 🚹⑥⨀(bhavant) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑦⨀(janapada) ▶️🤟⨂(ussahati) 🚻④⨀(vāṇijja) 🚻⑥⨂(ta) 🚹①⨀(bhavanta) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚻②⨀(pābhata) ⏹🤟⨀(anuppadeti) , 🚻①⨂(ya) 🚹⑥⨀(bhavant) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑦⨀(janapada) ▶️🤟⨂(ussahati) 🚻②⨂(rājaporisa) 🚻⑥⨂(ta) 🚹①⨀(bhavanta) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚻②⨀(bhattavetana) ⏹🤟⨀(pakappeti) , 🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨂(manussa) 🚹①⨂(sakammapasuta) 🚹⑥⨀(rāja) 🚹⑦⨀(janapada) 🔼(na) ⏭🤟⨂(viheṭheti) , 🚹①⨂(maha) 🔼(ca) 🚹④⨀(rāja) 🚹①⨀(rāsika) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) , 🚹①⨂(khemaṭṭhita) 🚹①⨂(janapada) 🚹①⨂(akaṇṭaka) 🚹①⨂(anuppīḷa)
    whoever | of master | of king | in country | make an effort | for trade and commerce | of they | money and capital | please give out , whoever | of master | of king | in country | make an effort | in royal service or government position | of they | food and wages | please provide , those | and | people | self-employed | of king | of country | disturb | great | and | for king | revenue , safe and secure | country | no disturbance | not oppressed
    “Whoever makes an effort for trade and commerce in the country of the king, please give out money and capital. Whoever makes an effort in royal service or government position in the country of the king, please provide food and wages. And please don’t disturb those who are self-employed. And there will be great revenue for king. The country is safe and secure, without disturbance or oppression.”

    Manussā mudā modamānā ure putte naccentā apārutagharā maññe viharissantī ti.
    🚹①⨂(manussa) 🚺①⨀(mudā) 🚹①⨂(modamāna) 🚹②⨂(uras) 🚹②⨂(putta) 🚹①⨂(naccenta) 🚻②⨂(apārutaghara) 🚹②⨂(mañña) ⏭🤟⨂(viharati) 🔼(ti)
    people | happy | rejoicing | hearts | children | dancing | living with open doors | thoughts | will live in | quote
    “Happy rejoicing dancing people will live with open doors and thoughts of children in their hearts.”

    Passage 3

    Mahāpadānasutta DN 14 PTS 2.1–2.54 1.31.1-1.31.6, 1.31.8, 1.33.9, 1.38.1-1.38.2 (D II 16+19+21):

    Jāte kho pana bhikkhave Vipassimhi kumāre Bandhumato rañño paṭivedesuṁ: putto te, deva, jāto, taṁ devo passatū ti. Addasā kho, bhikkhave, Bandhumā rājā Vipassikumāraṁ, disvā nemitte brāhmaṇe āmantāpetvā etad avoca: passantu bhonto nemittā brāhmaṇā kumāran ti. Addasaṁsu kho bhikkhave nemittā brāhmaṇā Vipassikumāraṁ, disvā Bandhumantaṁ rājānaṁ etad avocuṁ: attamano deva hohi, mahesakkho te deva putto uppanno. Sace agāraṁ ajjhāvasati, rājā hoti cakkavattī dhammiko dhammarājā. Sace kho pana agārasmā anagāriyaṁ pabbajati, arahaṁ hoti sammāsambuddho ti. Atha kho bhikkhave Bandhumā rājā nemitte brāhmaṇe ahatehi vatthehi acchādāpetvā sabbakāmehi santappesi. Atha kho bhikkhave Bandhumā rājā Vipassissa kumārassa tayo pāsāde kārāpesi, ekaṁ vassikaṁ ekaṁ hemantikaṁ ekaṁ gimhikaṁ; pañca kāmaguṇāni upaṭṭhāpesi.

    Jāte kho pana bhikkhave Vipassimhi kumāre Bandhumato rañño paṭivedesuṁ: putto te, deva, jāto, taṁ devo passatū ti.
    🚹⑦⨀(jāta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹⑦⨀(vipassī) 🚹⑦⨀(kumāra) 🚹④⨀(bandhumant) 🚹④⨀(rāja) ⏮🤟⨂(paṭivedesi) : 🚹①⨀(putta) 🤘⑥⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) , 🚹①⨀(jāta) , 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(deva) ⏹🤟⨀(passati) 🔼(ti)
    born | and now | monks | in Vipassī | in prince | from Bandhuma | of king | announced : son | of you , o Lord , born , him | Lord | must examine | quote
    And now, monks, when Prince Vipassī was born, they announced to King Bandhuma: “Your son is born, o Lord, may the Lord examine him.”

    Addasā kho, bhikkhave, Bandhumā rājā Vipassikumāraṁ, disvā nemitte brāhmaṇe āmantāpetvā etad avoca: passantu bhonto nemittā brāhmaṇā kumāran ti.
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(bandhuma) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨂(Vipassikumāra) , 🔼(disvā) 🚹②⨂(nemitta) 🚹②⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(āmantāpetvā) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : ⏹🤟⨂(passati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhavant) 🚹⓪⨀(nemitta) 🚹⓪⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(kumāra)🔼(ti)
    saw |💡| monks | Bandhuma | king | Prince Vipassī , having seen | one who interprets signs or omens | holy men | having summoned | said: he must examine | sir | one who interprets signs or omens | holy men | the young boy | quote
    Monks, King Bandhuma saw Prince Vipassī. Having seen, and having summoned holy men who interprets signs and omens, he said: “Venerable holy men who interprets signs and omens, please examine the young boy.”

    Addasaṁsu kho bhikkhave nemittā brāhmaṇā Vipassikumāraṁ, disvā Bandhumantaṁ rājānaṁ etad avocuṁ: attamano deva hohi, mahesakkho te deva putto uppanno.
    ⏮🤟⨂(addasa) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(nemitta) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚹②⨀(Vipassikumāra) , 🔼(disvā) 🚹②⨀(bandhumant) 🚹②⨀(rāja) 🚻②⨀(eta) 🔵⏮🤟⨀(avoca) : 🚹①⨀(attamana) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) ⏹🤘⨀(hoti) , 🚹①⨀(mahesakkha) 🤘④⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🚹①⨀(putta) 🚹①⨀(uppanna)
    saw | 💡| monks | one who interprets signs or omens | holy man | Prince Vipassikumāra , having seen | Bandhuma | king | delighted | o Lord | please be , distinguished | for you | son | born
    The holy men who interprets signs or omens saw Prince Vipassi, and having seen they said to king Bandhuma: “O Lord, may you be delighted, distinguished for you this son has been born.”

    Sace agāraṁ ajjhāvasati, rājā hoti cakkavattī dhammiko dhammarājā.
    🔼(sace) 🚻②⨀(agāra) ▶️🤟⨀(ajjhāvasati) , 🚹①⨀(rāja) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(cakkavattī) 🚹①⨀(dhammika) 🚹①⨀(dhammarāja)
    if | household life | settled in , king | becomes | wheel turning monarch | righteous | just king
    If settled in household life, he becomes a righteous, just wheel turning monarch.

    Sace kho pana agārasmā anagāriyaṁ pabbajati, arahaṁ hoti sammāsambuddho ti.
    🔼(sace) 🔼(kho pana) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚻②⨀(anagāriya) ▶️🤟⨀(pabbajati) , 🚻①⨀(araha) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) ①⨀(sammāsambuddha) 🔼(ti)
    if | however | from household life | to homeless state | renounces , entitled to | becomes | perfectly awakened being | quote
    If, however, he renounces from household life to a homeless state, he is entitled to become a perfectly awakened being.

    Atha kho bhikkhave Bandhumā rājā nemitte brāhmaṇe ahatehi vatthehi acchādāpetvā sabbakāmehi santappesi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(bandhuma) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹②⨂(nemitta) 🚹②⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚹③⨂(ahata) 🚻③⨂(vattha) 🔼(acchādāpetvā) 🚹⑤⨂(sabbakāma) ⏮🤟⨀(santappesi)
    after that | monks | Bandhuma | king | one who interprets signs or omens | holy men | with clean | with clothes | having put on | from all desires | fulfilled
    After that, king Bandhuma, having clothed the holy men who interprets signs or omens with new clothes, and fulfilled all their desires.

    Atha kho bhikkhave Bandhumā rājā Vipassissa kumārassa tayo pāsāde kārāpesi, ekaṁ vassikaṁ ekaṁ hemantikaṁ ekaṁ gimhikaṁ; pañca kāmaguṇāni upaṭṭhāpesi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(bandhuma) 🚹①⨀(rāja) 🚹④⨀(vipassī) 🚹④⨀(kumāra) 🚹②⨂(ti) 🚹②⨂(pāsāda)⏮🤟⨀(kārāpesi) , 🚻①⨀(eka) 🚻①⨀(vassika) 🚻①⨀(eka) 🚻①⨀(hemantika) 🚻①⨀(eka) 🚻①⨀(gimhika) ; ⚧①⨂(pañca) 🚻①⨂(kāmaguṇa) ⏮🤟⨀(upaṭṭhāpesi)
    after that | monks | Bandhuma | king | for Vipassi | for Prince | three | palaces | caused to be made , one | for the rainy season | one | for cold season | one | for hot season ; five | object of sensual pleasure | furnished with
    After that, monks, King Bandhuma caused three palaces to be built for Prince Vipassi: one for the rainy season, one for the cold season, one for the hot season; furnished with objects that delight the five senses.

    Translate from English

    Alagaddūpamasutta MN 22 PTS 1.130–1.142 13.1, 13.6-13.19, 13.26-14.1 (M I 134,30 - 135,26)

    “0 monks, I will teach you the doctrine having-a-raft-as- simile, for-the-purpose-of-crossing-over, not for-the-purpose-of-keeping.
    Kullūpamaṁ vo, bhikkhave, dhammaṁ desessāmi nittharaṇatthāya, no gahaṇatthāya.
    🚻①⨀(kullūpama) 🔼(vo) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) ⏭👆⨀(deseti) , 🚹④⨀(nittharaṇattha) 🔼(no) 🚹④⨀(gahaṇattha)
    similar to a raft | indeed | monks | doctrine | I will teach , for purpose of crossing | not | for purpose of holding onto

    Just like a man who-had-followed-a-road : he might see a great flood-of-water, the nearer shore with-fear, with-danger, the further shore secure, without- danger (a-), and there might not be a boat or a causeway for going from hither across, — he would have (the thought) thus : " Indeed this flood of water (is) great, and the nearer shore (is) with-fear, with-danger, the further shore secure, without-danger, and there isn’t a boat or a causeway for going from hither across.
    So passeyya mahantaṁ udakaṇṇavaṁ, orimaṁ tīraṁ sāsaṅkaṁ sappaṭibhayaṁ, pārimaṁ tīraṁ khemaṁ appaṭibhayaṁ; na cassa nāvā santāraṇī uttarasetu vā apārā pāraṁ gamanāya. Tassa evamassa: ‘ayaṁ kho mahāudakaṇṇavo, orimaṁ tīraṁ sāsaṅkaṁ sappaṭibhayaṁ, pārimaṁ tīraṁ khemaṁ appaṭibhayaṁ; natthi ca nāvā santāraṇī uttarasetu vā apārā pāraṁ gamanāya.
    🚹①⨀(ta) ⏯🤟⨀(passati) 🚹②⨀(mahanta) 🚹②⨀(udakaṇṇava) 🚻②⨀(orima) 🚻②⨀(tīra) 🚻②⨀(sāsaṅka) , 🚻②⨀(pārima) 🚻②⨀(khema) 🚻②⨀(appaṭibhaya) ; 🔼(na) 🔼(cassa) 🚺①⨂(nāvā) 🚺①⨀(santāraṇa) 🚹①⨀(uttarasetu) 🔼(vā) 🚻⑤⨀(apāra) 🚻②⨀(pāra) 🚻④⨀(gamana)
    that | will see | great | body of water | nearest | shore | unsafe | dangerous , furthest | shore | safe | not dangerous ; no | and for him | boat | ferry | going across | or | from near shore | to far shore | for travelling
    🚻⑥⨀(ta) 🔼(evamassa) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(mahāudakaṇṇava) 🚻②⨀(orima) 🚻②⨀(tīra) 🚻②⨀(sāsaṅka) , 🚻②⨀(pārima) 🚻②⨀(khema) 🚻②⨀(appaṭibhaya) ; 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨀(atthi) 🔼(ca) 🚺①⨂(nāvā) 🚺①⨀(santāraṇa) 🚹①⨀(uttarasetu) 🔼(vā) 🚻⑤⨀(apāra) 🚻②⨀(pāra) 🚻④⨀(gamana)
    of that | he would think thus | this | indeed | great body of water | nearest | shore | unsafe | dangerous , furthest | shore | safe | not dangerous ; no | exists | and | boat | ferry | going across | or | from near shore | to far shore | for travelling

    What now if I, having collected grass-firewood-branches- and-foliage, having bound a raft, depending on that raft, should cross thither safely ?”
    Yannūnāhaṁ tiṇakaṭṭhasākhāpalāsaṁ saṅkaḍḍhitvā, kullaṁ bandhitvā, taṁ kullaṁ nissāya (hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno) sotthinā (pāraṁ) uttareyyan’ti.
    🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🚻②⨀(tiṇakaṭṭhasākhāpalāsa) 🔼(saṅkaḍḍhitvā) , 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🔼(bandhitvā) , 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🔼(nissāya) 🔼(sotthinā) 🔵⏯👆⨀(uttarati) 🔼(ti)
    what if I were to | grass, timber, branches and leaves | having collected , raft | having bound , that | raft | depending on | safely | I should cross | quote

    Then, indeed {kho), that man, having collected grass-firewood-branches-and-foliage, having bound a raft, depending on that raft would cross thither safely.
    Atha kho so, (bhikkhave), puriso tiṇakaṭṭhasākhāpalāsaṁ saṅkaḍḍhitvā, kullaṁ bandhitvā taṁ kullaṁ nissāya (hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno) sotthinā (pāraṁ) uttareyya.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚻②⨀(tiṇakaṭṭhasākhāpalāsa) 🔼(saṅkaḍḍhitvā) , 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🔼(bandhitvā) , 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🔼(nissāya) 🔼(sotthinā) ⏯🤟⨀(uttarati)
    then | that | man | grass, timber, branches and leaves | having collected , raft | having bound , that | raft | depending on | safely | he should cross

    Crossed, gone thither (past participles), he might have (the thought) thus: “Indeed this raft (is) very useful. What now if, having put (“ mounted ”) this raft on my head, I should go away?”
    Tassa purisassa uttiṇṇassa pāraṅgatassa evamassa: ‘bahukāro kho me ayaṁ kullo; (imāhaṁ kullaṁ nissāya hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno sotthinā pāraṁ uttiṇṇo). Yannūnāhaṁ imaṁ kullaṁ sīse vā āropetvā (khandhe vā uccāretvā) yena kāmaṁ pakkameyyan’ti.
    🚻⑥⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚹⑥⨀(uttiṇṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(pāraṅgata) 🔼(evamassa) : 🚹①⨀(bahukāra) 🔼(kho) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(ima) ①⨀(kulla) ; 🔼(imāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🔼(nissāya) 🔼(sotthinā) 🚹①⨀(uttiṇṇa)
    of that | of man | of crossed over | of reached the other shore | this would occur to him : very useful | for me | this | raft ; this I | raft | depending on | safely | crossed over
    🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🚻⑦⨀(sīsa) 🔼(vā) 🔼(āropetvā) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🔼(kāmaṃ) 🔵⏯👆⨀(pakkamati) 🔼(ti)
    what if I were to | this | raft | on head | or | having put on top of | by where | freely | I will go away | quote
    While the man was crossing over to the other shore, the thought occurs to him: …

    What do you think (of) that, monks ? Perhaps {api) that man thus-doing (-karin, bahubblhi) (with reference) to that raft (loc.) would be doing-what-should-be-done ? (nu) ”.
    Taṁ kiṁ maññatha, bhikkhave, api nu so puriso evaṅkārī tasmiṁ kulle kiccakārī assā”ti? 🚹②⨀(ta) 🚻①⨀(ka) ▶️🤘⨂(maññati) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu)
    that | what | you think | monks
    🔼(api nu) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🔼(evaṅkārī) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(kulla) 🚹①⨀(kiccakārī) ⏯🤟⨀(assa) 🔼(ti)
    is? | that | man | thus doing | in that | raft | doing what should be done (with) | should be | quote

    “ Indeed not (no h‘) this, sir bhante ”. . .“
    “No hetaṁ, bhante”.
    🔼(no) 🔼(hetaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant)
    Not | indeed | bhante

    In this connection, monks, that man, crossed, gone thither, might have (the thought) thus : “. . . What now (if), having lifted this raft on to (dry) land, I should go away (?) “
    “Kathaṅkārī ca so, bhikkhave, puriso tasmiṁ kulle kiccakārī assa? Idha, bhikkhave, tassa purisassa uttiṇṇassa pāraṅgatassa evamassa: ‘bahukāro kho me ayaṁ kullo; imāhaṁ kullaṁ nissāya hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno sotthinā pāraṁ uttiṇṇo.
    🔼(cathaṅkārī) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(kulla) 🚹①⨀(kiccakārī) ⏯🤟⨀(assa) ?
    doing what? | and | that | monks | man | in that | raft | doing what should be done (with) | should be ?
    🔼(idha) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚻⑥⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(purisa) 🚹⑥⨀(uttiṇṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(pāraṅgata) 🔼(evamassa) : 🚹①⨀(bahukāra) 🔼(kho) 👆④⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(ima) ①⨀(kulla) ; 🔼(imāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🔼(nissāya) 🔼(sotthinā) 🚹①⨀(uttiṇṇa) 🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🚻⑦⨀(sīsa) 🔼(vā) 🔼(āropetvā) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🔼(kāmaṃ) 🔵⏯👆⨀(pakkamati) 🔼(ti)
    in this case | monks | of that | of man | of crossed over | of reached the other shore | this would occur to him : very useful | for me | this | raft ; this I | raft | depending on | safely | crossed over | what if I were to | this | raft | on head | or | having put on top of | by where | freely | I will go away | quote
    Yannūnāhaṁ imaṁ kullaṁ thale vā ussādetvā udake vā opilāpetvā yena kāmaṁ pakkameyyan’ti.
    🔼(yannūnāhaṃ) 🚹②⨀(ima) 🚹②⨀(kulla) 🚻⑦⨀(thala) 🔼(vā) 🔼(ussādetvā) 🚻②⨂(udaka) 🔼(vā) 🔼(opilāpetvā) 🚻③⨀(ya) 🔼(kāmaṃ) 🔵⏯👆⨀(pakkamati) 🔼(ti)
    what if I were to | this | raft | dry land | or | having raised up to | water | or | having submerged into | by where | freely | I will go away | quote

    ” Thus-doing, indeed, that man would be doing-what-should-be-done with (loc.) that raft.
    Evaṅkārī kho so, bhikkhave, puriso tasmiṁ kulle kiccakārī assa.
    🔼(evaṅkārī kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚹⑦⨀(ta) 🚹⑦⨀(kulla) 🚹①⨀(kiccakārī) ⏯🤟⨀(assa)
    doing such things | indeed | that | monks | man | in that | raft | doing what should be done (with) | should be

    Likewise, indeed, monks, the doctrine is taught by me having-a-raft-as-simile, for-the-purpose-of-crossing-over, not for-the-purpose-of-keeping.
    Evameva kho, bhikkhave, kullūpamo mayā dhammo desito nittharaṇatthāya, no gahaṇatthāya.
    🔼(evameva) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(kullūpama) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚹①⨀(dhamma) 🚹①⨀(desita) 🚹④⨀(nittharaṇattha) 🔼(no) 🚹④⨀(gahaṇattha)
    similarly | indeed | monks | similar to a raft | by me | doctrine | taught | for purpose of crossing | not | for purpose of holding onto

    By your (vo) learning (present participle, instrumental plural) the raft-simile, monks, even good mental phenomena (are) to be given up by you (vo), how much more so bad mental phenomena.”
    Kullūpamaṁ vo, bhikkhave, dhammaṁ desitaṁ, ājānantehi dhammāpi vo pahātabbā pageva adhammā.
    🚻①⨀(kullūpama) 🤘③⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹②⨀(dhamma) 🚻①⨀(desita) , 🚹③⨂(ājānanta) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🔼(pi) 🤘③⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹①⨂(pahātabba) 🔼(pageva) 🚹①⨂(adhamma)
    similar to a raft | by you | monks | doctrine | taught , by knowing | moral behaviour | too | by you | should be given up | all the more | misbehaviour

    7.17 - Answers to Warder Lesson 20

    Answers to A.K. Warder “Introduction to Pali” Lesson 20

    Passage 1

    Mahāpadānasutta DN 14 PTS 2.1–2.54 2.1.1-2.2.13 (D II 21,13 - 22,21):

    Atha kho, bhikkhave, Vipassī kumāro bahūnaṁ vassānaṁ bahūnaṁ vassasatānaṁ bahūnaṁ vassasahassānaṁ accayena sārathiṁ āmantesi: ‘yojehi, samma sārathi, bhaddāni bhaddāni yānāni uyyānabhūmiṁ gacchāma subhūmidassanāyā’ti. ‘Evaṁ, devā’ti kho, bhikkhave, sārathi vipassissa kumārassa paṭissutvā bhaddāni bhaddāni yānāni yojetvā Vipassissa kumārassa paṭivedesi: ‘yuttāni kho te, deva, bhaddāni bhaddāni yānāni, yassadāni kālaṁ maññasī’ti. Atha kho, bhikkhave, Vipassī kumāro bhaddaṁ bhaddaṁ yānaṁ abhiruhitvā bhaddehi bhaddehi yānehi uyyānabhūmiṁ niyyāsi. Addasā kho, bhikkhave, Vipassī kumāro uyyānabhūmiṁ niyyanto purisaṁ jiṇṇaṁ gopānasivaṅkaṁ bhoggaṁ daṇḍaparāyanaṁ pavedhamānaṁ gacchantaṁ āturaṁ gatayobbanaṁ. Disvā sārathiṁ āmantesi: ‘ayaṁ pana, samma sārathi, puriso kiṅkato? Kesāpissa na yathā aññesaṁ, kāyopissa na yathā aññesan’ti. ‘Eso kho, deva, jiṇṇo nāmā’ti. ‘Kiṁ paneso, samma sārathi, jiṇṇo nāmā’ti? ‘Eso kho, deva, jiṇṇo nāma. Na dāni tena ciraṁ jīvitabbaṁ bhavissatī’ti. ‘Kiṁ pana, samma sārathi, ahampi jarādhammo, jaraṁ anatīto’ti? ‘Tvañca, deva, mayañcamha sabbe jarādhammā, jaraṁ anatītā’ti. ‘Tena hi, samma sārathi, alaṁ dānajja uyyānabhūmiyā. Itova antepuraṁ paccaniyyāhī’ti. ‘Evaṁ, devā’ti kho, bhikkhave, sārathi vipassissa kumārassa paṭissutvā tatova antepuraṁ paccaniyyāsi. Tatra sudaṁ, bhikkhave, vipassī kumāro antepuraṁ gato dukkhī dummano pajjhāyati: ‘dhiratthu kira, bho, jāti nāma, yatra hi nāma jātassa jarā paññāyissatī’ti.

    Atha kho, bhikkhave, Vipassī kumāro bahūnaṁ vassānaṁ bahūnaṁ vassasatānaṁ bahūnaṁ vassasahassānaṁ accayena sārathiṁ āmantesi: ‘yojehi, samma sārathi, bhaddāni bhaddāni yānāni uyyānabhūmiṁ gacchāma subhūmidassanāyā’ti.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(vipassī) 🚹①⨀(kumāra) 🚹⑥⨂(bahu) 🚹⑥⨂(vassa) 🚹⑥⨂(bahu) 🚻⑥⨂(vassasata) 🚹⑥⨂(bahu) 🚻⑥⨂(vassasahassa) 🚹③⨀(accaya) 🚹②⨀(sārathi) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : ⏹🤘⨀(yojeti) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(sārathi) 🚻②⨂(bhadda) 🚻②⨂(bhadda) 🚻②⨂(yāna) 🚺②⨀(uyyānabhūmi) ▶️👆⨂(gacchati) 🚻④⨀(subhūmidassana) 🔼(ti)
    after that | monks | Vipassī | Prince | of many | of rain | of many | of centuries | of many | of millenniums | of time | driver/leader | addressed : please attach/yoke | brother | charioteer | luxurious | carriage | pleasure grounds | we wander | for sightseeing | quote
    Monks, after the passing of many rains (years), centuries and milleniums, Prince Vipassī addressed his charioteer: “Brother charioteer, attach the yoke to the luxurious carriage, we wander to the pleasure grounds for sightseeing.”

    ‘Evaṁ, devā’ti kho, bhikkhave, sārathi Vipassissa kumārassa paṭissutvā bhaddāni bhaddāni yānāni yojetvā vipassissa kumārassa paṭivedesi: ‘yuttāni kho te, deva, bhaddāni bhaddāni yānāni, yassadāni kālaṁ maññasī’ti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sārathi) 🚹⑥⨀(vipassī) 🚹⑥⨀(kumāra) 🔼(paṭissutvā) 🚻②⨂(bhadda) 🚻②⨂(bhadda) 🚻②⨂(yāna) 🔼(yojetvā) 🚹⑥⨀(vipassī) 🚹⑥⨀(kumāra) ⏮🤟⨀(paṭivedesi) 🚻①⨂(yutta) 🔼(ti)🤘④⨀(tvaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🚻①⨂(bhadda) 🚻①⨂(bhadda) 🚻①⨂(yāna) , 🔼(yassadāni) 🚹②⨀(kāla) ▶️🤘⨀(maññati)
    yes | Lord | quote | 💡| monks | charioteer | of Vipassī | of Prince | having agreed | luxurious | carriage | yoked | announced : Harnessed | 💡| for you | Lord | luxurious | carriage , now for whatever | time | regard as
    Monks, “Yes, Lord” the charioteer of Prince Vipassī responded in agreement. Having yoked the luxurious carriage, he announced “The luxurious carriage is yoked for you, my Lord, consider it ready now.”

    Atha kho, bhikkhave, vipassī kumāro bhaddaṁ bhaddaṁ yānaṁ abhiruhitvā bhaddehi bhaddehi yānehi uyyānabhūmiṁ niyyāsi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(vipassī) 🚹①⨀(kumāra) 🚻②⨂(bhadda) 🚻②⨂(bhadda) 🚻②⨂(yāna) 🔼(abhiruhitvā) 🚻③⨂(bhadda) 🚻③⨂(bhadda) 🚻③⨂(yāna) 🚺②⨀(uyyānabhūmi) ⏮🤟⨀(niyyāsi)
    after that | monks | Vipassī | Prince | luxurious | carriage | having boarded | with luxurious | with carriage | left
    After that, monks, Prince Vipassī, having boarded the luxurious carriage, departed with the luxurious carriage to the pleasure grounds.

    Addasā kho, bhikkhave, Vipassī kumāro uyyānabhūmiṁ niyyanto purisaṁ jiṇṇaṁ gopānasivaṅkaṁ bhoggaṁ daṇḍaparāyanaṁ pavedhamānaṁ gacchantaṁ āturaṁ gatayobbanaṁ.
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(vipassī) 🚹①⨀(kumāra) 🚺②⨀(uyyānabhūmi) 🚹①⨀(niyyanta) 🚻①⨀(purisa) 🚻①⨀(jiṇṇa) 🚻①⨀(gopānasivaṅka) 🚻①⨀(bhogga) 🚻①⨀(daṇḍaparāyana) 🚻①⨀(pavedhamāna) 🚻②⨀(gacchanta) 🚻①⨀(ātura) 🚻①⨀(gatayobbana)
    saw | 💡| monks | Vipassī | Prince | pleasure grounds | departing | person | old | as crooked as a rafter | bent | leaning on a staff | trembling | walking | sick | passed prime
    Monks, as Prince Vipassī was departing to the pleasure grounds, he saw an person who was old, crooked as a rafter, bent, leaning on a staff, trembling, walking, sick and well passed his prime.

    Disvā sārathiṁ āmantesi: ‘ayaṁ pana, samma sārathi, puriso kiṅkato? Kesāpissa na yathā aññesaṁ, kāyopissa na yathā aññesan’ti.
    🔼(disvā) 🚹②⨀(sārathi) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(pana) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(sārathi) 🚹①⨀(purisa) 🚹①⨀(kiṅkata) ? 🔼(kesāpissa) 🔼(na) 🔼(yathā) 🚹⑥⨂(añña) 🔼(kāyopissa) 🔼(na) 🔼(yathā) 🚹⑥⨂(añña) 🔼(ti)
    having seen | charioteer | addressed | this | but | brother | charioteer | person | done what? | this hair | no | like | different | this body | no | like | different ?
    Having seen, he addressed his charioteer: “Brother charioteer, what has this person done? The hair and the body is unlike anyone I have ever seen.”

    ‘Eso kho, deva, jiṇṇo nāmā’ti.
    🚹①⨀(eta) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🚹①⨀(jiṇṇa) 🔼(nāma) 🔼(ti)
    this | 💡| Lord | old man | called | quote
    “This, Lord, is called an old man.”

    ‘Kiṁ paneso, samma sārathi, jiṇṇo nāmā’ti?
    🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(paneso) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(sārathi) 🚹①⨀(jiṇṇa) 🔼(nāma) 🔼(ti)
    what | and this one | brother | charioteer | old man | called | quote
    “And, brother charioteer, what is an ‘old man’?”

    ‘Eso kho, deva, jiṇṇo nāma.
    🚹①⨀(eta) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🚹①⨀(jiṇṇa) 🔼(nāma)
    this | 💡| Lord | old man | called
    “This, Lord, is called an old man.”

    Na dāni tena ciraṁ jīvitabbaṁ bhavissatī’ti.
    🔼(na) 🔼(dāni) 🔼(tena) 🚻①⨀(cira) 🚻①⨀(jīvitabba) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🔼(ti)
    not | now | because of that | long | should be lived | will become | quote
    “Because of that, he will not have long to live.”

    ‘Kiṁ pana, samma sārathi, ahampi jarādhammo, jaraṁ anatīto’ti?
    🚻①⨀(ka) 🔼(pana) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(sārathi) 👆①⨀(ahaṃ) 🔼(pi) 🚹①⨀(jarādhamma) 🚻①⨀(jara) 🚹①⨀(anatīta) 🔼(ti)
    what | however | brother | charioteer | I | too | liable to grow old | old | not exempt from | quote
    “Brother charioteer, am I too liable to grow old, not exempt from old age?”

    ‘Tvañca, deva, mayañcamha sabbe jarādhammā, jaraṁ anatītā’ti.
    🔼(tvañca) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 👆①⨂(ahaṃ) 🔼(ca) ⏹👆⨂(atthi) 🚻①⨂(sabba) 🚹①⨂(jarādhamma) 🚻①⨀(jara) 🚹①⨀(anatīta) 🔼(ti)
    and you | Lord | I | and | we will | all | liable to grow old | old | not exempt from | quote
    “And you, my Lord, and I and everyone will be liable to grow old, not exempt from old age.”

    ‘Tena hi, samma sārathi, alaṁ dānajja uyyānabhūmiyā.
    🔼(tena hi) 🔼(samma) 🚹⓪⨀(sārathi) 🔼(alaṃ) 🔼(dānajja) 🚺⑥⨀(uyyānabhūmi)
    in that case | brother | charioteer | it is enough | for now | of pleasure grounds
    “in that case, brother charioteer, I’ve had enough of the pleasure grounds for now.”

    Itova antepuraṁ paccaniyyāhī’ti.
    🔼(itova) 🚻②⨀(antepura) ⏹🤘⨀(paccaniyyāti) 🔼(ti)
    as soon as possible from here | king’s palace | please return | quote
    “Please return to the King’s palace as soon as possible from here.”

    ‘Evaṁ, devā’ti kho, bhikkhave, sārathi vipassissa kumārassa paṭissutvā tatova antepuraṁ paccaniyyāsi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⓪⨀(deva) 🔼(ti kho) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨀(sārathi) 🚹⑥⨀(vipassī) 🚹⑥⨀(kumāra) 🔼(paṭissutvā) 🔼(tatova) 🚻②⨀(antepura) ⏮🤟⨀(paccaniyyāsi)
    yes | Lord | quote | 💡| monks | charioteer | of Vipassī | of Prince | responded in agreement | from that | king’s palace | returned
    Monks, “Yes, Lord”, the charioteer of Prince Vipassī responded in agreement, after that he returned to the King’s palace.

    Tatra sudaṁ, bhikkhave, Vipassī kumāro antepuraṁ gato dukkhī dummano pajjhāyati: ‘dhiratthu kira, bho, jāti nāma, yatra hi nāma jātassa jarā paññāyissatī’ti.
    🔼(tatra) 🔼(sudaṃ) 🚹⓪⨂(bhikkhu) 🚹①⨂(vipassī) 🚹①⨀(kumāra) 🚻②⨀(antepura) 🚹①⨀(gata) 🚹①⨀(dukkhī) 🚹①⨀(dummana) ▶️🤟⨀(pajjhāyati) 🔼(dhiratthu) 🔼(kira) , 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) , 🚺①⨀(jāti) 🔼(nāma) , 🔼(yatra) 🔼(hi) 🔼(nāma) 🚹⑥⨀(jāta) 🚹①⨂(jara) ⏭🤟⨀(paññāyati) 🔼(ti)
    in that case | surely indeed | monks | Vipassī | Prince | King’s palace | went | dejected | sad | is overcome : curse you | truly | sir | birth | named | n which case | indeed | name | of being born | odl age | is evident | quote
    In that case, monks, Prince Vipassī surely went to the king’s palace overcome with dejection and sadness: “Curse you truly, sir, that which is named “birth”, when born, old age is inevitable.”

    Passage 2

    Aggaññasutta DN 27 PTS 3.80–3.98 1.1-7.10, 10.1-12.9 (D III 80,1 - 86,10):

    Evaṁ me sutaṁ— ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā sāvatthiyaṁ viharati pubbārāme migāramātupāsāde. Tena kho pana samayena vāseṭṭhabhāradvājā bhikkhūsu parivasanti bhikkhubhāvaṁ ākaṅkhamānā. Atha kho bhagavā sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhito pāsādā orohitvā pāsādapacchāyāyaṁ abbhokāse caṅkamati. Addasā kho vāseṭṭho bhagavantaṁ sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhitaṁ pāsādā orohitvā pāsādapacchāyāyaṁ abbhokāse caṅkamantaṁ. Disvāna bhāradvājaṁ āmantesi: “ayaṁ, āvuso bhāradvāja, bhagavā sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhito pāsādā orohitvā pāsādapacchāyāyaṁ abbhokāse caṅkamati. Āyāmāvuso bhāradvāja, yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkamissāma; appeva nāma labheyyāma bhagavato santikā dhammiṁ kathaṁ savanāyā”ti. “Evamāvuso”ti kho bhāradvājo vāseṭṭhassa paccassosi. Atha kho vāseṭṭhabhāradvājā yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkamiṁsu; upasaṅkamitvā bhagavantaṁ abhivādetvā bhagavantaṁ caṅkamantaṁ anucaṅkamiṁsu.

    Atha kho bhagavā vāseṭṭhaṁ āmantesi: “tumhe khvattha, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇajaccā brāhmaṇakulīnā brāhmaṇakulā agārasmā anagāriyaṁ pabbajitā, kacci vo, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇā na akkosanti na paribhāsantī”ti? “Taggha no, bhante, brāhmaṇā akkosanti paribhāsanti attarūpāya paribhāsāya paripuṇṇāya, no aparipuṇṇāyā”ti. “Yathā kathaṁ pana vo, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇā akkosanti paribhāsanti attarūpāya paribhāsāya paripuṇṇāya, no aparipuṇṇāyā”ti? “Brāhmaṇā, bhante, evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā. Brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā. Brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā. Brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā. Te tumhe seṭṭhaṁ vaṇṇaṁ hitvā hīnamattha vaṇṇaṁ ajjhupagatā, yadidaṁ muṇḍake samaṇake ibbhe kaṇhe bandhupādāpacce. Tayidaṁ na sādhu, tayidaṁ nappatirūpaṁ, yaṁ tumhe seṭṭhaṁ vaṇṇaṁ hitvā hīnamattha vaṇṇaṁ ajjhupagatā yadidaṁ muṇḍake samaṇake ibbhe kaṇhe bandhupādāpacce’ti. Evaṁ kho no, bhante, brāhmaṇā akkosanti paribhāsanti attarūpāya paribhāsāya paripuṇṇāya, no aparipuṇṇāyā”ti. “Taggha vo, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇā porāṇaṁ assarantā evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā; brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā’ti. Dissanti kho pana, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇānaṁ brāhmaṇiyo utuniyopi gabbhiniyopi vijāyamānāpi pāyamānāpi. Te ca brāhmaṇā yonijāva samānā evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā; brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā’ti. Te brahmānañceva abbhācikkhanti, musā ca bhāsanti, bahuñca apuññaṁ pasavanti. Cattārome, vāseṭṭha, vaṇṇā— khattiyā, brāhmaṇā, vessā, suddā. Khattiyopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātī hoti adinnādāyī kāmesumicchācārī musāvādī pisuṇavāco pharusavāco samphappalāpī abhijjhālu byāpannacitto micchādiṭṭhī. Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā sāvajjā sāvajjasaṅkhātā asevitabbā asevitabbasaṅkhātā naalamariyā naalamariyasaṅkhātā kaṇhā kaṇhavipākā viññugarahitā, khattiyepi te idhekacce sandissanti. Brāhmaṇopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… vessopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… suddopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātī hoti adinnādāyī kāmesumicchācārī musāvādī pisuṇavāco pharusavāco samphappalāpī abhijjhālu byāpannacitto micchādiṭṭhī. Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā …pe… kaṇhā kaṇhavipākā viññugarahitā; suddepi te idhekacce sandissanti. Khattiyopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātā paṭivirato hoti, adinnādānā paṭivirato, kāmesumicchācārā paṭivirato, musāvādā paṭivirato, pisuṇāya vācāya paṭivirato, pharusāya vācāya paṭivirato, samphappalāpā paṭivirato, anabhijjhālu abyāpannacitto, sammādiṭṭhī. Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā sukkā sukkavipākā viññuppasatthā, khattiyepi te idhekacce sandissanti. Brāhmaṇopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… vessopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… suddopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātā paṭivirato hoti …pe… anabhijjhālu, abyāpannacitto, sammādiṭṭhī. Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā sukkā sukkavipākā viññuppasatthā; suddepi te idhekacce sandissanti. Imesu kho, vāseṭṭha, catūsu vaṇṇesu evaṁ ubhayavokiṇṇesu vattamānesu kaṇhasukkesu dhammesu viññugarahitesu ceva viññuppasatthesu ca yadettha brāhmaṇā evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā; brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā’ti. Taṁ tesaṁ viññū nānujānanti. Taṁ kissa hetu? Imesañhi, vāseṭṭha, catunnaṁ vaṇṇānaṁ yo hoti bhikkhu arahaṁ khīṇāsavo vusitavā katakaraṇīyo ohitabhāro anuppattasadattho parikkhīṇabhavasaṁyojano sammadaññāvimutto, so nesaṁ aggamakkhāyati dhammeneva, no adhammena. Dhammo hi, vāseṭṭha, seṭṭho janetasmiṁ, diṭṭhe ceva dhamme abhisamparāyañca.

    Hoti kho so, vāseṭṭha, samayo yaṁ kadāci karahaci dīghassa addhuno accayena ayaṁ loko saṁvaṭṭati. Saṁvaṭṭamāne loke yebhuyyena sattā ābhassarasaṁvattanikā honti. Te tattha honti manomayā pītibhakkhā sayaṁpabhā antalikkhacarā subhaṭṭhāyino ciraṁ dīghamaddhānaṁ tiṭṭhanti. Hoti kho so, vāseṭṭha, samayo yaṁ kadāci karahaci dīghassa addhuno accayena ayaṁ loko vivaṭṭati. Vivaṭṭamāne loke yebhuyyena sattā ābhassarakāyā cavitvā itthattaṁ āgacchanti. Tedha honti manomayā pītibhakkhā sayaṁpabhā antalikkhacarā subhaṭṭhāyino ciraṁ dīghamaddhānaṁ tiṭṭhanti. Ekodakībhūtaṁ kho pana, vāseṭṭha, tena samayena hoti andhakāro andhakāratimisā. Na candimasūriyā paññāyanti, na nakkhattāni tārakarūpāni paññāyanti, na rattindivā paññāyanti, na māsaḍḍhamāsā paññāyanti, na utusaṁvaccharā paññāyanti, na itthipumā paññāyanti, sattā sattātveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchanti. Atha kho tesaṁ, vāseṭṭha, sattānaṁ kadāci karahaci dīghassa addhuno accayena rasapathavī udakasmiṁ samatani; seyyathāpi nāma payaso tattassa nibbāyamānassa upari santānakaṁ hoti; evameva pāturahosi. Sā ahosi vaṇṇasampannā gandhasampannā rasasampannā, seyyathāpi nāma sampannaṁ vā sappi sampannaṁ vā navanītaṁ evaṁvaṇṇā ahosi. Seyyathāpi nāma khuddamadhuṁ aneḷakaṁ; evamassādā ahosi.

    Atha kho, vāseṭṭha, aññataro satto lolajātiko: ‘ambho, kimevidaṁ bhavissatī’ti rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyi. Tassa rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyato acchādesi, taṇhā cassa okkami. Aññepi kho, vāseṭṭha, sattā tassa sattassa diṭṭhānugatiṁ āpajjamānā rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyiṁsu. Tesaṁ rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyataṁ acchādesi, taṇhā ca tesaṁ okkami. Atha kho te, vāseṭṭha, sattā rasapathaviṁ hatthehi āluppakārakaṁ upakkamiṁsu paribhuñjituṁ. Yato kho te, vāseṭṭha, sattā rasapathaviṁ hatthehi āluppakārakaṁ upakkamiṁsu paribhuñjituṁ. Atha tesaṁ sattānaṁ sayaṁpabhā antaradhāyi. Sayaṁpabhāya antarahitāya candimasūriyā pāturahesuṁ. Candimasūriyesu pātubhūtesu nakkhattāni tārakarūpāni pāturahesuṁ. Nakkhattesu tārakarūpesu pātubhūtesu rattindivā paññāyiṁsu. Rattindivesu paññāyamānesu māsaḍḍhamāsā paññāyiṁsu. Māsaḍḍhamāsesu paññāyamānesu utusaṁvaccharā paññāyiṁsu. Ettāvatā kho, vāseṭṭha, ayaṁ loko puna vivaṭṭo hoti.

    Evaṁ me sutaṁ— ekaṁ samayaṁ bhagavā sāvatthiyaṁ viharati pubbārāme migāramātupāsāde.
    🔼(evaṃ) 👆③⨀(ahaṃ) 🚻①⨀(suta) - 🚹②⨀(eka) 🚹②⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚺⑦⨀(sāvatthī) ▶️🤟⨀(viharati) 🚹⑦⨀(pubbārāma) 🚹⑦⨀(migāramātupāsāda)
    thus | by me | heard - one | time | Blessed One | at Sāvatthī | stays | at Pubbārāma | at Migāramātupāsāda
    Thus heard by me - at one time the Blessed One stays at Sāvatthī, at Pubbārāma Migāramātupāsāda (a monastery).

    Tena kho pana samayena vāseṭṭhabhāradvājā bhikkhūsu parivasanti bhikkhubhāvaṁ ākaṅkhamānā.
    🚹③⨀(ta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹③⨀(samaya) 🚹①⨂(vāseṭṭhabhāradvājā) 🚹⑦⨂(bhikkhu) ▶️🤟⨂(parivasati) 🚹②⨀(bhikkhubhāva) 🚹①⨂(ākaṅkhamāna)
    by that | and next | occasion | Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja | at monks | stays for a trial period | monkhood | seeking
    And in that occasion, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja are staying for a trial period with monks, seeking monkhood.

    Atha kho bhagavā sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhito pāsādā orohitvā pāsādapacchāyāyaṁ abbhokāse caṅkamati.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(sāyanhasamaya) 🚻①⨂(paṭisallāna) 🚹①⨀(vuṭṭhita) 🚹⑤⨀(pāsāda) 🔼(orohitvā) 🚺⑦⨀(pāsādapacchāyā) 🚹⑦⨀(abbhokāsa) ▶️🤟⨀(caṅkamati)
    after that | the Blessed One | late afternoon | seclusion | emerged from | from mansion | having descended from | at shaded part of the mansion | open space | walks up and down
    After that, the Blessed One emerged from seclusion in the late afternoon, having descended from the mansion, and walking up and down in the shade of the mansion.

    Addasā kho vāseṭṭho bhagavantaṁ sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhitaṁ pāsādā orohitvā pāsādapacchāyāyaṁ abbhokāse caṅkamantaṁ.
    ↩️🤟⨀(addasā) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(sāyanhasamaya) 🚻①⨂(paṭisallāna) 🚹①⨀(vuṭṭhita) 🚹⑤⨀(pāsāda) 🔼(orohitvā) 🚺⑦⨀(pāsādapacchāyā) 🚹⑦⨀(abbhokāsa) 🚻②⨀(caṅkamanta)
    saw | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | the Blessed One | late afternoon | seclusion | emerged from | from mansion | having descended from | at shaded part of the mansion | open space | walks up and down
    Vāseṭṭha saw the Blessed One emerged from seclusion in the late afternoon, having descended from the mansion, and walking up and down in the shade of the mansion.

    Disvāna bhāradvājaṁ āmantesi: “ayaṁ, āvuso bhāradvāja, bhagavā sāyanhasamayaṁ paṭisallānā vuṭṭhito pāsādā orohitvā pāsādapacchāyāyaṁ abbhokāse caṅkamati.
    🔼(disvāna) 🚹②⨀(bhāradvāja) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🚹①⨀(ima) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(bhāradvāja) , 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(sāyanhasamaya) 🚻①⨂(paṭisallāna) 🚹①⨀(vuṭṭhita) 🚹⑤⨀(pāsāda) 🔼(orohitvā) 🚺⑦⨀(pāsādapacchāyā) 🚹⑦⨀(abbhokāsa) ▶️🤟⨀(caṅkamati)
    having seen | Bhāradvāja | addressed : friend | Bhāradvāja , the Blessed One | late afternoon | seclusion | emerged from | from mansion | having descended from | at shaded part of the mansion | open space | walks up and down having seen, he addressed Bhāradvāja: “This, friend Bhāradvāja, Blessed One emerged from seclusion in the late afternoon, having descended from the mansion, and walking up and down in the shade of the mansion.”

    Āyāmāvuso bhāradvāja, yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkamissāma; appeva nāma labheyyāma bhagavato santikā dhammiṁ kathaṁ savanāyā”ti. 🚹①⨂(āyāma) 🔼(āvuso) 🚹⓪⨀(bhāradvāja) , 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹③⨀(ta) ⏭👆⨂(upasaṅkamati) ; 🔼(appeva) 🔼(nāma) ⏯👆⨂(labhati) 🚹⑤⨀(bhagavant) 🚻①⨂(santika) 🚻①⨀(dhammī) 🚻①⨀(katha) 🚻④⨀(savana) 🔼(ti) endeavour | friend | Bhāradvāja , by where | the Blessed One | by there | we will approach ; hopefully | for sure | we will receive | from Blessed One | in presence of | teaching | talk | for hearing
    “We endeavour, friend Bhāradvāja, and will approach the Blessed One; hopefully we will surely receive from the Blessed One a teaching in his presence from hearing his words.”

    “Evamāvuso”ti kho bhāradvājo vāseṭṭhassa paccassosi.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(āvuso) 🔼(ti) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(bhāradvāja) 🚹⑥⨀(vāseṭṭha) ⏮🤟⨀(paccassosi)
    thus | friend | quote | 💡| Bhāradvāja | Vāseṭṭha | agreed with
    “Yes, friend”, Bhāradvāja agreed with Vāseṭṭha.

    Atha kho vāseṭṭhabhāradvājā yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkamiṁsu; upasaṅkamitvā bhagavantaṁ abhivādetvā bhagavantaṁ caṅkamantaṁ anucaṅkamiṁsu.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨂(vāseṭṭhabhāradvājā) 🚹③⨀(ya) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹③⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(upasaṅkami) ; 🔼(upasaṅkamitvā) 🚹②⨀(bhagavant) 🔼(abhivādetvā) 🚹②⨀(caṅkamanta) ⏮🤟⨀(anucaṅkami)
    after that | Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja | by where | the Blessed One | by there | they approached ; having approached | the Blessed One | bowed to | walking up and down | followed
    After that, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja approached the Blessed One, and having approached bowed to the Blessed One, and followed him walking up and down.

    Atha kho bhagavā vāseṭṭhaṁ āmantesi: “tumhe khvattha, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇajaccā brāhmaṇakulīnā brāhmaṇakulā agārasmā anagāriyaṁ pabbajitā, kacci vo, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇā na akkosanti na paribhāsantī”ti?
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨀(bhagavant) 🚹②⨀(vāseṭṭha) ⏮🤟⨀(āmantesi) : 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) ▶️🤘⨂(atthi) , 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) , 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇajacca) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇakulīna) 🚻①⨂(brāhmaṇakula) 🚻⑤⨀(agāra) 🚻①⨀(anagāriya) 🚹①⨂(pabbajita) , 🔼(kacci) 🔼(vo) , 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) , 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨂(akkosati) 🔼(na) ▶️🤟⨂(paribhāsati) 🔼(ti)
    after that | the Blessed One | Vāseṭṭha | addressed : Youse | you are , Vāseṭṭha , brahmans by birth | brahmans by family | belonging to the brahman family | from household life | to homeless state | renounced , I suspect | surely , brahman | no | insult | not | abuse | quote
    After that, the Blessed One addressed Vāseṭṭha: “Youse are, Vāseṭṭha, brahmans by birth, brahmans by family, belong to the Brahman caste, renounced from household life to homeless state, I suspect, surely, do brahmans not insult nor abuse you?”

    “Taggha no, bhante, brāhmaṇā akkosanti paribhāsanti attarūpāya paribhāsāya paripuṇṇāya, no aparipuṇṇāyā”ti.
    🔼(taggha) 🔼(no) , 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) , 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(akkosati) ▶️🤟⨂(paribhāsati) 🚹⑥⨀(attarūpa) 🚺⑥⨀(paribhāsā) 🚺⑥⨀(paripuṇṇa) 🔼(no) 🚺⑥⨀(aparipuṇṇa) 🔼(ti)
    surely | not , Bhante , brahmans | insult | abuse | personally | for insult | for abuse | for completely | no | for incompletely | quote
    “Most certainly, Bhante, the brahmans not just insult and abuse, they personally and completely insult and abuse us, leaving nothing behind.”

    “Yathā kathaṁ pana vo, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇā akkosanti paribhāsanti attarūpāya paribhāsāya paripuṇṇāya, no aparipuṇṇāyā”ti?
    🔼(yathā) 🚻①⨀(katha) 🔼(pana vo) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(akkosati) ▶️🤟⨂(paribhāsati) 🚹⑥⨀(attarūpa) 🚺⑥⨀(paribhāsā) 🚺⑥⨀(paripuṇṇa) 🔼(no) 🚺⑥⨀(aparipuṇṇa) 🔼(ti)
    because/since/like | words | but | surely , Vāseṭṭha , brahmans | insult | abuse | personally | for insult | for abuse | for completely | no | for incompletely | quote
    But how indeed, Vāseṭṭha, in what words do the brahmans insult and abuse, personally and completely insulting and abusing, leaving nothing behind?”

    “Brāhmaṇā, bhante, evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā. 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) , 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) , 🔼(evamāhaṃsu) : 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(hīna) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa)
    brahmans | Bhante | spoke thus : brahman | only | best of | caste , inferior | other | castes
    “The brahmans, Bhante, spoke thus: Only the brahman is the best caste, other castes are inferior.”

    Brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā.
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(sukka) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(kaṇha) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa)
    brahman | only | good | caste , bad | other | castes
    “Only the brahman is a good caste, other castes are bad.”

    Brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā.
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(sujjhati) 🔼(no) 🚹①⨂(abrāhmaṇa)
    brahman | only | is purified , not | non-Brahmans
    “Only the brahman is is purified, not non-Brahmans.”

    Brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā.
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(brahma) 🚹①⨂(putta) 🚹①⨂(orasa) 🚹⑤⨀(mukha) 🚹①⨂(jāta) 🚹①⨂(brahmaja) 🚹①⨂(brahmanimmita) 🚹①⨂(brahmadāyāda)
    brahman | only | of Brahma | son | natural | from foremost | born | born from Brahma | created by Brahma | heir of Brahma
    “Only the brahman is a natural foremost son of Brahma, born from Brahma, created by Brahma, heir of Brahma.”

    Te tumhe seṭṭhaṁ vaṇṇaṁ hitvā hīnamattha vaṇṇaṁ ajjhupagatā, yadidaṁ muṇḍake samaṇake ibbhe kaṇhe bandhupādāpacce.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹②⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹②⨀(vaṇṇa) 🔼(hitvā) ▶️🤘⨂(hīnaatthi) 🚹②⨀(vaṇṇa) 🚹①⨂(ajjhupagata) , 🔼(yadidaṃ) 🚹②⨂(muṇḍaka) 🚹②⨂(samaṇaka) 🚹②⨂(ibbha) 🚹②⨂(kaṇha) 🚹②⨂(bandhupādāpacca)
    that | youse | best | caste | having left behind | become inferior | caste | entered , namely | bald | low ascetics | low caste | dark | born from Brahma’s foot
    “You, having left the best caste, adopted an inferior caste, namely a low caste of bald, dark, lowly ascetics born from Brahma’s foot.”

    Tayidaṁ na sādhu, tayidaṁ nappatirūpaṁ, yaṁ tumhe seṭṭhaṁ vaṇṇaṁ hitvā hīnamattha vaṇṇaṁ ajjhupagatā yadidaṁ muṇḍake samaṇake ibbhe kaṇhe bandhupādāpacce’ti.
    🔼(tayidaṃ) 🔼(na) 🚹①⨀(sādhu) , 🔼(tayidaṃ) 🔼(na) 🚻①⨀(nappatirūpa) , 🚻①⨀(ya) 🤘①⨂(tvaṃ) 🚹②⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹②⨀(vaṇṇa) 🔼(hitvā) ▶️🤘⨂(hīnaatthi) 🚹②⨀(vaṇṇa) 🚹①⨂(ajjhupagata) , 🔼(yadidaṃ) 🚹②⨂(muṇḍaka) 🚹②⨂(samaṇaka) 🚹②⨂(ibbha) 🚹②⨂(kaṇha) 🚹②⨂(bandhupādāpacca) 🔼(ti)
    exactly that | no | excellent , exactly | improper , best | caste | having left behind | become inferior | caste | entered , namely | bald | low ascetics | low caste | dark | born from Brahma’s foot | quote
    “Not exactly excellent, but improper, having left the best caste, adopted an inferior caste, namely a low caste of bald, dark, lowly ascetics born from Brahma’s foot.”

    Evaṁ kho no, bhante, brāhmaṇā akkosanti paribhāsanti attarūpāya paribhāsāya paripuṇṇāya, no aparipuṇṇāyā”ti.
    🔼(evaṃ) 🔼(kho no) 🚹⓪⨀(bhavant) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(akkosati) ▶️🤟⨂(paribhāsati) 🚹⑥⨀(attarūpa) 🚺⑥⨀(paribhāsā) 🚺⑥⨀(paripuṇṇa) 🔼(no) 🚺⑥⨀(aparipuṇṇa) 🔼(ti)
    thus | indeed | no | Bhante | brahmans | insult | abuse | personally | for insult | for abuse | for completely | no | for incompletely | quote
    “Indeed thus, Bhante, the brahmans not just insult and abuse, they personally and completely insult and abuse, leaving nothing behind.”

    “Taggha vo, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇā porāṇaṁ assarantā evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā; brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā’ti.
    🔼(taggha) 🔼(vo) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) , 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚻①⨀(porāṇa) 🚹①⨂(assaranta) 🔼(evaṁ) 🔄🤟⨂(āha) : 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(hīna) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(sukka) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(kaṇha) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(sujjhati) 🔼(no) 🚹①⨂(abrāhmaṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(brahma) 🚹①⨂(putta) 🚹①⨂(orasa) 🚹⑤⨀(mukha) 🚹①⨂(jāta) 🚹①⨂(brahmaja) 🚹①⨂(brahmanimmita) 🚹①⨂(brahmadāyāda) 🔼(ti)
    surely | indeed , Vāseṭṭha , brahmans | ancient | not recollecting | thus | said : brahmans | Bhante | spoke thus : brahman | only | best of | caste , inferior | other | castes , brahman | only | good | caste , bad | other | castes , brahman | only | is purified , not | non-Brahmans , brahman | only | of Brahma | son | natural | from foremost | born | born from Brahma | created by Brahma | heir of Brahma | quote
    “Surely indeed, Vāseṭṭha, the brahmans are not recollecting their origins when they said thus: “Only the brahman is the best caste, other castes are inferior, only the brahman is a good caste, other castes are bad, only the brahman is is purified, not non-Brahmans, only the brahman is a natural foremost son of Brahma, born from Brahma, created by Brahma, heir of Brahma.”

    Dissanti kho pana, vāseṭṭha, brāhmaṇānaṁ brāhmaṇiyo utuniyopi gabbhiniyopi vijāyamānāpi pāyamānāpi.
    ▶️🤟⨂(dissati) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) , 🚹⑥⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚺①⨂(brāhmaṇī) 🚻①⨀(utunī) 🚹①⨀(aya) 🔼(pi) 🚺①⨂(gabbhinī) 🔼(api) 🚻①⨀(vijāyamāna) 🔼(api)
    observe | indeed | Vāseṭṭha , of brahman | brahman woman | menstruating | going | to | pregnant woman | also | giving birth | also
    And yet, Vāseṭṭha, we observe of the Brahmans brahman women menstruating, pregnant, giving birth.

    Te ca brāhmaṇā yonijāva samānā evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā; brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā’ti.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(ca) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚹①⨂(yonija) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨂(samāna) 🔼(evaṁ) 🔄🤟⨂(āha) : 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(hīna) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(sukka) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(kaṇha) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(sujjhati) 🔼(no) 🚹①⨂(abrāhmaṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(brahma) 🚹①⨂(putta) 🚹①⨂(orasa) 🚹⑤⨀(mukha) 🚹①⨂(jāta) 🚹①⨂(brahmaja) 🚹①⨂(brahmanimmita) 🚹①⨂(brahmadāyāda) 🔼(ti)
    those | and | brahmans | born from a womb | even | just like | thus | said : brahmans | Bhante | spoke thus : brahman | only | best of | caste , inferior | other | castes , brahman | only | good | caste , bad | other | castes , brahman | only | is purified , not | non-Brahmans , brahman | only | of Brahma | son | natural | from foremost | born | born from Brahma | created by Brahma | heir of Brahma | quote
    And those brahmans that are born from a womb said like thus: “Only the brahman is the best caste, other castes are inferior, only the brahman is a good caste, other castes are bad, only the brahman is is purified, not non-Brahmans, only the brahman is a natural foremost son of Brahma, born from Brahma, created by Brahma, heir of Brahma.”

    Te brahmānañceva abbhācikkhanti, musā ca bhāsanti, bahuñca apuññaṁ pasavanti.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨂(brahma) 🔼(eva) ▶️🤟⨂(abbhācikkhati) , 🔼(musā) 🔼(ca) ▶️🤟⨂(bhāsati) , 🚹②⨀(bahu) 🔼(ca) 🚹②⨀(apuñña) ▶️🤟⨂(pasavati)
    those | of Brahma | exclusively | falsely accuse , untruthfully | and | speak , much | and | demerit | generate
    “Those of the Brahma falsely accuse, speak untruthfully and generate much demerit.”

    Cattārome, vāseṭṭha, vaṇṇā— khattiyā, brāhmaṇā, vessā, suddā.
    🔼(cattārome) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) - 🚹①⨂(khattiya) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🚹①⨂(vessa) 🚹①⨂(sudda)
    these four | Vāseṭṭha | castes - the ruling/warrior caste, the religious caste, the merchant/farming caste, the working/peasant caste.
    “Vāseṭṭha, there are four castes - khattiya (ruling/warrior caste), brāhmaṇa (religious caste), vessa (merchant/farming caste), and sudda (working/peasant caste).”

    Khattiyopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātī hoti adinnādāyī kāmesumicchācārī musāvādī pisuṇavāco pharusavāco samphappalāpī abhijjhālu byāpannacitto micchādiṭṭhī.
    🚹①⨀(khattiya) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(idhekacca) 🚹①⨀(pāṇātipātī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(adinnādāyī) 🚹①⨀(kāmesumicchācārī) 🚹①⨀(musāvādī) 🚹①⨀(pisuṇavāca) 🚹①⨀(pharusavāca) 🚹①⨀(samphappalāpī) 🚹①⨀(abhijjhālu) 🚹①⨀(byāpannacitta) 🚹①⨂(micchādiṭṭhi)
    khattiya | only | Vāseṭṭha | in this case some | who kill living beings | is | who steal | who engage in sexual misconduct | who lie | who sow discord | who speak harshly | who gossip | greedy | evil minded | have wrong views
    “As for Khattiyas, Vāseṭṭha, there are some who kill living beings, who steal, who engage in sexual misconduct, who lie, who sow discord, who speak harshly, who gossip , greedy, evil minded, have wrong views.”

    Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā sāvajjā sāvajjasaṅkhātā asevitabbā asevitabbasaṅkhātā naalamariyā naalamariyasaṅkhātā kaṇhā kaṇhavipākā viññugarahitā, khattiyepi te idhekacce sandissanti.
    🔼(iti) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🔼(yeme) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🚹①⨂(akusala) 🚹①⨂(akusalasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(sāvajja) 🚹①⨂(sāvajjasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(asevitabba) 🚹①⨂(asevitabbasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(naalamariya) 🚹①⨂(naalamariyasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(kaṇha) 🚹①⨂(kaṇhavipāka) 🚹①⨂(viññugarahita) , 🚹②⨂(khattiya) 🔼(api) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(idhekacca) ▶️🤟⨂(sandissati)
    like this | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | whatever | nature | unwholesome | considered wrong | objectionable | blameworthy | not to be associated with | not to be partaken of | unsuitable | unworthy | dark | bad results | criticised by the wise , khattiya | only | that | in this case some | exhibit
    “Like this, Vāseṭṭha, whatever nature that is unwholesome, considered wrong, objectionable, blameworthy, not to be associated with, not to be partaken of, unsuitable, unworthy, dark, bad results, criticised by the wise, is manifested in some Khattiyas.”

    Brāhmaṇopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… vessopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… suddopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātī hoti adinnādāyī kāmesumicchācārī musāvādī pisuṇavāco pharusavāco samphappalāpī abhijjhālu byāpannacitto micchādiṭṭhī.
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) … 🔼(pe) …
    Brāhmaṇa | only | Vāseṭṭha … ditto …
    Ditto for the brāhmaṇas …
    🚹①⨀(vessa) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) … 🔼(pe) …
    Vessa | only | Vāseṭṭha … ditto …
    Ditto for the Vessas …
    🚹①⨀(sudda) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(idhekacca) 🚹①⨀(pāṇātipātī) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(adinnādāyī) 🚹①⨀(kāmesumicchācārī) 🚹①⨀(musāvādī) 🚹①⨀(pisuṇavāca) 🚹①⨀(pharusavāca) 🚹①⨀(samphappalāpī) 🚹①⨀(abhijjhālu) 🚹①⨀(byāpannacitta) 🚹①⨂(micchādiṭṭhi)
    Sudda | only | Vāseṭṭha | in this case some | who kill living beings | is | who steal | who engage in sexual misconduct | who lie | who sow discord | who speak harshly | who gossip | greedy | evil minded | have wrong views
    “As for Suddas, Vāseṭṭha, there are some who kill living beings, who steal, who engage in sexual misconduct, who lie, who sow discord, who speak harshly, who gossip , greedy, evil minded, have wrong views.”

    Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā …pe… kaṇhā kaṇhavipākā viññugarahitā; suddepi te idhekacce sandissanti.
    🔼(iti) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🔼(yeme) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🚹①⨂(akusala) 🚹①⨂(akusalasaṅkhāta) … 🔼(pe) …
    like this | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | whatever | nature | unwholesome | considered wrong … ditto …
    “Like this, Vāseṭṭha, whatever nature that is unwholesome, considered wrong … ditto …
    🚹①⨂(kaṇha) 🚹①⨂(kaṇhavipāka) 🚹①⨂(viññugarahita) , 🚹②⨂(sudda) 🔼(api) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(idhekacca) ▶️🤟⨂(sandissati)
    dark | bad results | criticised by the wise , Sudda | only | that | in this case some | exhibit
    dark, bad results, criticised by the wise, is manifested in some Suddas.”

    Khattiyopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātā paṭivirato hoti, adinnādānā paṭivirato, kāmesumicchācārā paṭivirato, musāvādā paṭivirato, pisuṇāya vācāya paṭivirato, pharusāya vācāya paṭivirato, samphappalāpā paṭivirato, anabhijjhālu abyāpannacitto, sammādiṭṭhī.
    🚹①⨀(khattiya) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(idhekacca) 🚹①⨂(pāṇātipāta) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚻①⨂(adinnādāna) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) 🚹①⨂(musāvādī) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) 🚹①⨂(pisuṇavāca) 🔼(vācāya) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) 🚹①⨂(pharusavāca) 🔼(vācāya) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) 🚹①⨂(samphappalāpī) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) 🚹①⨀(anabhijjhālu) 🚹①⨀(abyāpannacitta) 🚹①⨂(sammādiṭṭhi)
    khattiya | only | Vāseṭṭha | in this case some | killing living beings | abstained from | is | stealing | abstained from | engaging in sexual misconduct | abstained from | lying | abstained from | sowing discord | abstained from | speaking harshly | out loud | abstained from | gossiping | out loud | abstained from | not greedy | kind minded | having right views
    “As for Khattiyas, Vāseṭṭha, there are some who abstained from killing living beings, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, lying, sowing discord, speaking harshly out loud, gossiping out loud, and who are not greedy, kind minded, have right views.”

    Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā sukkā sukkavipākā viññuppasatthā, khattiyepi te idhekacce sandissanti.
    🔼(iti) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🔼(yeme) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🚹①⨂(kusala) 🚹①⨂(kusalasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(anavajja) 🚹①⨂(anavajjasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(sevitabba) 🚹①⨂(sevitabbasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(alamariya) 🚹①⨂(alamariyasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(sukka) 🚹①⨂(sukkavipāka) 🚹①⨂(viññuppasattha) , 🚹②⨂(khattiya) 🔼(api) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(idhekacca) ▶️🤟⨂(sandissati)
    like this | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | whatever | nature | wholesome | considered good | considered irreproachable | considered unobjectionable | should be associated with | reckoned to be partaken of | suitable | worthy | pure | with good results | praised by the wise , khattiya | only | that | in this case some | exhibit
    “Like this, Vāseṭṭha, whatever nature that is wholesome, considered good, considered irreproachable, considered unobjectionable, should be associated with, reckoned to be partaken of, suitable, worthy, pure, with good results, praised by the wise, is manifested in some Khattiyas.”

    Brāhmaṇopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… vessopi kho, vāseṭṭha …pe… suddopi kho, vāseṭṭha, idhekacco pāṇātipātā paṭivirato hoti …pe… anabhijjhālu, abyāpannacitto, sammādiṭṭhī.
    🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) … 🔼(pe) …
    Brāhmaṇa | only | Vāseṭṭha … ditto …
    Ditto for the brāhmaṇas …
    🚹①⨀(vessa) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) … 🔼(pe) …
    Vessa | only | Vāseṭṭha … ditto …
    Ditto for the Vessas …
    🚹①⨀(sudda) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(idhekacca) 🚹①⨂(pāṇātipāta) 🚹①⨀(paṭivirata) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) … 🔼(pe) … 🚹①⨀(anabhijjhālu) 🚹①⨀(abyāpannacitta) 🚹①⨂(sammādiṭṭhi)
    Sudda | only | Vāseṭṭha | in this case some | who kill living beings | is | who steal | who engage in sexual misconduct | who lie | who sow discord | who speak harshly | who gossip | greedy | evil minded | have wrong views
    “As for Suddas, Vāseṭṭha, there are some who abstained from killing living beings, … ditto …, and who are not greedy, kind minded, have right views.”

    Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, yeme dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā sukkā sukkavipākā viññuppasatthā; suddepi te idhekacce sandissanti.
    🔼(iti) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🔼(yeme) 🚹①⨂(dhamma) 🚹①⨂(kusala) 🚹①⨂(kusalasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(anavajja) 🚹①⨂(anavajjasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(sevitabba) 🚹①⨂(sevitabbasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(alamariya) 🚹①⨂(alamariyasaṅkhāta) 🚹①⨂(sukka) 🚹①⨂(sukkavipāka) 🚹①⨂(viññuppasattha) , 🚹②⨂(sudda) 🔼(api) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(idhekacca) ▶️🤟⨂(sandissati)
    like this | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | whatever | nature | wholesome | considered good | considered irreproachable | considered unobjectionable | should be associated with | reckoned to be partaken of | suitable | worthy | pure | with good results | praised by the wise , Sudda | only | that | in this case some | exhibit
    “Like this, Vāseṭṭha, whatever nature that is wholesome, considered good, considered irreproachable, considered unobjectionable, should be associated with, reckoned to be partaken of, suitable, worthy, pure, with good results, praised by the wise, is manifested in some Suddas.”

    Imesu kho, vāseṭṭha, catūsu vaṇṇesu evaṁ ubhayavokiṇṇesu vattamānesu kaṇhasukkesu dhammesu viññugarahitesu ceva viññuppasatthesu ca yadettha brāhmaṇā evamāhaṁsu: ‘brāhmaṇova seṭṭho vaṇṇo, hīnā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇova sukko vaṇṇo, kaṇhā aññe vaṇṇā; brāhmaṇāva sujjhanti, no abrāhmaṇā; brāhmaṇāva brahmuno puttā orasā mukhato jātā brahmajā brahmanimmitā brahmadāyādā’ti.
    🚹⑦⨂(ima) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹⑦⨂(catu) 🚹⑦⨂(vaṇṇa) 🔼(evaṃ) 🚹⑦⨂(ubhayavokiṇṇa) 🚹⑦⨂(vattamāna) 🚹⑦⨂(kaṇhasukka) 🚹⑦⨂(dhamma) 🚹⑦⨂(viññugarahita) 🔼(ceva) 🚹⑦⨂(viññuppasattha) 🔼(ca) 🔼(yadettha) 🚹①⨂(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(evaṁ) 🔄🤟⨂(āha) : 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(hīna) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🔼(eva) 🚹①⨀(sukka) 🚹①⨀(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨂(kaṇha) 🚹①⨂(añña) 🚹①⨂(vaṇṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) ▶️🤟⨂(sujjhati) 🔼(no) 🚹①⨂(abrāhmaṇa) , 🚹①⨀(brāhmaṇa) 🚹⑥⨀(brahma) 🚹①⨂(putta) 🚹①⨂(orasa) 🚹⑤⨀(mukha) 🚹①⨂(jāta) 🚹①⨂(brahmaja) 🚹①⨂(brahmanimmita) 🚹①⨂(brahmadāyāda) 🔼(ti)
    in this | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | at four | at castes | thus | at both mixed up | at taking place | at bad and good | at nature | at criticised by wise | as well as | praised by the wise | and | that here | brahmans | thus | said : brahmans | Bhante | spoke thus : brahman | only | best of | caste , inferior | other | castes , brahman | only | good | caste , bad | other | castes , brahman | only | is purified , not | non-Brahmans , brahman | only | of Brahma | son | natural | from foremost | born | born from Brahma | created by Brahma | heir of Brahma | quote
    In this, Vāseṭṭha, both good and bad nature are mixed up and taking place in all four castes, as well as both criticised and praised by the wise, and yet here those brahmans said like thus: “Only the brahman is the best caste, other castes are inferior, only the brahman is a good caste, other castes are bad, only the brahman is is purified, not non-Brahmans, only the brahman is a natural foremost son of Brahma, born from Brahma, created by Brahma, heir of Brahma.”

    Taṁ tesaṁ viññū nānujānanti. 🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨂(ta) 🚹①⨂(viññū) ▶️🤟⨂(nānujānāti) that | of that | the wise | do not accept “That, those who are wise do not accept.”

    Taṁ kissa hetu?
    🚻①⨀(ta) 🚹④⨀(ka) 🚹①⨀(hetu)
    that | for what | cause
    “Why?”

    Imesañhi, vāseṭṭha, catunnaṁ vaṇṇānaṁ yo hoti bhikkhu arahaṁ khīṇāsavo vusitavā katakaraṇīyo ohitabhāro anuppattasadattho parikkhīṇabhavasaṁyojano sammadaññāvimutto, so nesaṁ aggamakkhāyati dhammeneva, no adhammena.
    🚹⑥⨂(ima) 🔼(hi) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹⑥⨂(catu) 🚹⑥⨂(vaṇṇa) 🚹①⨀(ya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(bhikkhu) 🚻①⨀(araha) 🚹①⨀(khīṇāsava) 🚹①⨀(vusitavant) 🚹①⨀(katakaraṇīya) 🚹①⨀(ohitabhāra) 🚹①⨀(anuppattasadattha) 🚹①⨀(parikkhīṇabhavasaṃyojana) 🚹①⨀(sammadaññāvimutta) , 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨂(ta) ▶️🤟⨀(aggamakkhāyati) 🚹③⨀(dhamma) 🔼(eva) 🔼(no) 🚹③⨀(adhamma)
    of this | indeed | Vāseṭṭha | of four | of castes | whoever | is | monk | deserving of | destroyed the effluents | perfected | who has done what needs to be done | who has put down the burden | who has achieved the highest goal | who has exhausted the fetters of existence | who is liberated by perfect understanding , he | of that | is considered the highest of | with morality | just | not | with immorality
    “Of this, Vāseṭṭha, whichever monk amongst the four castes is deserving has destroyed the effluents, perfected, has done what needs to be done, has put down the burden, has achieved the highest goal, has exhausted the fetters of existence, is liberated by perfect understanding , he is considered the highest in morality, not immorality.”

    Dhammo hi, vāseṭṭha, seṭṭho janetasmiṁ, diṭṭhe ceva dhamme abhisamparāyañca.
    🚹①⨀(dhamma) 🔼(hi) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(seṭṭha) 🚹⑦⨀(janeta) , 🚹②⨂(diṭṭha) 🔼(ceva) 🚹②⨂(dhamma) 🚹②⨀(abhisamparāya)
    characteristic | indeed | best | human , seen | as well as | principle | future state
    “That characteristic, Vāseṭṭha, is the best goal for humans, now as well as in the future.”

    Hoti kho so, vāseṭṭha, samayo yaṁ kadāci karahaci dīghassa addhuno accayena ayaṁ loko saṁvaṭṭati.
    ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(samaya) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kadāci) 🔼(karahaci) 🚹⑥⨀(dīgha) 🚹⑥⨀(addha) 🚹③⨀(accaya) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(loka) ▶️🤟⨀(saṃvaṭṭati)
    is | 💡| that | Vāseṭṭha | time | whatever | sometimes | occasionally | of long | of time | after the passing away of | this | universe | contracts
    “That indeed, Vāseṭṭha, whatever time, sometimes, occasionally, after the passing away of a long time, this universe contracts.”

    Saṁvaṭṭamāne loke yebhuyyena sattā ābhassarasaṁvattanikā honti.
    🚹⑦⨀(saṃvaṭṭamāna) 🚹⑦⨀(loka) 🚹③⨀(yebhuyya) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚹①⨂(ābhassarasaṃvattanika) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti)
    at contracting | at universe | mostly | living beings | reborn in the world of the radiant gods | are
    “While the universe is contracting, living beings are reborn in the world of the radiant gods.”

    Te tattha honti manomayā pītibhakkhā sayaṁpabhā antalikkhacarā subhaṭṭhāyino ciraṁ dīghamaddhānaṁ tiṭṭhanti.
    🚹①⨂(ta) 🔼(tattha) 🚹①⨂(manomaya) 🚹①⨂(pītibhakkha) 🚹①⨂(sayaṃpabha) 🚹①⨂(antalikkhacara) 🚹①⨂(subhaṭṭhāyī) 🚻①⨀(cira) 🚻①⨀(dīghamaddhāna) ▶️🤟⨂(tiṭṭhati)
    those | in that state | mind-made | feeding on bliss | self radiant, self-luminous | travelling through the sky | continuously beautiful | long | time | persist
    “In that state, those beings are mind-made, feeding on bliss, self radiant, self-luminous, travelling through the sky, continuously beautiful, and persist for a long time.”

    Hoti kho so, vāseṭṭha, samayo yaṁ kadāci karahaci dīghassa addhuno accayena ayaṁ loko vivaṭṭati.
    ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨀(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(samaya) 🚻①⨀(ya) 🔼(kadāci) 🔼(karahaci) 🚹⑥⨀(dīgha) 🚹⑥⨀(addha) 🚹③⨀(accaya) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(loka) ▶️🤟⨀(vivaṭṭati)
    is | 💡| that | Vāseṭṭha | time | whatever | sometimes | occasionally | of long | of time | after the passing away of | this | universe | begins again
    “That indeed, Vāseṭṭha, whatever time, sometimes, occasionally, after the passing away of a long time, this universe expands again.”

    Vivaṭṭamāne loke yebhuyyena sattā ābhassarakāyā cavitvā itthattaṁ āgacchanti.
    🚹②⨂(vivaṭṭamāna) 🚹⑦⨀(loka) 🚹③⨀(yebhuyya) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚹⑤⨀(ābhassarakāya) 🔼(cavitvā) 🚻②⨀(itthatta) ▶️🤟⨂(āgacchati)
    at expanding | at universe | mostly | living beings | from world of the radiant gods | fall away | to earthly existence | come back to
    “While the universe is expanding, living beings fall away from the world of the radiant gods and come back to earthly existence.”

    Tedha honti manomayā pītibhakkhā sayaṁpabhā antalikkhacarā subhaṭṭhāyino ciraṁ dīghamaddhānaṁ tiṭṭhanti.
    🔼(tedha) ▶️🤟⨂(hoti) 🚹①⨂(manomaya) 🚹①⨂(pītibhakkha) 🚹①⨂(sayaṃpabha) 🚹①⨂(antalikkhacara) 🚹①⨂(subhaṭṭhāyī) 🚻①⨀(cira) 🚻①⨀(dīghamaddhāna) ▶️🤟⨂(tiṭṭhati)
    they here | is | mind-made | feeding on bliss | self radiant, self-luminous | travelling through the sky | continuously beautiful | long | time | persist
    “They here are mind-made, feeding on bliss, self radiant, self-luminous, travelling through the sky, continuously beautiful, and persist for a long time.”

    Ekodakībhūtaṁ kho pana, vāseṭṭha, tena samayena hoti andhakāro andhakāratimisā.
    🚻①⨀(ekodakībhūta) 🔼(kho pana) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹③⨀(ta) 🚹③⨀(samaya) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) 🚹①⨀(andhakāra) 🚹①⨂(andhakāratimisa)
    single mass of water | and next | Vāseṭṭha | by that | by time | is | darkness | blackness
    “And next, Vāseṭṭha, by that time there is a single mass of water that is dark and black.”

    Na candimasūriyā paññāyanti, na nakkhattāni tārakarūpāni paññāyanti, na rattindivā paññāyanti, na māsaḍḍhamāsā paññāyanti, na utusaṁvaccharā paññāyanti, na itthipumā paññāyanti, sattā sattātveva saṅkhyaṁ gacchanti.
    🔼(na) 🚹①⨂(candimasūriya) ▶️🤟⨂(paññāyati) , 🔼(na) 🚻①⨂(nakkhatta) 🚻①⨂(tārakarūpa) ▶️🤟⨂(paññāyati) , 🔼(na) 🚻①⨂(rattindiva) ▶️🤟⨂(paññāyati) , 🔼(na) 🚹①⨂(māsaḍḍhamāsa) ▶️🤟⨂(paññāyati) , 🔼(na) 🚻①⨂(utusaṃvacchara) ▶️🤟⨂(paññāyati) , 🔼(na) 🚹①⨂(itthipumā) ▶️🤟⨂(paññāyati) , 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🔼(iti eva) 🚺②⨀(saṅkhyā) ▶️🤟⨂(gacchati)
    no | moon and sun | are evident , no | stars | twinkling | are evident , no | day and night | are evident , no | month and fortnight | are evident , no seasons and years | are evident , no | men and women | are evident , living beings | like this | just | conceptualization | becomes
    “No moon and sun are evident, no twinkling stars are evident, no day and night are evident, no month and fortnight are evident, no seasons and years are evident, no men and women are evident , living beings become conceptualized.

    Atha kho tesaṁ, vāseṭṭha, sattānaṁ kadāci karahaci dīghassa addhuno accayena rasapathavī udakasmiṁ samatani; seyyathāpi nāma payaso tattassa nibbāyamānassa upari santānakaṁ hoti; evameva pāturahosi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⑥⨂(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹⑥⨂(satta) 🔼(kadāci) 🔼(karahaci) 🚹⑥⨀(dīgha) 🚹⑥⨀(addha) 🚹③⨀(accaya) 🚺①⨀(rasapathavī) 🚻⑦⨀(udaka) ⏮🤟⨀(samatani) , 🔼(seyyathāpi) 🔼(nāma) 🚹⑥⨀(payas) 🚻⑥⨀(tatta) 🚹⑥⨀(nibbāyamāna) 🔼(upari) 🚻①⨀(santānaka) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti) ; 🔼(evameva) ⏮🤟⨀(pāturahosi)
    after that | of that | Vāseṭṭha | of living beings | sometimes | occasionally | of long | of time | after the passing away of | essence of the earth | in water | spread all over , just like | certainly | of milk | of heated | of cooling | above | network | becomes ; in the same way | appeared
    “After that, Vāseṭṭha, of those living beings, sometimes, occasionally, after the passing away of a long time, the essence of the earth spread all over the water, appeared just like heated milk cooling become a network of curd on top.”

    Sā ahosi vaṇṇasampannā gandhasampannā rasasampannā, seyyathāpi nāma sampannaṁ vā sappi sampannaṁ vā navanītaṁ evaṁvaṇṇā ahosi.
    🚺①⨀(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi) 🚺①⨀(vaṇṇasampanna) 🚺①⨀(gandhasampanna) 🔼(seyyathāpi) 🔼(nāma) 🚻①⨀(sampanna) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(sappi) 🚻①⨀(sampanna) 🔼(vā) 🚻①⨀(navanīta) 🚹①⨂(evaṃvaṇṇa) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    that | became | endowed with beauty | endowed with delightful odour | just like | object | fully ripe | or | ghee | well-prepared | or | fresh butter | of such appearance | became
    “That became endowed with beauty and delightful odour, had the appearance and smell just like a fully ripe thing, or well-prepared ghee, or fresh butter.”

    Seyyathāpi nāma khuddamadhuṁ aneḷakaṁ; evamassādā ahosi.
    🔼(seyyathāpi) 🔼(nāma) 🚻①⨀(khuddamadhu) 🚻①⨀(aneḷaka) ; 🚹①⨂(evamassāda) ⏮🤟⨀(ahosi)
    just like | object | honey from small bees | pure ; having such flavour | became
    “That tasted just like pure honey from small bees.”

    Atha kho, vāseṭṭha, aññataro satto lolajātiko: ‘ambho, kimevidaṁ bhavissatī’ti rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyi.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(aññatara) 🚹①⨀(satta) 🚹①⨀(lolajātika) : 🔼(ambho) 🔼(kimevidaṃ) ⏭🤟⨀(bhavati) 🔼(ti) 🚺②⨀(rasapathavī) 🚺③⨀(aṅguli) ⏮🤟⨀(sāyi)
    after that | Vāseṭṭha | a certain | being | restless : hey! | what is this | will become | quote | essence of the earth | with finger | tasted
    “After that, Vāseṭṭha, a certain being became restless: ‘Hey, what will this taste like?’ and tasted the essence of the earth with finger.”

    Tassa rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyato acchādesi, taṇhā cassa okkami.
    🚹⑥⨀(ta) ②⨀(rasapathavī) 🚺③⨀(aṅguli) 🚹⑥⨀(sāyanta) , 🚹①⨂(taṇha) 🔼(cassa) ⏮🤟⨀(okkami)
    of that | essence of the earth | with finger | of tasting , craving | for him | occurred
    “While tasting that essence of the earth with finger, he developed craving.”

    Aññepi kho, vāseṭṭha, sattā tassa sattassa diṭṭhānugatiṁ āpajjamānā rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyiṁsu.
    🚹①⨂(añña) 🔼(api) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚹⑥⨀(ta) 🚹⑥⨀(satta) 🚺①⨀(diṭṭhānugati) 🚺①⨀(āpajjamāna) ②⨀(rasapathavī) 🚺③⨀(aṅguli) ⏮🤟⨀(sāyi)
    other | just | Vāseṭṭha | beings | of that | of being | following the example of | engaging in | essence of the earth | with finger | tasted
    “Other beings, Vāseṭṭha, engaging in following the example of that being, tasted the essence of the earth with finger.”

    Tesaṁ rasapathaviṁ aṅguliyā sāyataṁ acchādesi, taṇhā ca tesaṁ okkami.
    🚹⑥⨂(ta) ②⨀(rasapathavī) 🚺③⨀(aṅguli) 🚹⑥⨂(sāyanta) , 🚹①⨂(taṇha) 🔼(ca) 🚹④⨂(ta) ⏮🤟⨀(okkami)
    of those | essence of the earth | with finger | of tasting , craving | and | for those | occurred
    “While they were tasting that essence of the earth with finger, they developed craving.”

    Atha kho te, vāseṭṭha, sattā rasapathaviṁ hatthehi āluppakārakaṁ upakkamiṁsu paribhuñjituṁ.
    🔼(atha kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚺②⨀(rasapathavī) 🚹③⨂(hattha) 🔼(āluppakārakaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(upakkami) 🔼(paribhuñjituṃ)
    after that | those | Vāseṭṭha | beings | essence of the earth | by hand | tearing to bits | began | to eat
    “After that, Vāseṭṭha, those beings began to eat the essence of the earth, tearing it to bits by hand.”

    Yato kho te, vāseṭṭha, sattā rasapathaviṁ hatthehi āluppakārakaṁ upakkamiṁsu paribhuñjituṁ.
    🔼(yato) 🔼(kho) 🚹①⨂(ta) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨂(satta) 🚺②⨀(rasapathavī) 🚹③⨂(hattha) 🔼(āluppakārakaṃ) ⏮🤟⨀(upakkami) 🔼(paribhuñjituṃ)
    when | 💡| those | Vāseṭṭha | beings | essence of the earth | by hand | tearing to bits | began | to eat
    “Vāseṭṭha, when those beings began to eat the essence of the earth, tearing it to bits by hand.”

    Atha tesaṁ sattānaṁ sayaṁpabhā antaradhāyi.
    🔼(atha) 🚹⑥⨂(ta) 🚹⑥⨂(satta) 🚹①⨂(sayaṃpabha) ⏮🤟⨀(antaradhāyi)
    then | of those | of being | self radiance | disappeared
    “Then, the self radiance of those beings disappeared.”

    Sayaṁpabhāya antarahitāya candimasūriyā pāturahesuṁ.
    🚺③⨀(sayaṃpabha) 🚺③⨀(antarahita) 🚹①⨂(candimasūriya) ⏮🤟⨂(pāturahosi ) with self-radiance | with disappeared | the sun and the moon | appeared
    “With the disappearence of self-radiance, the sun and the moon appeared.”

    Candimasūriyesu pātubhūtesu nakkhattāni tārakarūpāni pāturahesuṁ.
    🚹⑦⨂(candimasūriya) 🚹⑦⨂(pātubhūta) 🚻①⨂(nakkhatta) ⏮🤟⨂(pāturahosi)
    at sun and moon | at appeared | constellation | starlight | appeared
    “While the sun and moon appeared, the twinkling stars appeared.”

    Nakkhattesu tārakarūpesu pātubhūtesu rattindivā paññāyiṁsu.
    🚻⑦⨂(nakkhatta) 🚻⑦⨂(tārakarūpa) 🚻⑦⨂(pātubhūta) 🚻①⨂(rattindiva) ⏮🤟⨂(paññāyi)
    at constellation | at starlight | at appeared | day and night | was evident
    “When the twinkling stars appeared, day and night became evident.”

    Rattindivesu paññāyamānesu māsaḍḍhamāsā paññāyiṁsu.
    🚹⑦⨂(rattindiva) 🚹⑦⨂(paññāyamāna) 🚹①⨂(māsaḍḍhamāsa) ⏮🤟⨂(paññāyi)
    at day and night | at evident | month and fortnight | was evident
    “When day and night became evident, month and fortnight became evident.”

    Māsaḍḍhamāsesu paññāyamānesu utusaṁvaccharā paññāyiṁsu.
    🚹⑦⨂(māsaḍḍhamāsa) 🚹⑦⨂(paññāyamāna) 🚻①⨂(utusaṃvacchara) ⏮🤟⨂(paññāyi ) at month and fortnight | at evident | seasons and years | was evident
    “When month and fortnight became evident, seasons and years became evident.”

    Ettāvatā kho, vāseṭṭha, ayaṁ loko puna vivaṭṭo hoti.
    🔼(ettāvatā) 🔼(kho) 🚹⓪⨀(vāseṭṭha) 🚹①⨀(ima) 🚹①⨀(loka) 🔼(puna) 🚹①⨀(vivaṭṭa) ▶️🤟⨀(hoti)
    to this extent | 💡| Vāseṭṭha | this | universe | again | expanding | is
    “To this extent, Vāseṭṭha, this universe becomes expanding again.”

    Translate into Pali

    Cīvarakkhandhaka Kd 8 PTS 1.268–1.311 1.1.2, 1.1.7-1.3.13 (Vin I 268, 2-3 +8 - 269,11):

    At that time Vesālī (was) powerful and prosperous. The geisha Ambapāli was (hoti) beautiful, lovely, endowed with the highest beauty-of-complexion. (She was) skilled in dancing and singing and instrumental music. Visited by (use genitive) aspiring men (she) went (present time) for a night for fifty (kahapanas) ; and through her Vesālī appeared (present tense) beautiful in still greater measure (ablative). Then (add kho) a burgher of Rājagaha went (aorist) to Vesālī on (ins.) some business. He saw Vesālī powerful and prosperous, and the geisha Ambapāli, and through her Vesālī appearing beautiful in still greater measure. Then (+ kho) the burgher returned to Rājagaha. He approached the king, Magadha Seniya Bimbisāra, and having approached he said this to the king: " Vesālī, O king, (is) powerful and prosperous, etc., and through her Vesālī appears beautiful in still greater measure. (It would be) good, O king, (if) we too were to establish (optative of causative of ụ(d)-(ṭ)ṭhā : vuṭṭhāpeyy-) a geisha.” " Then (tena hi), I say, find out a girl whom you would establish (as) geisha! “Just at that time in Rājagaha there was (hoti) a girl named Sālavati, beautiful, lovely, endowed with the highest beauty-of-com-plexion. Then the burgher established the girl Sālavati as geisha. Then Sālavati soon became skilled in dancing, singing, and instrumental music. Visited by aspiring men she went (present tense) for a night for a hundred. Then Sālavati soon became pregnant. Then Sālavati thought: “A pregnant woman (is) displeasing to men. If anyone knows (future) I am pregnant (use direct speech : " Sālavati (is) pregnant “) all my entertainment will be eliminated. What now (if) I were to announce that I am ill (direct speech) ? ” Then Sālavati ordered the porter : “ Porter, I say, don’t let any man enter (mā with aorist 3rd person), (he) who asks (about) me you must inform that I am ill.“ “Yes, lady,” assented the porter to Sālavati the geisha.

    At that time Vesālī (was) powerful and prosperous.
    Tena kho pana samayena vesālī iddhā ceva hoti phitā ca (bahujanā ca ākiṇṇamanussā ca subhikkhā ca)

    The geisha Ambapāli was (hoti) beautiful, lovely, endowed with the highest beauty-of-complexion.
    ambapālī ca gaṇikā abhirūpā hoti dassanīyā pāsādikā paramāya vaṇṇapokkharatāya samannāgatā,

    (She was) skilled in dancing and singing and instrumental music.
    padakkhiṇā nacce ca gīte ca vādite ca,

    Visited by (use genitive) aspiring men (she) went (present time) for a night for fifty (kahapanas) ; and through her Vesālī appeared (present tense) beautiful in still greater measure (ablative).
    abhisaṭā atthikānaṁ atthikānaṁ manussānaṁ paññāsāya ca rattiṁ gacchati; tāya ca vesālī bhiyyoso mattāya upasobhati.

    Then (add kho) a burgher of Rājagaha went (aorist) to Vesālī on (ins.) some business.
    Atha kho rājagahako negamo vesāliṁ agamāsi kenacideva karaṇīyena.

    He saw Vesālī powerful and prosperous, and the geisha Ambapāli, and through her Vesālī appearing beautiful in still greater measure.
    Addasā kho rājagahako negamo vesāliṁ iddhañceva phitañca bahujanañca …
    ambapāliñca gaṇikaṁ (abhirūpaṁ dassanīyaṁ pāsādikaṁ paramāya vaṇṇapokkharatāya samannāgataṁ, padakkhiṇaṁ nacce ca gīte ca vādite ca, abhisaṭaṁ atthikānaṁ atthikānaṁ manussānaṁ paññāsāya ca rattiṁ gacchantiṁ), tāya ca vesāliṁ bhiyyoso mattāya upasobhantiṁ.

    Then (+ kho) the burgher returned to Rājagaha.
    Atha kho rājagahako negamo vesāliyaṁ taṁ karaṇīyaṁ tīretvā punadeva rājagahaṁ paccāgañchi.

    He approached the king, Magadha Seniya Bimbisāra, and having approached he said this to the king: " Vesālī, O king, (is) powerful and prosperous, etc., and through her Vesālī appears beautiful in still greater measure.
    Yena rājā māgadho seniyo bimbisāro tenupasaṅkami, upasaṅkamitvā rājānaṁ māgadhaṁ seniyaṁ bimbisāraṁ etadavoca— “vesālī, deva, iddhā ceva phitā ca bahujanā ca ākiṇṇamanussā ca subhikkhā ca;
    satta ca pāsādasahassāni …pe…
    tāya ca vesālī bhiyyoso mattāya upasobhati.

    (It would be) good, O king, (if) we too were to establish (optative of causative of ụ(d)-(ṭ)ṭhā : vuṭṭhāpeyy-) a geisha.”
    Sādhu, deva, mayampi gaṇikaṁ vuṭṭhāpessāmā”ti.

    " Then (tena hi), I say, find out a girl whom you would establish (as) geisha! "
    “Tena hi, bhaṇe, tādisiṁ kumāriṁ jānātha yaṁ tumhe gaṇikaṁ vuṭṭhāpeyyāthā”ti.

    Just at that time in Rājagaha there was (hoti) a girl named Sālavati, beautiful, lovely, endowed with the highest beauty-of-complexion.
    Tena kho pana samayena rājagahe sālavatī nāma kumārī abhirūpā hoti dassanīyā pāsādikā paramāya vaṇṇapokkharatāya samannāgatā.

    Then the burgher established the girl Sālavati as geisha.
    Atha kho rājagahako negamo sālavatiṁ kumāriṁ gaṇikaṁ vuṭṭhāpesi.

    Then Sālavati soon became skilled in dancing, singing, and instrumental music.
    Atha kho sālavatī gaṇikā nacirasseva padakkhiṇā ahosi nacce ca gīte ca vādite ca,

    Visited by aspiring men she went (present tense) for a night for a hundred.
    abhisaṭā atthikānaṁ atthikānaṁ manussānaṁ paṭisatena ca rattiṁ gacchati.

    Then Sālavati soon became pregnant.
    Atha kho sālavatī gaṇikā nacirasseva gabbhinī ahosi.

    Then Sālavati thought: “A pregnant woman (is) displeasing to men.
    Atha kho sālavatiyā gaṇikāya etadahosi—
    “itthī kho gabbhinī purisānaṁ amanāpā.

    If anyone knows (future) I am pregnant (use direct speech : " Sālavati (is) pregnant “) all my entertainment will be eliminated.
    Sace maṁ koci jānissati—
    sālavatī gaṇikā gabbhinīti, sabbo me sakkāro bhañjissati.

    What now (if) I were to announce that I am ill (direct speech) ? ”
    Yannūnāhaṁ gilānaṁ paṭivedeyyan”ti.

    Then Sālavati ordered the porter : “ Porter, I say, don’t let any man enter (mā with aorist 3rd person), (he) who asks (about) me you must inform that I am ill.“
    Atha kho sālavatī gaṇikā dovārikaṁ āṇāpesi—
    “mā, bhaṇe dovārika, koci puriso pāvisi.
    Yo ca maṁ pucchati, ‘gilānā’ti paṭivedehī”ti.

    “Yes, lady,” assented the porter to Sālavati the geisha.
    “Evaṁ, ayye”ti kho so dovāriko sālavatiyā gaṇikāya paccassosi.

    8 - Reference

    Buddhist resources

    This section contains links to Buddhist websites, books, courses, magazines, etc. Due to the dynamic nature of the Internet, I cannot guarantee the relevance or the continued existence of any of this material as they are not stored on this site.

    8.1 - Pāli

    Resources for learning Pāli.
    Resources for Learning Pali
    The classical, literary language of Theravada Buddhism, with special reference to problems of indigenous orthography and phonology by Eisel Mazard (大影)
    LEARN PALI LANGUAGE
    Pali language grammar tutorials. Learn to read the Pali language for yourself. This blog is to help those wishing to make a first stab at translating the Pāli language & scriptures.
    Learning Pali – Buddha’s Language
    Buddhist Association of the United States.
    A Course in the Pali Language
    This course is designed to help you to learn the basics of Pali grammar and vocabulary through direct study of selections from the Buddha’s discourses. It thus aims to enable you to read the Buddha’s discourses in the original as quickly as possible. The textbook for the course is A New Course in Reading Pali: Entering the Word of the Buddha by James Gair and W.S. Karunatilleke (1998, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, India. ISBN 81-208-1440-1). The Pali grammatical tables were designed by Bhikkhu Nyanatusita.
    OCBS Courses
    Online Courses from the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
    Pali-English Dictionary
    Online version of The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English dictionary
    Wisdom and Wonders Introduction to Pali
    This course, Introduction to Pali by Ajahn Brahmali, is separated into 24 parts. There are approximately 20 hours of material, including lessons and exercises. The course is intended for those who wish to read content from the Pali canon, rather than those who wish to read, write and construct terms in Pali. The course uses Introduction to Pali by A. K. Warder as the core text, and covers the first 16 chapters.
    Open Buddhist University: The Pāli Language: Level 1
    This course doesn’t assume any prior knowledge of linguistics or classical languages, and so serves as a suitable introduction for anyone. Note that the examples will not be drawn directly from the Pāli Canon.
    Grammar and Prosody
    This section contains studies of the grammar and prosody of Buddhist texts, with original texts in Pāli and Sanskrit (together with extensive annotation).
    Illustrated Glossary of Pāli Terms
    This Glossary was originally conceived of as a way of supporting my own translations. Preparing it first of all involved gathering all instances of words in question together with their contexts. It would then usually become clear that words carried different meanings in different contexts. This was in accordance with the findings in Pāli dictionaries, which rarely consist of an explanation by a single word. The excerpts I found could then be divided into groups accordingly. Finding the correct English term for Pāli words when they are grouped on the same page turned out to be altogether easier than working with single passages or sentences and experimenting with terms in one’s head. By following this method, and sorting and resorting groups of quotes over days, months, or even years, continuously applying the find-and-replace tool, shifting backwards and forwards nearly two million words, it eventually confirmed or denied choices of my original renderings, and led to increasing confidence in my findings. Such a system of translation is only possible with computer leverage. With computers, Pāli studies have entered a new era.

    8.2 - Tipitaka

    Online sources for the Tipitaka.
    SuttaCentral
    SuttaCentral contains early Buddhist texts, known as the Tipiṭaka or “Three Baskets”. This is a large collection of teachings attributed to the Buddha or his earliest disciples, who were teaching in India around 2500 years ago. They are regarded as sacred canon in all schools of Buddhism.
    Ancient Buddhist Texts
    Materials from the early and medieval Buddhist tradition covering texts in Pāli and Sanskrit; line by line (interlinear) texts and translations; translations in English only; studies of grammar, prosody and compilation; maps, reference works and audio files.
    Pali Tipitaka
    This web site is based on the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana CD published by the Vipassana Research Institute. Based at Dhamma Giri, Igatpuri, near Mumbai, India, the Vipassana Research Institute also publishes literature & disseminates information related to Vipassana Meditation Technique as taught by S.N.Goenka in the tradition of Sayagyi U Ba Khin.
    Tipitaka.app
    Tipitaka.app is a free software built and distributed as a Dhamma donation. It will always be free and a property of the Buddhist World.
    Digital Pali Reader
    The Digital Pali Reader provides a database of the Tipiṭaka in romanised script with a search facility and the inbuilt dictionaries allow for instant lookup of any word
    Tipiṭaka Pāḷi Projector
    TPP is a software program to help one navigate the vast amounts of Pāḷi texts. It includes, 21 English Ebooks that can be displayed side by side with the Pāḷi texts. The Dictionaries and Search functions are where TPP separates itself from the other Pāḷi readers. It is very fast and totally off-line. It works on Windows as an installable Exe or MacOS DMG file too. The project can also run on any operating system that supports FireFox Web Browser. This application was created at Pa-Auk Forest Monastery in Maymyo. The FireFox version supports Sinhala, Myanmar, Thai and Devanagiri Scripts.
    Access to Insight
    Access to Insight is an HTML website dedicated to providing accurate, reliable, and useful information concerning the practice and study of Theravada Buddhism, as it has been handed down to us through both the written word of the Pali canon and the living example of the Sangha.
    Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project
    The Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project is a public domain electronic version of the Pali Canon.

    8.3 - Websites

    Buddhist websites
    DhammaCharts
    The Buddhist Association of the United States ® (BAUS) is a non-denominational organization dedicated to promoting the Buddha’s teachings in the United States. Founded in 1964 by a group of devout Chinese Buddhists living in the greater New York area, BAUS offers a wide range of programs, including weekly Dharma classes, meditation retreats, and traditional religious rituals. Although rooted in the Chinese Buddhist tradition, BAUS does not represent any particular school of Buddhism, nor is it is affiliated with any other Buddhist organization. BAUS adopts a broad perspective on the Buddha’s teachings, and thus hosts programs by qualified teachers from all genuine Buddhist traditions, both Theravada and Mahayana.
    Buddhist Association of the United States
    The Buddhist Association of the United States ® (BAUS) is a non-denominational organization dedicated to promoting the Buddha’s teachings in the United States. Founded in 1964 by a group of devout Chinese Buddhists living in the greater New York area, BAUS offers a wide range of programs, including weekly Dharma classes, meditation retreats, and traditional religious rituals. Although rooted in the Chinese Buddhist tradition, BAUS does not represent any particular school of Buddhism, nor is it is affiliated with any other Buddhist organization. BAUS adopts a broad perspective on the Buddha’s teachings, and thus hosts programs by qualified teachers from all genuine Buddhist traditions, both Theravada and Mahayana.
    Bodhi Monastery
    Bodhi Monastery is a distinctive Buddhist monastery located in the rolling hills of Sussex County, New Jersey. Set on 188 acres of verdant woodlands and fields, amidst herds of deer, the monastery offers a fresh yet ancient perspective on the practice of Buddhism in today’s world. The origins of Bodhi Monastery lie in the comprehensive, non–sectarian vision of Master Yin–Shun, the foremost Chinese scholar–monk of modern times, whose work has inspired a Buddhist intellectual renaissance in Taiwan. In line with the vision of Master Yin–Shun, Bodhi Monastery aims to promote the study and practice of Buddhism as an integral whole rather than to focus on the teachings of a particular Buddhist sect or branch.
    Buddhist Publication Society
    The Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), founded in Sri Lanka in 1958, is an approved charity dedicated to making known the teaching of the Buddha. BPS publications generally represent the standpoint of Theravada Buddhism or Southern Buddhism, the oldest living Buddhist tradition of which the Pali Canon gives the most authentic account of what the historical Buddha himself actually taught. In a span of nearly five decades the BPS has become a major Buddhist publisher with hundreds of titles and a field of distribution extending all over the world.
    BuddhaNet
    BuddhaNet™ is the result of a vision to link up with the growing world-wide culture of people committed to the Buddha’s teachings and lifestyle, as an on-line cyber sangha. In this way, an ancient tradition and the information superhighway will come together to create an electronic meeting place of shared concern and interests.
    Fo Guang Shan International Translation Center
    Fo Guang Shan International Translation Center is dedicated to translating and distributing quality translations of classical Buddhist texts as well as works by contemporary Buddhist teachers and scholars. We embrace Humanistic Buddhism and promote Buddhist writing that is accessible, community-oriented, and relevant to daily life. You can browse all of our publications, read them online, and even download them for FREE, as well as request printed copies for you or your organization.
    BuddhaSutra
    The purpose of this website is to propagate Buddha Dharma to the whole world. As we all know that this is the Dharma-Ending age, Buddhism is getting weaker whereas our worldy desires grow stronger.
    Scripto-Q
    Scripto·Q is an e-book library initiative dedicated to making classical texts and commentaries on oriental philosophy and mysticism freely available and accessible in multiple dimensions — for the benefit of enthusiasts and researchers alike.
    Pali Text Society
    The Society was founded in 1881 by T.W. Rhys Davids “to foster and promote the study of Pāli texts”. It publishes Pāli texts in roman characters, translations in English and ancillary works including dictionaries, a concordance, books for students of Pāli and a journal. Most of the classical texts and commentaries have now been edited and many works translated into English. The Society aims to keep almost all its publications in print and to produce at least two new books and a volume of its Journal each year.
    Bodhipaksa
    I’m a Buddhist teacher and author living in New Hampshire, although I’m originally from Scotland.
    Alan Peto
    I’m Alan Peto, and I am passionate about helping beginners and Westerners learn Buddhism through my articles, books, videos and graphics in a way they can understand.
    Urban Dharma
    UrbanDharma.org is supported and maintained for the use of anyone and everyone interested in Buddhism.
    BuddhaSasana
    A Buddhist Page by Binh Anson.
    BuddhaDust
    The site is intended to be adopted by those interested in making the Dhamma their theme for meditation and for Dhamma researchers of all stripes. It is intended as a pattern, to be used as a basis for a personal desktop work environment or as a basis for promoting some view on the web, and should be seen as incomplete, needing correction, revision and improvement in all departments.
    Open Buddhist University
    Rigorous academics and thorough content coverage, the University offers a comprehensive foundation in Buddhist studies.
    Ancient Buddhist Texts
    Materials from the early and medieval Buddhist tradition covering texts in Pāli and Sanskrit; line by line (interlinear) texts and translations; translations in English only; studies of grammar, prosody and compilation; maps, reference works and audio files.
    Vipassana Research Institute
    Vipassana Research Institute (VRI), a non-profit-making body, was established in 1985 with the principal aim of conducting scientific research into the sources and applications of the Vipassana Meditation Technique.
    interactive Dhamma Guide
    The core of the early Buddhist teachings
    Sutta and the City
    We are a group of Buddhists, Mindfulness practitioners, secularists, and spiritual seekers. We cling to no particular tradition or doctrine. Our primary purpose is to examine the teachings of the historical Buddha and see how they may help us navigate the complexities of modern life. Join us, and see what you can discover.
    Hamburg Buddhist Studies
    Buddhism has enjoyed a prominent place in the study of Asian religious ideas at Hamburg University for almost 100 years. With the publication series Hamburg Buddhist Studies the Numata Center for Buddhist Studies aims to honor this long-standing commitment to research and share the results of this tradition with the community of scholars and the wider public.
    The Buddhist Channel
    Using the web and app technologies on content publication, the BC remains one of the world’s few dedicated Buddhist news services, providing daily updates and in-depth coverage.
    Dharma Wangi
    Welcome to Dharma Wangi, a space dedicated to exploring Buddhist philosophy and teachings. “Dharma Wangi” is a Malay term meaning “Fragrance (wangi) of the Dharma”. In the Dhammapada V 56, the Buddha said, “Faint is the fragrance of tagara and sandal (names of incense), but excellent is the fragrance of the virtuous, wafting even amongst the gods.” Here I document my thoughts and ideas on the subjects relating to issues in Buddhist teachings and its relevance (or irrelevance).
    NORBU | Buddhist AI Friend
    Svasti. Namo Buddhaya, how can I help you today?

    8.4 - Magazines

    Buddhist online and print magazines as well as subscriptions.
    Wisdom Experience
    Wisdom Publications is the leading publisher of books and online courses on contemporary and classic Buddhism, mindfulness, and meditation. We’re also the premier membership platform for Buddhists, having launched the Wisdom Experience in 2019 and now providing hundreds of hours of video and thousands of pages of books for our members to read online. Additionally, we publish the Wisdom Podcast and the Wisdom Journal.
    Tricycle
    Established in 1990 as a nonprofit 501(c)(3) educational organization, The Tricycle Foundation is dedicated to making Buddhist teachings and practices broadly available. In 1991 the Foundation launched Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, the first magazine intended to present Buddhist perspectives to a Western readership. Tricycle soon became the leading independent journal of Buddhism in the West, where it continues to be the most inclusive and widely read vehicle for the dissemination of Buddhist views and values. Our readership includes longtime practitioners, those who are curious about Buddhism or meditation, and those who do not identify as Buddhist but value the teachings of wisdom and compassion that Buddhism has to offer.
    Journal of Buddhist Ethics
    The Journal of Buddhist Ethics is the first academic journal dedicated entirely to Buddhist ethics. We promote the study of Buddhist ethics through the publication of research and book reviews and by hosting occasional online conferences.
    Institute of Buddhist Studies
    Over the course of its long history of producing quality Buddhist Studies scholarship, IBS has collected several archives of scholarly journals and completed numerous publication and research projects. Browse some of these projects below.

    8.5 - Extended Backus-Naur-Form

    Extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) is a family of metasyntax notations, any of which can be used to express a context-free grammar. EBNF is used to make a formal description of a formal language such as a computer programming language.
    @startebnf
(*
  Extended Backus-Naur form (EBNF)
  ================================

  EBNF is a code that expresses the grammar of a formal language.
*)

grammar = { rule } ;
rule = lhs , "=" , rhs , ";" ;

lhs = identifier ;
rhs = identifier
     | terminal
     | "[" , rhs , "]" (* optional *)
     | "{" , rhs , "}" (* repetition *)
     | "(" , rhs , ")" (* group *)
     | rhs , "|" , rhs (* choice *)
     | rhs , "," , rhs (* sequence *);

identifier = letter , { letter | digit | " " } ;
terminal = "'" , character , { character } , "'"
         | '"' , character , { character } , '"' ;

character = letter | digit | symbol | " " ;

(*
  Basic components
  ----------------

  These are low level components, the small building blocks.
*)

letter = "A" | "B" | "C" | "D" | "E" | "F" | "G"
       | "H" | "I" | "J" | "K" | "L" | "M" | "N"
       | "O" | "P" | "Q" | "R" | "S" | "T" | "U"
       | "V" | "W" | "X" | "Y" | "Z" | "a" | "b"
       | "c" | "d" | "e" | "f" | "g" | "h" | "i"
       | "j" | "k" | "l" | "m" | "n" | "o" | "p"
       | "q" | "r" | "s" | "t" | "u" | "v" | "w"
       | "x" | "y" | "z" ;

digit = "0" | "1" | "2" | "3" | "4" | "5" | "6" | "7" | "8" | "9" ;

symbol = "[" | "]" | "{" | "}" | "(" | ")" | "<" | ">"
       | "'" | '"' | "=" | "|" | "." | "," | ";" ;


@endebnf
    EBNF Overview
    Wikipedia
    EBNF 2 Railroad
    Webpage
    EBNF Parser & Syntax Diagram Renderer
    Webpage
    RR - Railroad Diagram Generator
    Github repo
    PlantUML integration:
    PlantUML

    8.6 - How to type Pāli characters on a macOS keyboard

    Enter romanised Pāli alphabet characters in macOS.

    This post is based on a helpful article written in Vietnamese: Gõ chữ Pāḷi và Sanskrit trên máy tính MacOS & Windows by Dhamma Nanda.

    First of all, install the “ABC Extended input source in macOS. Open System Preferences, then click on Language & Region icon, then select the Keyboard Preferences button at the bottom. Click on the Input Sources tab, then click on the + button to add a new input source.

    Select the ABC Extended Input source for the English language as per the following screenshot:

    ABC Extended input source

    Make sure ABC Extended is the selected (or default) input source when you want to enter Pāli characters.

    If you wish to enter a specific diacritic mark with a character, prefix the character with one of the following keystrokes (letter together with Opt/Alt/⌥ key):

    DiacriticPrefixExample
    ¯⌥+aā
    .⌥+xṭ
    ˙⌥+wṫ
    ˜⌥+nñ
    ´⌥+eś

    The ŋ (eng) character is entered as Opt+Shift+; followed by n. Other phonetic symbols are available when other keys are used together with Opt+Shift+. or Opt+Shift+;.

    9 - Contribution Guidelines

    How to contribute to the website

    I use Hugo to format and generate our website, the Docsy theme for styling and site structure, and Github Pages to manage the deployment of the site.

    Hugo is an open-source static site generator that provides us with templates, content organisation in a standard directory structure, and a website generation engine. Pages are written in Markdown (or HTML), and Hugo wraps them up into a website.

    Submissions and suggestions on improving the website are most welcome.

    All submissions require review. I use GitHub pull requests for this purpose. Consult GitHub Help for more information on using pull requests.

    Updating a single page

    If you’ve just spotted something you’d like to change while using the docs, there is a shortcut for you:

    1. Click Edit this page in the top right hand corner of the page.
    2. If you don’t already have an up to date fork of the project repo, you are prompted to get one - click Fork this repository and propose changes or Update your Fork to get an up to date version of the project to edit. The appropriate page in your fork is displayed in edit mode.
    3. Make, preview, and propose your changes.

    Previewing your changes locally

    If you want to run your own local Hugo server to preview your changes as you work:

    1. Follow the instructions in Getting started to install Hugo and any other tools you need. You’ll need at least Hugo version 0.45 (we recommend using the most recent available version), and it must be the extended version, which supports SCSS.

    2. Fork the buddhavacana repo repo into your own project, then create a local copy using git clone.

    3. Run hugo server in the site root directory. By default your site will be available at http://localhost:1313/. Now that you’re serving your site locally, Hugo will watch for changes to the content and automatically refresh your site.

    4. Continue with the usual GitHub workflow to edit files, commit them, push the changes up to your fork, and create a pull request.

    Creating an issue

    If you’ve found a problem in the docs, but you’re not sure how to fix it yourself, please create an issue in the Goldydocs repo. You can also create an issue about a specific page by clicking the Create Issue button in the top right hand corner of the page.

    Useful resources